■11 " 







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U. 8. Botanic CafYMi% 



HISTORY OF GREECE, 



FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 



WITH SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF 
LITERATURE AND ART. 



BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D., 

Editor of th« Dictionaries of " Greek and Roman Antiquities," " Biography and Mythology," 
and " Geography." 



REVISED, WITH AN APPENDIX, 

BY GEORGE W. GREENE, A.M. 




XUttstrateti hv ©ne ?i^untJvctr 2Enflra\)infls on C®ooti. 



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PREFACE 

BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 



No history is so fuU of instruction as that of Greece, and 
there is none whose lessons have been more uniformly perverted. 
Gillies treated it as an exposition of the " incurable evils inhe- 
rent in every form of repubhcan policy," and dedicated his 
work to the King. Mitford wrote from a point of view so 
purely Enghsh, that, with all his learning and industiy, he was 
never able to understand the distinction between a republican 
and a demagogue. We have all been taught that the condem- 
nation of Miltiades was a flagrant instance of republican in- 
gratitude ; that the Athenian democracy was fickle, and cow- 
ardly, and mean ; and that the happy days of Greece were those 
transient pauses which followed the concentration of power in 
the hands of an oligarchy or a tyrant. 

Now, if there be any value in history, it must consist in the 
truthful record of man's tendency to grow wiser and better, or 
more ignorant and more wicked, under particular forms of gov- 
ernment, and in certain modes of existence. If " every form of 
repubhcan policy" be tainted by incurable evils, it is very im- 
portant that we should know it, and prepare ourselves in time 
for the inevitable development of them. If the experience of 
ether nations has brought any thing to light which can be ap- 



Ti PREFACE BY THE AMERICA!^ EDITOR. 

.plied to our own case, it is our duty to study it carefully, and 
do our best to turn it to account. The past has a claim upon 
us for just and conscientious appreciation. It is as wicked as 
it is vain to attempt to sever the ties which bind us to the old 
world and make the civi].ization of elder days an important 
element in our own. And as every vice sooner or later brings 
its own chastisement, the people which shuts its eyes wilfully 
to the teachings of history, will sooner or later find that, even 
in its hardest struggles, it has been treading a path in which 
almost all the dangers had been revealed long before. 

If we would read these lessons aright, we must come to the 
study of the past with candid and fearless minds ; ready to accept 
whatever it really tells us ; and earnest only in searching out the 
true meaning of its revelations. This alone can make the study 
of history fruitful, and bring out that earnestness, sincerity, can- 
dour, and toleration, which are as essential to the healthy develop- 
ment of nations as of individuals. 

It is all the more to be regretted that Grecian history has 
been so sadly distorted, as it necessarily lies at the basis of our 
historical studies. G-reek civihzation is the first of the civiliza- 
tions of the old world with which we still have an active and 
enduring sj^npathy. The elder empires of Asia are subjects of 
deep interest to the professed scholar ; Eg}^t is full of strange 
revelations of character and power ; but Greece is the only 
country which still continues to exercise a direct and healthy 
influence upon the development of the mind in every depart- 
ment of thought and taste. Every now and then, it is true, 
we are startled by the apparition of some new Homer, or De- 
mos.thenes, or Phidias : but long before their generation has 
passed away, the world is glad to fall back again upon the old 
ones. When Canova began his reform in sculpture, he went 
back to the antique with the simplicity and devotion of a child ; 
and the result was the modern school, the most brilliant since 



PREFACE BY THE AJMERICAN EDITOR. Yii 

the brilliant days of Greece. And yet I have often heard its 
greatest master say, that he never could look at an ancient 
statue vi^ithout feeling that there was something in it which 
neither he, nor Canova, nor any modern of them all, had ever 
reached. 

It has often been said that half the disputes between philoso- 
phers arise from the want of accurate definitions : and the word 
•progress is a striking illustration of the truth of this saying. 
For the greater part of mankind it means nothing but move- 
ment ; a change of position, without any definite starting-point 
or goal : any tiling, in short, to gratify the feverish love of 
novelty and that impatience of delay, which are the real incen- 
tives of more than half we do. But progress implies move- 
ment from a fixed point to one still higher ; a movement which 
shall be in itself the preparation for something higher and bet- 
ter still. There is but one way of finding that starting-point, 
and that is by a thorough and conscientious study of the 
past. 

The reform in the study of Grecian history began in Germany, 
and Mr. Bancroft rendered a real service to his countrymen when 
he published his translation of Heeren's " Politics of Ancient 
Greece." Thirlwall's work was a great improvement upon every 
thing that had preceded it, both in the conception of the subject 
and in the exposition of it. But Grote, with his vast learning, 
his sound philosophy, his grasp of mind, and his republican con- 
victions, was eminently fitted to be the historian of Greece. 
The present volume, though not without pretensions to original 
investigation, is mainly based upon Grote, whose enlarged views 
will generally be found to be happily reflected in its pages. 
Its author is well known by previous pubHcations, which had 
won him the reputation of an accurate, diligent, and profound 
scholar. He may now justly lay claim to the additional one 
of a pleasing, graceful, and classic writer. 



riii PREFACE BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 

In preparing an edition for American schools and readers, 1 
have not felt at liberty to make any changes in the text ; which, 
with the exception of a few of those slips of the pen from which 
no work is altogether free, will be found to correspond word for 
word with the original publication. What I felt to be neces- 
sary for the American student I have thrown into an Ap- 
pendix ; and the suggestions on the following page contain an 
outline of the manner in which, I believe, it can be studied 
with most pleasure and profit both to the teacher and his 
pupil. 

GEO. W. GREEKE. 
New York, Ma^ 6, 1854. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

I HAVE already remarked that this work is equally adapted to the private 
student and the school or college class-room. To those who use it as a text- 
book, the following suggestions may not be unwelcome. 

The historical course in our public institutions is thus far so imperfect, 
that it is safer to take it for granted that the student on opening this volume 
gets his first glance at Grecian history. Now it is very important that this 
glance should be accompanied by a definite conception of the space which 
that history fills both in territory and in time ; and it is for this purpose that 
1 have added Heeren's clear and comprehensive geographical summary, and 
drawn up the synchronitic tables in the Appendix. The first should be studied 
with the map ; the second by itself; and both repeated, even after the nar- 
rative has been begun, until the geography and general chronology of Greece 
have become as familiar as the boundaries of the States and the names of the 
Presidents. During the whole of this stage of the study the black-board 
may be used with great advantage. 

The student now begins with a firm basis. The first course may be made 
rapidly, and in the form of narration. It will give him a clear and compre- 
hensive view of the subject ; and, in connection with the geography and 
chronology, make a distinct and definite impression upon his mind. 

The second course should be one of thorough detail ; combining narration 
and questions. The summaries at the head of each chapter will be found to 
answer the purpose of regular examination questions ; and the substance of 
each section should be narrated, leaving the teacher to ask additional ques- 
tions whenever the subject, or any omission in the narrative, requires it. 
Half the advantage of the study is lost where every thing is put down in the 
form of question, instead of requiring the scholar to select the circumstances 
for himself, and express them in his own language. 

Take, for example, the first chapter cf the first book. A scholar is called 
upon to recite : 

Q. "What is the general subject of this chapter? 

A. The earliest inhabitants of Greece. 

Q. To what age of Grecian history does this question belong? 

A. To the Mythical. 

Q. What are the subjects of the first three sections ? 

A. 1. The legendary character of early Grecian history. 

2. Legends of the Greeks respecting their origin. 

3. The Hellenes and their diffusion m Greece. 

Now call upon him to give in his own language, but in a proper order, the 
substaace of these three sections. And if you are not satisfied with his nar- 
ration, question him minutely upon the parts where he has failed. 

The third course should be guided by the general questions (pp. 633, C3 1), 
which may be answered orally, on the black-board, and ui the form of regular 
written exercises. 



X SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHEKS. 

During the second and third courses, written weekly exercises should be 
TCcjuired upon given subjects : the characters of individuals ; the nature of 
particular events ; parallels between eminent men ; particular systems of pol- 
icy, and an infinity of other questions, which will readily suggest themselves 
to every competent instructor. In preparing these, the student should be le- 
quired to consult other writers : Grote, Thirlwall, Heeren, Wachsmuth, etc., 
and justify every assertion by exact references. 

Take an example. The condemnation of Miltiades has been a standing 
reproach upon the Athenian democracy, and through that upon democracy it- 
self. Is this just? 

Let the student give first a brief statement of the facts. Let him compare 
various authorities, beginning with Cornelius Nepos, and weighing carefully 
Gillies, Mitford, Thirlwall, and Grote. Let him see, too, whether the ques- 
tion has not been reduced to its true form by Machiavelli in the passage cited 
by Grote in his notes, A single exercise like this will do more for him as a 
thinker and a writer, than three months of ordinary' composition. 

But this is very slow work. It may seem so. It may keep you longer at 
school : but it will send you into the world w ith knowledge and habits that 
will stick by you through life. 



PREFACE. 



The following work is intended principally for schools. It was 
commenced several years ago, at a time when the Grecian his- 
tories used in schools were either the superficial and inaccurate 
compilations of Goldsmith and older writers, or the meagre 
abridgments of more recent scholars, in which the facts were 
presented m so brief a mamier as to leave hardly any recollec- 
tion of them in the minds of the readers. Since that time one 
or two school liistories of Greece of a superior kind have ap- 
peared, but they have not been written from the same point of 
view which I had proposed to myself; and in the best of them 
the history of literature and art, as well as several other sub- 
jects which seemed to me of importance, have been almost 
entirely omitted. I have therefore seen no reason to abandon 
my original design, which now requires a few words of expla- 
nation. 

My object has been to give the youthful reader as vivid a 
picture of the main facts of Grecian history, and of the leading 
characteristics of the political institutions, literature, and art of 
the people, as could be comprised within the limits of a volume 
of moderate size. "With this view I have omitted entirely, or 
dismissed in a few paragraphs, many circumstances recorded 
in similar works, and have thus gained space for narrating at 
length the more important events, and for bringing out promi- 
nently the characters and lives of the great men of the nation. 
It is only in this way that a school history can be raiade in- 
structive and interesting, since a brief and tedious enumeration 



xii PREFACE. 

of every event, whether great of small, important or unimpor- 
tant, confuses the reader and leaves no permanent impression 
upon his memory. Considerable space has been given to the 
history of hterature and art, since they form the most durable evi- 
dences of a nation's growth in civilization and in social progress. 
A knowledge of these subjects is of far more importance to a 
pupil at the conunencement of his classical studies than an ac- 
quaintance with every insignificant battle in the Peloponnesian 
war, or with the theories of modern scholars respecting the 
early population of Greece ; and as it cannot be expected that a 
schoolboy should read special treatises upon Grecian literature 
and art, these subjects find their appropriate place in a work 
like the present. 

It is perhaps hardly necessary to observe that I have availed 
myself of the researches of the eminent scholars, both in thi^ 
country and in Germany, Avhose writings have thrown so much 
light upon the history of Greece ; but the obligations I am under 
to Mr. Grote require a more particular acknowledgment. It is 
not too much to say that his work forms as great an epoch .mi 
the study of the history of Greece as Niebuhr's has done in the 
study of the history of Rome, and that Mr. Grote's contributions 
to historical science are some of the most valuable that have 
been made within the present generation. As my own studies 
have led me over the same ground as Mr. Grote, I have care- 
fully weighed his opinions and tested his statements by a refer- 
ence to his authorities ; and in almost all cases I have been 
compelled to adopt his conclusions, even Avhere they were in 
opposition to generally received opinions and prejudices, as, for 
instance, in his views respecting the legendary history of Greece; 
the legislation of Lycurgus, the object of ostracism, the general 
working of the Athenian constitution, and the character of the 
Sophists. Indeed it will be admitted by the most competent 
judges, that any school history of Greece, which aspires to re- 
present the present state of knowledge upon the subject, must 
necessarily be founded to a great extent upon Mr. Grote's his* 



PREFACE. xiil 

tory ; but I have derived such valuable assistance from his re- 
searches, that I am anxious to express, in the fullest manner, 
the great obligations this w^ork is under to that masterpiece 
o^ historical hterature. In a brief outhne of Grrecian history, 
original research is of course out of place ; all that can be ex- 
pected from the writer is a clear and accurate account of the 
most recent results at which the best modern scholars have 
arrived ; and in this respect it is hoped that the intelligent 
reader will not be disappointed. Of the many other modem 
works which I have consulted, it is only necessary to refer to 
Colonel Mure's " Critical History of Greek Literature," from 
which I have derived valuable assistance in the chapters of the 
work devoted to that subject. 

As a general rule, references to ancient and modern works 
are not given, since they are useless to the pupil and occupy 
valuable space, while the scholar will look for the authorities 
elsewhere. The illustrations, of which the majority have been 
drawn by my friend Mr. George Scharf, consist of maps of 
different districts, plans of battles and places, views of public 
buildings, works of art and other objects, the representation of 
which renders the descriptions in the history more intelligible 
and interesting to the reader 

WILLIAM SMITH. 

LoNDOX, November, 1853. 




Greek and Persian Combatants. From the Frieze of the Temple of Nike Apteros. 
(See pp. 216. 391, 392.) 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. OUTLINES OF GKECIAN GEOGRAPHY. 

$ 1. The three peninsulas of Southern Europe. ^2. Position and boundaries 
of Greece. ^3. Size of the country. ^4. Name. ^5. Northern Greece : 
Thessaly and Epirus. (} 6. Central Greece: its principal divisions and 
mountains. ^ 7. Eastern half of Central Greece : Doris, Phocis, Locris, 
Boeotia, Attica, Megaris. ^ 8. Western half of Central Greece: Ozolian 
Locris, ^tolia, Acarnania. ^ 9. Peloponnesus : Arcadia. <^ 10. Achaia, 
Argolis, Laconia, Messenia, Elis. <^ 11. The Grecian Islands. ^ 12. In- 
fluence of the physical geography of Greece upon the political destinies of 
the people. (^13. Likewise upon their intellectual character. ^14. Rivers 
and chief productions. ^ 15. Climate Page 1 



BOOK I. 
THE MYTHICAL AOE. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE EARLIEST INHABITANTS OF GREECE. 

^ 1. Legendary character of early Grecian history. ^ 2. Legends of the 
Greeks respecting their origin. § 3. The Hellenes and their diffusion in 
Greece. ^ 4. Connexion of the Hellenes with the Indo-European stem. 
^ 5. The Pelasgians. <J 6. Foreign settlers in Greece. ^ 7. Egyptian col- 
onies of Cecrops and Danaus. "^ 8. Phrygian colony of Pelops. ^ 9. Phoe- 
nician colony of Cadmus 11 



xvi CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER 11. 

THE GRECIAN HEROES. 

f) 1. Mythical character of the Heroic Age. ^ 2. Hercules. ^ 3. Theseus. 
^ 4. Minos. ^ 5. Voyage of the Argonauts. ^ 6. The Seven against 
Thebes and the Epigoni. ^ 7. The Trojan War as related in the Iliad. 
^8. Later additions. ^9. Return of the Grecian heroes from Troy. ^10. 
Date of the fall of Troy. ^ 11. Whether the Heroic legends contain any 
historical facts. ^ 12. The Homeric poems present a picture of a real 
state of society 17 



CHAPTER HI. 

STATE OF SOCIETY OF THE HEROIC AGE, 

^ 1. Political condition of Greece — the Kings. ^ 2. The Boule, or Council 
of Chiefs. 1^ 3. The Agora, or general assembly of freemen. ^ 4. The 
condition of common freemen and slaves. () 5. State of social and moral 
feeling. (J 6. Simplicity of manners. ($» 7. Advances made in civilization. 
^ 8. Commerce and the arts. ^ 9. The physical sciences. () 10. The art 
of war 25 



CHAPTER IV. 

RETURN OF THE HERACLID^ INTO PELOPONNESUS, AND FOUNDATION OF 
THE EARLIEST GREEK COLONIES. 

^ 1. The mythical character of the narrative of these events. ^ 2. Migra- 
tion of the Boeotians from Thessaly into Boeotia. ^ 3. Conquest of Pelo- 
ponnesus by the Dorians. <^ 4. The legendary account of this event. 
The invasion. ^ 5. The legendary account continued. The division of 
Peloponnesus among the conquerors. ^ 6. Remarks upon the legendary 
account. ^ 7. Foundation of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor. ^ 8. The 
^olic colonies. ^ 9. The Ionic colonies. ^ 10. The Doric colonies. 
^ 11. Colonization of Crete by the Dorians. ^ 12. Conclusion of the 
Mythical age 31 



CHAPTER y. 

THE POEMS OF HOMER. 

ft 1. Importance of the subject. ^ 2. Rise of poetry in Greece. Epic bal- 
lads preparatory to the Epopee. () 3. The poems of the Epic Cycle, in 
-.vhich the Iliad and the Odyssey were included. ^ 4. Diversity of opin- 
ions respecting the life and date of Homer. § 5. Iliad and Odyssey re- 
cited to public companies by the Rhapsodists. ^ 6. A standard text of the 
poems first formed by Pisistratus. () 7. Modern controversy respecting 
the origin of the Homeric poems. Prolegomena of Wolf. ^ 8. The Iliad 
and the Odyssey were originally not committed to writing. () 9. They 
were preserved by the Rhapsodists. ^ 10. They did not consist originally 
of separate lays, but were composed by one poet, as is shown by their 
poetical unity 39 



CONTENTS. xvii 

BOOK II. 

G-ROWTH OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 
B.C. 776—500. 

CHAPTER VI. 

GENERAL SURVEY OF THE GREEK PEOPLE. 

§ 1. Nature of the subject. ^ 2. The chief ties which bound the Greeks 
together. Community of blood and of language. ^ 3. Community of 
religious rites and festivals. ^ 4. The Amphictyonic Council. ^ 5. The 
Olympic games. ^ 6. The Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games. 
§ 7. The influence of these festivals. § 8. Influence of the oracle of 
Apollo at Delphi. ^ 9. Community of manners and character. <J IQ. 
The independent sovereignty of each city a settled maxim in the Greek 
mind 47 

CHAPTER VII. 

EARLY HISTORY OF PELOPONNESUS AND LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS. 

§ 1. Conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians. Division of the Peloponne- 
sus into the Doric states, Elis, Achaia, and Arcadia. § 2. Division of the 
Doric states in Peloponnesus. Argos originally the first Doric state, 
Sparta second, Messene third. ^ 3. Phidion of Argos. ^ 4. Legislation 
of Lycurgus. ^ 5. Life of Lycurgus. ^ 6. The chief object of Lycurgus 
in his legislation. § 7. Population of Laconia divided into three classes. 
Spartans. § 8. Perioeci. ^ 9. Helots. § 10. Political government of 
Sparta. The kings. The senate. The popular assembly. The ephors. 
^11. Training and education of the Spartan youths and men. ^ 12. Train- 
ing of the Spartan women. () 13. Division of landed property. ^ 14. 
Other regulations ascribed to Lycurgus. Iron money. ^ 15. Defensible 
position of Sparta. <^ 16. Growth of the Spartan power, a consequence 
of the discipline of Lycurgus. Conquest of Laconia 56 



CHAPTER VIII. 

HISTORY OF SPARTA. THE MESSENIAN, ARCADIAN, AND ARGIVE WARS. 

Ij 1. Authorities for the history of the Messenian wars. ^ 2. The first Mes- 
senian war, B.C. 743 — 724. ^ 3. The second Messenian war, B.C. 685 — 668. 
Aristomenes, the Messenian hero, and Tyrtsus, the Spartan hero, of this 
war. (} 4. Wars between the Spartans and Arcadians. Conquest of the 
southern part of Arcadia by Sparta. War between Sparta and Tegea. 
^ 5. Wars between the Spartans and Argives. Battle of the three hundred 
champions to decide the possession of Cynuria 72 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTEE, IX. 

THE AGE OF THE DESPOTS, 

^ 1. Abolition of royalty throughout Greece, except in Sparta. ^ 2. Estab 
lishment of the oligarchical governments. ^ 3 Overthrow of the oligar- 
chies by the despots. Character of the despots, and causes of their fall, 
^ 4. Contest between oligarchy and democracy on the removal of the 
despots. ^ 5. Despots of Sicyon. History of Clisthenes. ^ 6. Despots 
of Corinth. History of Cypselus and Periander. ^ 7. Conflicts of the 
oligarchical and democratical parties at Megara. Despotism of Theagenes. 
The poet Theogais 79 



CHAPTER X. 

EARLY HISTORY OF ATHENS DOWN TO THE USURPATION OF PISISTRATCJS. 

^ 1. Early division of Attica into twelve independent states, said to have 
been united by Theseus. () 2. Abolition of royalty. Life archons. De- 
cennial archons. Annual archons. ^ 3. Twofold division of the Athe. 
nians. (1.) Eupatridae, Geomori, Demiurgi. (2.) Four tribes . Geleon- 
tes, Hopletes, ^gicores, Argades. <^ 4. Division of the four tribes into 
Trittyes and Naucrariae, and into Phratriae and Gentes. ^ 5. The gov- 
ernment exclusively m the hands of the Eupatridae. The nine archons 
and their functions. The Senate of Areopagus. ^ 6. The legislation of 
Draco. ^ 7. The conspiracy of Cylon. His failure, and massacre oi his 
partisans by Megacles, the Alcmaeonid. Expulsion of the Alcmaeor.idae. 
^ 8. Visit of Epimenides to Athens. His purification of the city. ^ 9. 
Life of Solon. § 10. State of Attica at the time of Solon's legislation. 
^ 11. Solon elected archon, B.C. 594, with legislative powers. ^ 12. His 
Seisachtheia or disburdening ordinance. § 13. His constitutional changes. 
Division of the people into four classes, according to their property. 
^ 14. Institution of the Senate of Four Hundred. Enlargement of the 
powers of the Areopagus. The Athenian government continues an oligar- 
chy after the time of Solon. <J 15. the special laws of Solon. ^ 16. The 
travels of Solon. () 17. Usurpation of Pisistratus. Return and death of 
Solon 87 



CHAPTER XI. 

HISTORY OP ATHENS FROM THE USURPATION OF PISISTRATUS TO THE 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEMOCRACY BY CLISTHENES. 

4 1. Despotism of Pisistratus. His first expulsion and restoration, ^ 2. 
His second expulsion and restoration. <J 3. Government of Pisistratus 

' after his final restoration to his death, B.C. 527. ^ 4. Government of 
Hippias and Hipparchus. Conspiracy of Harmodius and Aristogiton, and 
assassination of Hipparchus, B.C. 514. ^ 5. Sole government of Hippias. 
His expulsion by the Alcmaeonidae and the Lacedaemonians, B.C. 510. ^ 6. 
Honors paid to Harmodius and Aristogiton. (J 7. Party struggles at 
Athens between Clisthenes and Isagoras. Establishment of the Athenian 



CONTENTS. 



XIX 



democracy. ^8. Reforms of Clisthenes. Institution of ten new tribes and 
of the demes. <^ 9. Increase of the number of the Senate to Five Hundred. 
(j 10. Enlargement of the functions and authority of the Senate and the 
Ecclesia. ^ 11. Introduction of the judicial functions of the people. In- 
stitution of the Ten Strategi or Generals. ^ 12. Ostracism, (J 13. First 
attempt of the Lacedaemonians to overthrow the Athenian democracy. 
Invasion of Attica by Cleomenes, followed by his expulsion with that of 
Isagoras. ^ 14. Second attempt of the Lacedaemonians to overthrow the 
Athenian democracy. The Lacedaemonians, Thebans, and Chalcidians 
attack Attica. The Lacedaemonians deserted by their allies and compelled 
to retire. Victories of the Athenians over the Thebans and Chalcidians, 
followed by the planting of 4000 Athenian colonists on the lands of the 
Chalcidians. <J 15. Third attempt of the Lacedaemonians to overthrow 
the Athenian democracy, again frustrated by the refusal of the allies to 
take part m the enterprise. () 16. Growth of Athenian patriotism, a conse- 
quence of the reforms of Clisthenes 102 



CHAPTER XII. 

HISTORY OF THE GREEK COLOWIES. 

^ 1. Connection of the subject with the general history of Greece. ^ 2. Ori- 
gin of the Greek colonies and their relation to the mother-country. ^ 3. 
Characteristics common to most of the Greek colonies. ^ 4. The JEolic, 
Ionic, and Doric colonies in Asia. Miletus the most important, and the 
parent of numerous colonies. Ephesus. Phocasa. ^ 5. Colonies in the 
south of Italy and Sicily. History of Cumae. ^ 6. Colonies in Sicily. 
Syracuse and Agrigentum the most important. Phalaris despot of Agri- 
gentum. ^ 7. Colonies in Magna Graecia (the south of Italy). Sybaris 
and Croton. War between these cities, and destruction of Sybaris. ^ 8. 
Epizephyrian Locri: its lawgiver, Zaleucus. Rhegium. <§ 9. Tarentum. 
Decline of the cities in Magna Graecia. (J 10. Colonies in Gaul and Spam. 
Massalia. ^11. Colonies in Africa, Cyrene. <J 12. Colonies in Epirus, 
Macedonia, and Thrace. <J 13. Importance of a knowledge of the history 
of the Greek colonies • 114 



CHAPTER XIII. 



HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 



^ 1. Perfection of the Greeks in literature. ^ 2. Greek epic poetry divided 
into two classes, Homeric and Hesiodic. ^ 3. Poems of Hesiod. ^ 4. 
Origin of Greek lyric poetry, f) 5. Archilochus. (} 6. Simonides of 
Amorgos. ^ 7. Tyrtaeus and Alcman. ^ 8. Arion and Stesichorus. ^ 9. 
Alcaeus and Sappho. «^ 10. Anacreon. (J 11. The Seven Sages of 
Greece. () 12. The Ionic school of philosophy. Thalcs, Anaximander, 
and Anaximenes. ^ 13. The Eleatic school of philosophy. Xenopha- 
nes. () 14. The Pythagorean school of philosophy. Life of Pyth.igo- 
ras. Foundation and suppression of his society in the cities of Magna 
Graecia ] 26 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



HISTORY OP ART. 



^ 1. Perfection of Grecian art. ^ 2. Origin of Architecture. ^ 3. Cyclopean 
walls. Treasury of Atreus. ^4. Architecture of temples. (J 5. Three 
orders of architecture, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. ^ 6. Temi)les of 
Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus, of Hera (Juno) at Samos, of Apollo at Delphi, 
and of Jove at Athens. Remains of temples at Posidonia (Paestum), 
Selinus, and ^gina. ^ 7. Origin of sculpture. Wooden images of the 
gods. Sculptured figures on architectural monuments. Lions over the 
gate at Mycenae. ^ 8. Improvements in sculpture in the sixth and fifth 
centuries B.C. ^ 9. Extant specimens of Grecian sculpture. The Selinun- 
tine, ^ginetan, and Lycian marbles. ^ 10. History of painting 140 



BOOK III. 
THE PERSIAN WARS. 

B.C. 500—478. 

CHAPTER XY. 

THE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

4 1 Introduction. ^ 2. The Assyrian Empire. § 3. The Median Empire. 
9 i. The Babylonian Empire. ^ 5. The Lydian Monarchy, and its influ- 
ence upon the Asiatic Greeks. <^ 6. Conquest of the Asiatic Greeks by 
Croesus, king of Lydia. ^ "■ Foundation of the Persian Empire by Cyrus, 
and overthrow of the Median Empire by the latter. <5» 8. Conquest of the 
Lydian Monarchy by Cyrus. ^ 9. Conquest of the Asiatic Greeks by 
Harpagus, the general of Cyrus. Death of Cyrus. ^10. Reigns of Cam- 
byses and of the false Smerdis. § 11. History of Polycrates, despot of 
Samos. ^ 12. Accession of Darius, son of Hystaspes. His organization 
of the Persian Empire. ^ 13. Invasion of Scythia by Darius. ^ 14. Sub- 
jection of Thrace and Macedonia to the Persian Empire 151 

CHAPTER XYI. 

THE IONIC REVOLT. 

^ 1. Introduction. <J 2. Naxian exiles apply for aid to Aristagoras. ^ 3. 
Expedition of Aristagoras and the Persians against Naxos. Its failure. 
^ 4. Revolt of Miletus and the other Greek cities of Asia. ^ 5. Aristago- 
ras solicits assistance from Sparta and Athens, which is granted by the 
latter. (} G. Burning of Sardis by the Athenians and lonians. ^7. Death 
of Aristagoras and Histiajus. ^ 8. Defeat of the Ionian fleet at Lade. () 9. 
Capture of Miletus and termination of the revolt 163 



COIs TENTS. 



CHAPTER XYII. 

THE BATTL3 OF RIA:.:aTHON. 

^ 1. Expedition of Mardonius into Greece. () 2. Preparations of Darius for 
a second invasion of Greece. Heralds sent o the leading Grecian states to 
demand earth and water. <J 3. Invasion ol Greece by the Persians under 
Datis and Artaphernes. Conqu:o:of the Cyclades and Eretria. () 4. Pre- 
parations at Athens to resist the Persians. History of Miltiades. ^5. De- 
bate among the ten Athenian Generals. Resolution to give battle to the 
Persians. ^6. Battle of Marathon. <) 7. Movements of the Persians after 
the battle. ^ 8. Effect of the battle of Marathon upon the Athenians. 
^ 9. Glory of Miltiades. ^ 10. His unsuccessful expedition to Paros. 
^11. His trial, condemnation, and death. (} 12. History of ^gina. 
^ 13. War between Athens and ^Egina. () 14. Athens becomes a mari- 
time power. ^ 15. Rivalry of Themistocles and Aristides. Ostracism of 
the latter 171 



CHAPTER XVm. 

THE B.^TTLES OF THERMOPYLAE AND ARTEMISIUM. 

^ I. Death of Darius and accession of Xerxes. ^ 2. Preparations for the 
invasion of Greece. ^ 3. A bridge thrown across the Hellespont, and a 
canal cut through the isthmus of Mount Athos. () 4. Xerxes sets out from 
Sardis. Order of the march. () 5. Passage of the Hellespont. ^6. Num- 
bering of the army on the plain of Doriscus. ^ 7. Continuation of the 
march from Doriscus to Mount Olympus. ^ 8. Preparations of the Greeks 
to resist Xerxes. Congress of the Grecian states at the isthmus of Corinth. 
§ 9. Patriotism of the Athenians. Resolution of the Greeks to defend the 
pass of Tempe, which is afterwards abandoned. () 10. Description of the 
pass of Thermopyl*. ^11. Leonidas sent with 300 Spartans and a small 
body of Peloponnesians to defend the pass of Thermopylee. () 12. Attack 
and repulse of the Persians at Thermopylae. (J 13. A Persian detachment 
cross the mountains by a secret path in order to fall upon the Greeks in 
the rear. ^14, Heroic death of Leonidas and his comrades. (J 15. Monu- 
ments erected to their honour. ^ 16. Proceedings of the Persian and 
Grecian fleets, i) 17. The Persian fleet overtaken by a terrible storm. 
^ 18. First battle of Artemisium. () 19. Second storm. <^ 20. Second 
battle of Artemisium, Retreat of the Grecian fleet to Salamis 185 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE n.\TTr,E of salamis. 

^ 1. Results of the battle of Thermopylae. ^ 2. Alarm and flight of the 
Athenians. <^ 3. March of the Persians and attempt upon Delphi. () 4. 
Taking of Athens and arrival of the Persian fleet. (J 5. Dissensions and 
debates of the Greeks. <^ 6. Stratagem of Themistocles. Arrival of Aris- 
tides. (J 7. Position of the hostile fleets. Preparations for the combat. 
$ 8. Battle of Salamis. <^ 9. Defeat and flight of Xerxes. ^ 10. P\irsuit 



xxii CONTENTS. 

of the Greeks. ^11. Homeward march of Xerxes, f) 12. The Greeks 
celebrate their vjctory. ^ 13. Carthaginian expedition to Sicily. Defeat 
and death of Hamilcar 201 

CHAPTER XX. 

BATTLES OF PLAT^A AND MYCALE. 

§ 1. Position of the Persian and Greek fleets. ^ 2. Preparations of Mar- 
donius for the campaign. § 3. He solicits the Athenians to join him. 
Faithlessness of the Spartans. <^ 4. Mardonius occupies Athens. Athenian 
embassy to Sparta. March of the Spartan army. ^ 5. Mardonius retires 
into Boeotia: followed by the Grecian army. Skirmishes, i^ 6. The 
Greeks descend into the plain. Manoeuvres of the two armies. <J 7. Alex- 
ander, king of Macedon, visits the Grecian camp. The Greeks resolve to 
change their ground : their disorderly retreat. () 8. Battle of Platsea. 
Defeat of the Persians. ^ 9. Division of the spoil. () 10. Reduction of 
Thebes, and execution of the Theban leaders. <J 11. Death of Aristodemus. 
^ 12 League of Plataea. Religious ceremonies. (} 13. Battle of Mycale. 
Defeat of the Persians. () 14. Liberation of the Greek islands. ^ 15. 
Siege and capture of Sestos 21G 

CHAPTER XXI. 

HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 

^ 1. General characteristics. ^ 2. Simonides. ^ 3. Pindar. § 4. Ibycus 
and Bacchylides. ^ 5. Rise of history and of composition in prose. ^ G. 
Hecataeus, Charon of Lampsacus, Hellanicus. <^ 7. Herodotus. (J 8. 
Character of his work. Analysis. ^ 9. Predilection of Herodotus for 
Athens. () 10. Style of his work 229 



BOOK lY. 

THE ATHENIAN SUPREMACY AND THE 
PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

B.C. 407—404. 

CHAPTER XXn. 

FROM THE EXPULSION OF THE PERSIANS TO THE DEATH 07 
THEMISTOCLES. 

1. Further proceedings against the Persians. ^2. Misconduct and treason 
of Pausanias. ^ 3. The maritime supremacy transferred to the Athenians. 
^ 4. Confederacy of Delos. § 5. The combined fleet under Cimon. (J 6. 
Growth of the Athenian power. Plans of Themistoclcs. ^7. Rebuilding 
of Athens. The Lacedaemonians attempt to prevent its being fortified, 
^ 8. Fortification of Pirajus. () 9. Strife of parties at Athens. Miscon 
duct of Themistoclcs. <J 10. He is ostracised. ^11. Pausanias convicted 



CONTENTS. xxii 

of Medism. ij 12. Themistocles implicated in his guilt. He escapes into 
Asia. ^ 13. He is magnificently received by Artaxerxes. His death and 
character. ^ 14. Death of Aristides 239 



CHAPTEU XXIII. 

KISE AND GROWTH OF THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE. FROM THE BATTLE 

OF EURYMEDON TO THE THIRTY YEARs' TRUCE WITH SPARTA. 

I. Cimon leader of the aristocratical party at Athens. ^ 2. Revolt of 
Naxos. <J3. Battle of Eurymedon. ^4. The Athenians blockade Thasos, 
and attempt to found colonies in Thrace. () 5. Earthquake at Sparta and 
revolt of the Helots § 6. Decline of Spartan power. ^ 7. Cimon assists 
the Spartans to suppress the revolt, but without success. The Spartans 
offend the Athenians by dismissing their troops. ^ 8. Parties at Athens. 
Character of Pericles. (^ 9. Attack upon the Areopagus. ^ 10. Ostra- 
cism of Cimon. § 11. Administration and foreign policy of Pericles. 
^ 12- Expedition of the Athenians into Egypt against the Persians. 
§ 13. Hostilities with Corinth and ^gina. Defeat of the Corinthians at 
Megara. <§ 14. The long walls of Athens commenced. ^ 15. The Lace- 
dcemonians march into Bojotia. Battle of Tanagra. <$» 16. Recall of 
Cimon. ^ 17. Battle of CEnophyta, and conquest of Boeotia. Conquest 
of ^gina. § 18. The five years' truce. Expedition of Cimon to Cyprus. 
His death. § 19. Conclusion of the war with Persia. ^ 20. The Athe- 
nian power at its height. ^ 21. Decline of Athenian power. Revolution 
in Boeotia. Other Athenian reverses. Invasion of Attica by the Lacedae- 
monians under Pleistoanax. ^ 22. Pericles recovers Euboea. Thirty 
years' truce with Sparta 251 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

FROM THE THIRTY YEARs' TRUCE TO THE WAR BETWEEN CORINTH 
AND COROYRA. 

^ 1. State of parties at Athens. Thucydides. ^2. Opposite political views. 
^ 3. Ostracism of Thucydides. Administration of Pericles. He adorns 
Athens. His foreign policy. ^ 4. Athenian colonization. Cleruchiaj. 
Thurii and Amphipolis. ^ 5. Nature of the Athenian maritime empire. 
Amount of tribute. Oppressions. (} 6. Revolt of Samos. Reduction of 
the island by Pericles 265 



CHAPTER XXV. 

CAUSES OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

I. Quarrel between Corinth and Corcyra. <J 2. Corcyrfean embassy to 
Athens. Decision of the Athenians. ^ 3. They send a fleet to Corcyra. 
Naval engagements. Defeat of the Corinthians. «^ 4. Revolt of Potidfea. 
^ 5. Congress of the Peloponnesian allies at Sparta. The Spartans decide 
for war. (J 6. Second congress. The allies resolve upon war. () 7. The 
Lacedaemonians recjuire the Athenians to expel Pericles. (J 8. Attacks 
upon Pericles, Aspasja, and Anaxagoras. Imprisonment and death of 



xiv CONTENTS. 

Phidias. ^ 9. Further requisitions of the Lacedaemonians. Rejected by 
the Athenians. ^ 10. The Thebans surprise Platsea. <^ 11. The Athe- 
nians prepare for war. Portents. <^ 12. Forces of the Lacedaemonians 
and Athenians. ^ 13. The Peloponnesian army assembles at the isthmus 
of Corinth 273 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR. FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR TO 

THE CAPTURE AND DESTRUCTION OF PLAT^A. 

I 1. The Peloponnesians invade Attica. (}2. Athenian naval expeditions to 
Peloponnesus and Locris. ^ 3. The Athenians invade the Megarid. ^ 4. 
Second invasion of Attica. Plague at Athens. () 5. Unpopularity of 
Pericles. He is accused of malversation. <^ 6. His domestic misfortunes. 
Death. Character. «^ 7. The Lacedaemonians ravage Attica. Their naval 
operations. <^ 8. Surrender of Potidaea. ^ 9. The Lacedaemonians besiege 
Platasa. ^10. Part of the garrison escape. ^11. Surrender of the town. 
Trial and execution of the garrison 285 



CHAPTER XXVIL 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED. FROM THE SIEGE OF PLAT.ffiA TO 

THE SEDITION OF CORCYRA. 

^ 1. General character of the war. () 2. Military and naval operations of the 
third year. Attempt of the Peloponnesians to surprise Piraeus. ^3. Fourth 
year. Revolt of Mytilene. (J 4. Fifth year. Surrender of Mytilene. ^ 5. 
Debates of the Athenian assembly respecting the Mytileneans. Cleon and 
the Athenian demagogues. ^ 6. Bloody decree against the Mytileneans. 
() 7. Second debate. Reversal of the decree. Lesbos colonized by Athe- 
nians. (). 8. Civil dissensions at Corcyra. ^ 9. Picture of the times by 
Thucydides 296 



CHAPTER XXVm. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED. FROM THE SEDITION AT CORCYRA 

TO THE PEACE OF NICIAS. 

§ 1. Sixth year of the war. Return of. the Plague. Purification of Delos. 
^2. Seventh year. Fortification of Pylus. ^3. Attempts of the Lacedaj- 
monians to recover Pylus. ^ 4. Arrival and victory of the Athenian fleet. 
Blockade of Sphacteria. <5» 5. The Lacedaemonians sue for peace at Athens. 
Extravagant demands of Cleon. ^ 6. Renewal of hostilities. ^ 7. Debates 
in the Assembly. Cleon elected general. ^ 8. Capture of Sphacteria. 
^9. Advantages of the victory. ^10. Proceedings at Corcyra. Slaughter 
of the oligarchs. ^11. Eighth year of the war. Capture of Cythera. 
^ 12. Invasion of the Megarid and Bceotia by the Athenians. Capture of 
Nisasa, the port of Megara. Defeat of the Athenians at the battle of 
Delium. ^ 13. Brasidas in Thrace. Takes Amphipolis. Banishment of 
Thucydides. ^ 14. Ninth year of the war. A truce between Sparta and 
Athens. The war continued in Thrace. ^ 15. Tenth year of the war 



CONTENTS. xxT 

Cleon proceeds to Amphipolis. His defeat and death. Death of Brasi- 
das. <J 16. Eleventh year of the war. Fifty years' peace between Athens 
and Sparta 306 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED. FROM THE PEACE OF NICIAS TO THE 

EXPEDITION OF THE ATHENIANS TO SICILY. 

^ 1. League of Argos, Corinth, Elea, Mantinea, andChalcidice. § 2. Trans- 
actions between Sparta and Athens. ^ 3. Policy and character of Alcibi- 
ades. () 4. He advocates a league with Argos. Resorts to a strategem to 
procure it. ^ 5. Alcibiades victor at Olynipia. His magnificence. () 6. 
He proceeds to Peloponnesus. () 7. Proceedings of the Lacedeemonians. 
Battle of Mantinea. (^ 8. Revolutions at Argos. A democracy estab- 
lished. <J 9. Conquest of Melos by the Athenians. <J 10. Intervention of 
the Athenians in Sicily. ^ 11. Embassy of the Egestaeans. They deceive 
the Athenians respecting their wealth. ^ 12. The Athenians resolve on 
an expedition to Sicily. ^ 13. Preparations at Athens. Popular delusion. 
^14. Mutilation of the Hermae. Accusation of Alcibiades. (J 15. Depart- 
ure of the Athenian fleet for Sicily 321 



CHAPTEH XXX. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED. THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION. 

§ 1. Armament mustered at Corcyra. ^ 2. Its reception in Italy. Proceed- 
ings at Syracuse. ^ 3. Plans of the Athenian generals. ^ 4. The advice 
of Alcibiades adopted. He gains over Naxos and Catana. ^ 5. Proceed- 
ings at Athens respecting the mutilation of the Herman, and the profanation 
of the mysteries. ^ 6. Alcibiades accused, and ordered to return to Athens. 
^7. Proceedings of Nicias in Sicily. (J 8. Preparations of the Sicilians 
for defence. () 9. Nicias lays siege to Syracuse. ^ 10. He seizes Epipolae 
and constructs a fort at Syke. Attempt of the Syracusans against it. ^ 11. 
Arrival of the Spartan general Gylippus. Change in the Athenian pros- 
pects. ^12. Invasion of Attica by the Lacedaemonians. They fortify De- 
celia. ^ 13. The Syracusans defeat the Athenians at sea. ^ 14. Demos- 
thenes and Eurymedon arrive in Sicily with reinforcements. Reverses. 
The Athenians resolve to retreat. ^ 15. Naval engagement in the Great 
Harbor. Victory of the Syracusans. (J 16. Its effects. Disastrous retreat 
of the Athenians. Surrender of Demosthenes. (J 17. Surrender of Nicias. 
Treatment of the prisoners. Death of Nicias and Demosthenes. § 18. 
Their characters 332 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

rHOM THE END OF THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION TO THE OVERTHROW OP 
THE FOUR HUNDRED AT ATHENS. 

^ 1. Consternation and hardships at Athens. <J 2. Measures for defence. 
4 3. Revolt of Chios, Erythrse, and Clazomenaj. ^ 4. Spread of the re- 



xxvl CONTENTS. 

volt. Defection of Teos, Lesbos, and Miletus. Revolution at Samos 
which becomes the head-quarters of the Athenian fleet. ^-5. Recovery of 
Lesbos by the Athenians. Dissatisfaction of the Lacedaemonians with 
Tissaphernes. <J 6. Schemes of Alcibiades. () 7. He proposes a league 
between the Athenians and Persians, and the establishment of an oligarchy 
at Athens. ^ 8. Agitation for an oligarchy at Athens. () 9. Conference ot 
Pisander with Alcibiades. Artifices of the latter. Fresh treaty between 
Tissaphernes and the Lacedaemonians. <J 10. Progress of the oligarchical 
conspiracy at Athens and Samos. ^11. Establishment of the Four Hund- 
red. () 12. Their proceedings. ^ 13. Proceedings at Samos. Alcibiades 
joins the democracy there. ^ 14. The Athenian envoys at Samos. ^ 15. 
Dissensions among the Four Hundred. They negotiate with Sparta. ^ 16. 
Counter revolution at Athens. Defeat of the Athenian fleet and capture of 
Eubcsa by the Lacedaemonians. § 17. The Four Hundred deposed and 
democracy re-established at Athens 346 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

FROM THE FALL OF THE FOUR HUNDRED AT ATHENS TO THE BATTLE 

OF .(EGOSPOTAMI. 

§ 1. State of the belligerents. ^ 2. Defeat of the Peloponnesians at Cynos- 
sema. § 3. Capture of Cyzicus by the Athenians, and second defeat of 
the Peloponnesians at Abydus. (} 4, Arrest of Alcibiades by Tissaphernes, 
and his subsequent escape. Signal defeat of the Peloponnesians at Cyzi- 
cus. ^5. The Athenians masters of the Bosporus. The Lacedeemonians 
propose a peace, which is rejected. <^ 6. Pharnabazus assists the Lacedae- 
monians. (} 7. Capture of Chalcedon and Byzantium by the Athenians. 
^ 8. Return of Alcibiades to Athens. ^ 9. He escorts the sacred proces- 
sion to Eleusis. 9 10. Cyrus comes down to the coast of Asia. Lysan- 
der appointed commander of the Peloponnesian fleet. ^11. Interview 
between Cyrus and Lysander. <$) 12. Alcibiades at Samos. Defeat of 
Antiochus at Notium. ^ 13. Alcibiades is dismissed. ^ 14. Lysander 
superseded by Callicratidas. Energetic measures of the latter. ^15. De- 
feat of Conon at Mytilene, and investment of that town by Callicratidas. 
<5» 16. Excitement at Athens, and equipment of a large fleet. () 17. Battle 
of Arginusae. Defeat and death of Callicratidas. <J 18. Arraignment 
and condemnation of the Athenian generals. ^ 19. Re-appointment of 
Lysander as Navarchus. ^ 20. Siege of Lampsacus, and battle of JEgos- 
potami 357 

CHAPTER XXXm. 

FROM THE BATTLE OF ^GOSPOTAMI TO THE OVERTHROW OF THE 
THIRTY TYRANTS AND THE RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF DEMOCRACY AT 
ATHENS. 

4 1. Alarm at Athens. ^ 2. Proceedings of Lysander. Capture of the 
Athenian dependencies. § 3. Measures of the Athenians. Athens in- 
vested. <J 4. Embassy of Theramenes. Conditions of capitulation. ^5. 
Lysander takes possession of Athens. Destruction of the long walls, &c 
^6. Return of the oligarchical exiles. Establishment of the Thirty. ^7 



CONTENTS. xxvii 

Surrender of Samos and triumph of Lysander. ^ 8. Proceedings of the 
Thirty at Athens. ^9. Opposition of Theramenes. () 10. Proscriptions. 
Death of Theramenes. ^ 11. Suppression of intellectual culture. So- 
crates. ^12. Death of Alcibiades. (^13. Jealousy of the Grecian states 
towards Sparta and Lysander. ($> 14. Thrasybulus at Phyle. (J 15, Seiz- 
ure and massacre of the Eleusinians. ^ 16. Thrasybulus occupies Piraeus. 
Death of Cntias. ^ 17. Deposition of the Thirty and establishment of the 
Ten. Return of Lysander to Athens, and arrival of Pausanias. ^ 18. 
Peace with Thrasybulus, and evacuation of Attica by the Peloponnesians. 
^ 19. Restoration of the democracy. ^ 20. Archbishop of Euclides. Re- 
duction of Eleusis 369 



CHAPTER XXXIY. 

ATHENS, AND ATHENIAN AND GRECIAN ART DURING THE PERIOD OF 
HER EMPIRE. 

^ 1. Situation of Athens. ^ 2. Origin and progress of the ancient city. 
^ 3. Extent of the new city. Piraeus and the ports. § 4. General ap- 
pearance of Athens. Population. § 5. Periods and general character of 
Attic art. ^ 6. Sculptors of the first period. Ageladas, Onatas, and 
others. ^7. Second period. Phidias. ^8. Polycletus and Myron. §9. 
Painting. Polygnotus. ^ 10. Apollodorus, Zeuxis, and Parrhasius. ^ 11. 
Architecture. Monuments of the age of Ciraon. The temple of Nike 
Apteros, the Theseum, and the Poecile Stoa. ^ 12. The Acropolis and its 
monuments. The Propylaea. ^ 13. The Parthenon. ^ 14. Statues of 
Ainnna. (J 15. The Erechtheum. ^ 16. Monuments in the Asty. The 
Dioiiysiac theatre. The Odeum of Pericles. The Areopagus. The 
Pnyx. The Agora and Ceramicus. ^ 17. Monuments out of Attica. 
The Temple of Jove at Olympia. ^ 18. The Temple of Apollo near 
Phigalia 381 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

HISTORY OF ATHENIAN LITERATORE DOWN TO THE END OF THE PELO- 
PONNESIAN WAR. 

^ 1. Characteristics of the early literature of Athens. <$i 2. Origin of the 
drama. ^ 3. Introduction of the drama at Athens. Susarion, Thespis, 
Phrynichus, Pratinas. ^ 4. ^schylus. ^ 5. Sophocles. (J 6. Euripides. 
^ 7. Athenian comedy. Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes. § 8. Prose 
writers of the period. Thucydides. ^ 9. Xenophon. ^ 10. Athenian ed- 
ucation. (J 11. Rhetors and sophists. "^12. Life of Socrates. ^13. How 
he differed from the sophists. ^ 14. Enmity against him. (J 15. His im- 
peachment, trial, and death 400 



I 



xxviii CONTENTS. 

BOOK V. 

THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES. 

B.C. 403—371. 

CHAPTER XXXVI. 

THE EXPEDITION OF THE GREEKS UNDER CYRUS, AND RETREAT OF THB 
TEN THOUSAND. 

§ 1. Causes of the expedition. ^ 2. Cyrus engages an army of Greek 
mercenaries. Their character. (J 3. March to Tarsus. § 4. Discontent 
of the Greeks. March to Myriandrus. ^ 5. Passage of the Euphrates, 
and march through the desert. ^ 6. Battle of Cunaxa, and death of Cy- 
rus. ^7. Dismay of the Greeks. Preparations for retreat. ^8. Retreat 
of the army to the Greater Zab. Seizure of the generals. () 9. Election 
of Xenophon and others as generals. ^ 10. March from the Zab to the 
confines of the Carduchi. March across the mountains of the Carduchi. 
^11. Progress through Armenia. ^ 12. March through the country of 
the Taochi, Chalybes, Scythini, Macrones, and Colchi to Trapezus on 
the Euxine. ^ 13. March along the coast of the Euxine to Chryso- 
polis. Passage to Byzantium. ^ 14. Proceedings at Byzantium. ^ 15. 
The Greeks enter the service of Seuthes. ^ 16. Are engaged by 
the Lacedaemonians. Last exploits of the army, and retirement of 
Xenophon 419 

CHAPTER XXXVn. 

FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE SPARTAN EMPIRE TO THE BATTLE 
OF CNIDUS, 

§ 1. Invasion and reduction of Elis by King Agis. ^ 2. Ambitious projects 
of Lysander. ^ 3. He procures the throne for Agesilaus. ^ 4. Character 
of Agesilaus. () 5. Nature of the Spartan empire. () 6. Affairs of Asia 
Minor. <^ 7. Agesilaus proceeds thither. ^ 8. Mortifies Lysander. () 9. 
Campaigns of Agesilaus against Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus. (} 10. 
Execution of Tissaphernes. ^ 11. Proceedings of Conon. Rhodes re- 
volts from Sparta. ^ 12. Agesilaus ravages the satrapy of Pharnabazus. 
Interview^ between them. () 13. Recall of Agesilaus. ^ 14. Battle of 
Cnidus 434 

CHAPTER XXXVm. 

THE CORINTHIAN WAR. FROM THE BATTLE OF CNIDUS TO THE PEACE 
OF ANTALCIDAS. 

§ 1. Mission of Timocrates to the Grecian cities. <^ 2. Hostilities between 
Sparta and Thebes. <^ 3. The Athenians join the Thebans. Defeat and 
death of Lysander. Retreat of Pausanias. () 4. League against Sparta. 
Battle of Corinth. § 5. Homeward march of Agesilaus. () 6. Battle of 
Coronea. f) 7. Loss of the Spartan maritime empire. () 8. Conon rebuilds 
the walls of Athens. ^ 9. Civil dissensions at Corinth. () 10. Campaign 



CONTENTS. xxjx 

of Agesilaus in the Corinthian territory. § 11. New system of tactics 
introduced by Iphicrates. Destruction of a Spartan mora by his light- 
armed troops, i) 12. Negotiations of Antalcidas with the Persians. Death 
of Conon. Defeat and death of Thimbron. <J 13. Maritime war on the 
coast of Asia. Revolt of Rhodes. Thrasybulus appointed Athenian com- 
mander. His death at Aspendus. Anaxibius defeated by Iphicrates at the 
Hellespont. ^ 14. War between Athens and .^gina. Teleutias surprises 
the Piraeus, ij 15. Peace of Antalcidas. (^ 16. Its character 443 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

FROM THE PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS TO THE PEACE OF CALLIAS. 

§ 1. Aggressions of Sparta in Bceotia. Rebuilding of Plataea. (j 2. Reduc. 
tion of Mantinea. <^ 3. Olynthian confederation. Sparta interferes. <J 4. 
Seizure of the Cadmea at Thebes by the Lacedaemonians. i)5. Reduction 

' of Olynthus. (^ 6. Unpopularity of Sparta. ^7. Revolution at Thebes. 
(j 8. The Lacedaemonians expelled from the Cadmea. ^ 9. Their expedi- 
tions against Thebes. Alarm of the Athenians, who ally themselves with 
Thebes. (J 10. Reorganization of the Athenian confederation, (J 11. Pre- 
parations for war. The Theban " Sacred Band." ^ 12. Character of 
Epaminondas. (} 13. Spartan invasions of Bceotia. ^ 14. Maritime 
affairs. Battle of Naxos. Success of Timotheus. <J 15. Progress of the 
Theban arms, ij 16. The Athenians form a peace with Sparta, which is 
immediately broken. Proceedings at Corcyra. (j 17. The Lacedemonians 
solicit Persian aid. <$) 18. Congress at Sparta to treat of peace. The 
Thebans are excluded from it 456 



CHAPTER XL. 

THE SUPREMACY OF THEBES. 

§ 1. Invasion of Boeotia by Cleombrotus. ^ 2. Battle of Leuctra. ^ 3. Its 
effect throughout Greece. ^ 4. Jason of Pherae joins the Thebans. ^ 5. 
Progress of Thebes. (^ 6. Assassination of Jason. (^ 7. Establishment of 
the Arcadian league. «$) 8. First invasion of Peloponnesus by Epaminondas. 
Alarm at Sparta. Vigorous measures of Agesilaus. <^ 9. Epaminondas 
founds Megalopolis, and restores the Messenians. ^ 10. Alliance between 
Athens and Sparta. Second invasion of Peloponnesus by Epaminondas. 
^11. Invasion of Laconia by the Arcadians. (J 12. Expedition of Pelo- 
pidas into Thessaly. The "Tearless Battle" between the Arcadians and 
Lacedaemonians. ^ 13. Third invasion of Peloponnesus by Epaminondas. 
ij 14. Mission of Pelopidas to the court of Susa. (j 15. Seizure of 
Pelopidas by Alexander. His release. ^ 16. The Athenians acquire 
Oropus. Alliance between Athens and Arcadia. ^ 17. Attempt of the 
Athenians to seize Corinth followed by an alliance between the Corinthians 
and Thebans. (j 18. Success of the Athenians at sea. A Theban fleet 
commanded by Epaminondas. (j 19. Death of Pelopidas. () 20. Wars 
between Elis and Arcadia. Battle of Olympia during the festival. ^ 21. 
Dissensions among the Arcadians. i)22. Fourth invasion of Peloponnesus 
by Epaminondas. Attempts upon Sparta and Mantinea. ^ 23. Battle of 
Mantinea, and death of Epaminondas. <J 24. Death of Agesilaus 469 



ancs CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XLL 

HISTORY OF THE SICILIAN GREEKS FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF THE 
ATHENIAN ARMAMENT TO THE DEATH OF TIMOLEON. 

•A 1. Revolution at Syracuse. Dionysius the Elder seizes the despotism 
(J 2. His successes. (^3. His poetical compositions. Plato visits Syracuse, 
() 4. Death of Dionysius. His character. Story of Damocles. ^ 5. 
Accessionof the younger Dionysius. Second visit of Plato. Banishment 
of Dion. Third visit of Plato. ^ 6. Dion expels Dionysius, and becomes 
master of Syracuse. ^ 7. Assassination of Dion. () 8. Revolutions at 
Syracuse. The Syracusans invoke the aid of Corinth. <J 9. Character of 
Timoleon. () 10. His successes. Surrender of Dionysius and conquest of 
Syracuse. <5 11. Moderation of Timoleon. He remodels the constitution- 
() 12. Defeats the Carthaginians at the Crimesus. § 13. Deposes the 
Sicilian despots. ^ 14. Retires into a private station. His great popu- 
larity and death 487 



BOOK VI. 

THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 

B.C. 359—146. 
CHAPTER XLH. 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF PHILIP TO THE END OF THE SACRED WAR. 

^1. State of Greece. (J 2. Description of Macedonia. (^ 3. Kings of Macedon. 
4 4. Character of Philip. ^ 5. He subdues the Pseonians and Illyrians. 
^ 6. His military discipline. ^ 7. Capture of Amphipolis, and foundation 
of Philippi. () 8. The Social War. ^ 9. Commencement of the Sacred 
War. The Phocians seize Delphi. §10. Successes of the Phocians. <J 11. 
Philip interferes in the vi^ar. Conquers Thessaly. ^ 12. Philip in Thrace. 
Demosthenes. ^ 13. The Olynthian War. § 14. Character of Phocion. 
Fall of Olynthus. <§ 15. Progress of the Sacred War. Embassy to Philip. 
<^ 16. Conquest of Phocis by Philip. Sentence of the Amphictyonic 
Council on the Phocians 499 

CHAPTER XLIII. 

FROM THE END OF THE SACRED WAR TO THE DEATH OF PHILIP. 

§ 1. Results of the Sacred War. §2. Macedonian embassy to Athens. Second 
Philippic. .() 3. Philip's expedition into Thrace. () 4. Third Philippic. 
Progress of Philip. Siege of Perinthus. § 5. Phocion's successes in 
Euboea. () G. Declaration of w^ar between Athens and Macedon. Phocion 
compels Philip to evacuate the Chersonese. § 7. Charge of sacrilege 
against the Amphissians. § 8. Philip appointed general by the Amphictyons 
to conduct the war against Amphissa. ^ 9. He seizes Elatca. League 
between Athens and Thebes. (} 10. Battle of Chajronea. § 11. Philip's 
extravagant joy for his victory. <^ 12. Congress at Corinth. Philip's 



CONTENTS. xxxi 

progress through the Peloponnesus. ^ 13. Philip's domestic quarrels. 
^ 14. Preparations for the Persian expedition. ^ 15. Assassination of 
Philip 514 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

1. Education of Alexander. ^2. Rejoicings at Athens for Philip's death. 
Movements in Greece. ^. 3. Alexander overawes the malcontents, and is 
appointed generalissimo for the Persian war. ^ 4. Alexander subdues the 
Triballians, Getse, lllyrians, and Taulantians. ^ 5. Revolt and destruc- 
tion of Thebes. ^ 6. Alexander prepares to invade Persia. Nature of 
that empire. ^ 7. Alexander crosses the Hellespont. ^ 8. Battle of the 
Granicus. <5» 9. Alexander overruns Asia Minor. The Gordian knot. 
^10. March through Cilicia. Battle of Issus. Victory. ^ 11. Conquest 
of Phoenicia. Siege of Tyre. ^ 12. Alexander marches into Egypt. 
Foundation of Alexandria. Oracle of Ammon. ^ 13. Battle of Arbela. 
§ 14. Alexander takes possession of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. ^ 15. 
March to Ecbatana, and pursuit of Darius. Death of Darius. <^ 16. 
March through Hyrcania, Asia, and Drangiana. Conspiracy of Philotas. 
^ 17. Alexander crosses the Oxus. Death of Bessus. Reduction of Sog- 
diana. Alexander marries Roxana. ^18. Murder of Clitus. §19. Plot 
of the pages. Alexander invades the Penjab, and defeats Porus. Marches 
as far as the Hyphasis. § 20. Descent of the Hydaspes and Indus. ($» 21. 
March through Gedrosia. Voyage of Nearchus. § 22. Arrival at Susa. 
Intermarriages of the Greeks and Persians. Mutiny of the army. (} 23. 
Death of Hephaestion. Alexander takes up his residence at Babylon. 
His death, § 24. Character 525 



CHAPTER XLV. 

FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BATTLE OP 

IPSUS. 

i 1. Division of the provinces after Alexander's death. § 2. Retrospective 
view of Grecian affairs. Revolt of Agis. Demosthenes de Corona. ^ 3. 
ArrivalofHarpalus at Athens. Accusation and exile of Demosthenes. §4. 
The Lamian war. Defeat of Antipater, and siege of Lamia. § 5. Defeat 
and death of Leonnatus. Battle of Crannon. End of the Lamian war. 
§6. Death of Demosthenes. Ambitious projects of Perdiccas. His inva- 
sion of Egypt, and death. <J 7. Fresh division of the provinces at Tripa- 
ladisus. Death of Antipater. Polysphercon becomes regent, and concili- 
ates the Grecian states. Death of Phocion. § 8. War between Polysper- 
chon and Cassander. Ill success of Polysperchon. Cassander becomes 
master of Macedonia, and puts Olympias to death. () 9. Coalition against 
Antigonus. Peace concluded in B.C. 311. Murder ofRoxana and her son. 
§ 10. Renewal of the war against Antigonus. Demetrius Poliorcetes ex- 
pels the Macedonians from Athens. ^ W. Demetrius Poliorcetes at Cy- 
prus. Battle of Salamis. Attempt on Egypt. Siege of Rhodes. ^ 12. 
Battle of Ipsus, and death of Antigonus 552 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XLVI. 

FROM THE BATTLE OF IPSUS TO THE CONQUEST OF GREECE BY THB 

ROMANS. 

§ 1. Proceedings of Demetrius Poliorcetes. He captures Athens. ^ 2. 
Obtains the Macedonian crown. His flight and death. () 3. Lysimachus 
reigns over Macedonia. He is defeated and slain by Seleucus. ^ 4. Se- 
leucus assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus. Invasion of the Celts, and 
death of Ptolemy Ceraunus. ^ 5. Antigonus Gonatas ascends the Mace- 
donian throne. Death of Pyrrhus of Epirus. Chremonidean war. ^ 6. 
The Achaean League. ^7. State of Sparta. Reforms of Agis and Cleo- 
menes. The Cleoraenic war. ($> 8. The ^tolian League. (} 9. The So- 
cial War. ^ 10. War between Philip and the Romans. ^ IL Philopoemen. 
^ 12. Second war between Philip and the Romans. Battle of Cynoce- 
phalae. <§ 13. Defeat of Antiochus, and subjugation of the ^tolians by 
the Romans. () 14. Extension of the Achaean League. Conquest of 
Sparta. Death of Philopcemen. (j 15. War between Perseus and the 
Romans. Conquest of Macedonia. <^ 16. Proceedings of the Romans in 
Greece. (J 17. Athens and Oropus. War between the Achaeans and Spar- 
tans. (J 18. The Spartans appeal to the Romans, who reduce Greece into 
a Roman province 564 



CHAPTER XLVII. 

HISTORY OF GRECIAN ART FROM THE END OF THE PELOPONNESIAN 
WAR TO ITS DECLINE. 

(l 1. Later school of Athenian sculpture. ^ 2. Scopas. ^ 3. Praxiteles. 
<§ 4. Sicyonian school of sculpture. Euphranor, Lysippus. ^5. Sicyo- 
nian school of painting. Eupompus, Pamphilius, Apelles. (} 6. Architec- 
ture. ^ 7. Period after Alexander the Great. School of Rhodes. ^ 8. 
Plunder of Greek works of art by the Romans 579 



CHAPTER XLVni. 

GRECIAN LITERATURE FROM THE END OF THE PELOPONNESIAN W^AR TO 
THE LATEST PERIOD. 

^ 1. The drama. The Middle comedy. The New comedy: Philemon, 
Menander. <^ 2. Oratory. Circumstances which favoured it at Athens. 
^ 3. Its Sicilian origin. § 4. The ten Attic orators : Antiphon, Ando- 
cides, Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus, JEschines, Lycurgus, Demosthenes, Hy- 
perides, and Dinarchus. () 5. Athenian philosophy, Plato. ^ 6. Sketch 
of his philosophy. <J 7. The Megarics, Cyrenaics, and Cynics. ^ 8. The 
Academicians. § 9. Aristotle and the Peripatetics. <J 10. The Stoics 
and Epicureans. ^ 11. The Alexandrian school of literature. ^ 12. 
Later Greek writers : Polj^bius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Diodorus 
Sicufus, Arrian, Appian, Plutarch, Josephus, Strabo, Pausanias, Dion 
Cassius, Lucian, Galen. (} 13. The Greek Scriptures and Fathers. Con- 
clusion 587 




The Bema of the Pnyx at Athens. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



View of Athens Frontispiece. 

Theatre of Dionysius at Athens Title Page. 



Page 

Greek and Persian combatants. 
From the Frieze of the Tem- 
ple of Nike Apteros ix 

The Bema of the Pnyx at Athens xxvii 

Coin of Acarnania xxviii 

Vale of Tempe in Thessaly ... 1 
Map of Greece, showing the 
general direction of the Moun- 
tain Ranges 3 

Arch of Tiryns 10 

Head of Olympian Jove 11 

Paris, from the ^ginetan Sculp- 
tures 16 

Ajax, from the ^ginetan Sculp- 
tures 17 

Gate of Mycenaj 25 

Hercules and Bull 31 

Map of the chief Greek Colonies 

in Asia Minor 37 

Homer enthroned 39 

Bust of Homer 46 

Primitive Vessels from Athens 

and Ar-gos 47 

View of Mount Taygetus from 

the site of Sparta 56 

Early Greek Armour, from Vase- 
paintings 72 

Leaden Sling bullets and Arrow- 
heads, found at Athens, Mara- 
thon, and Leontini 79 

Coin of Corinth 80 



Pago 

Croesus on the Funeral Pile .... 87 
Ruins of the Temple of the Olym- 
pian Jove at Athens 102 

Coin of Athens 113 

Ancient Sculptures from Selinus 114 
Map of the chief Greek Colonies 

in Sicily 119 

Map of the chief Greek Colonies 

in Southern Italy 122 

Coin of Cyrene, representing on 

the reverse the Silphium 125 

Alcaeus and Sappho. From a 

Painting on a vase 126 

Temple at JEgina, restored 140 

Wall at Tiryns 141 

Wall of the Citadel of Argos .... 142 

Wooden Hut in Asia Minor .... 143 
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian Co. 

lumns 144 

Doric Architecture 145 

Ionic Architecture ib. 

Corinthian Architecture 146 

Cyrus 151 

Behistun rock on which are in- 
scribed the exploits of Darius 163 
Ruins of an Ionic Temple In 

Lycia 170 

The Plain and Tumulus of Ma- 
rathon 171 

Battle of Marathon 176 

BustofMlltladcs J81 



XX XIV 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page 

View of Thermopylae 185 

Plan of Thermopyls 193 

A Greek Warrior 201 

Battle of Salamis 210 

Temple of Nike Apteros, on the 

Acropolis at Athens 216 

Battle of Plataea 221 

Bust of Pindar 229 

Bust of Herodotus 238 

The Theseum at Athens 239 

Pericles and Aspasia 251 

The Acropolis restored 265 

Bust of the poet Sophocles 272 

The PropyliEa of the Acropolis. 273 
Bust of the historian Thucydi- 

des 284 

The Parthenon 285 

Statue of Theseus, from the Pe- 
diment of the Parthenon 296 

From the Frieze of the Parthenon. 

Panathenaic Procession 300 

Bay of Pylus , 309 

Plan of the neighbourhood of 

Amphipolis 317 

Coin of Amphipolis 320 

Centaur from the Metopes of the 

Parthenon 321 

Bust of Alcibiades 332 

Plan of Syracuse 337 

Street of the Tripods at Athens, 

from a bas relief 346 

One of the Caryatides support- 
ing the southern portico of the 

Erechtheum 257 

Bust of the Poet Euripides 368 

View of Phyle 369 

Clio, the Muse of History ...... 380 

The Erechtheum restored, view- 
ed from the S.W. angle 381 

Plan of Athens 383 

Athens and its Port-towns 385 



Pags 

Plan of the Acropolis 393 

Coin showing the Parthenon, 
Athena Proraachus, and the 

Cave of Pan 396 

Theatre of Dionysus, from coin 397 
Melpomene, the Muse of Tra- 
gedy 400 

Thalia, the Muse of Comedy ... ib. 

Bust of Socrates 418 

The Pactolus at Sardis 419 

Route of the Ten Thousand 421 

Choragic Monument of Lysi- 

crates 434 

View of Corinth and the Acro- 

corinthus 443 

Plan of Corinth 448 

Adventures of Dionysus, from 
the Choragic Monument of 

Lysicrates 45S 

Ditto, Ditto 456 

The Wind Boreas, from the 
Horologium of Andronicus 

Cyrrhestes 468 

Ithome, from the Stadium of 

Messene 469 

Bust of Plato 487 

View of Delphi and Mount Par- 
nassus 499 

The Plain of Chaeronea 514 

Bust of Demosthenes 524 

Battle of Issus 525 

Apollo Citharoedus 551 

The Group of Niobe 552 

Group of Dirce 564 

Group of the Laocoon 579 

Bust of Aristotle 587 

Bust of Menander 603 

Colonial Coin of Corinth 614 

Herologium of Andronicus Cyr- 
rhestes at Athens 6 12 

C alliope, the Muse of Epic Poetry 655 




Coin of Acarnania. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 




Vale of Tempe in Thessaly. 



/NTRODUCTION. OUTLINES OF GRECIAN GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 1. The three peninsulas of Southern Europe. § 2. Position and boun, 
daries of Grreece. § 3. Size of the countr}^ § 4. I^ame. § 5. Nor- 
thern Greece: Thessaly and Epirus. § 6. Central Greece: its prin- 
cipal divisions and mountains. § Y. Eastern half of Central Greece: 
Doris, Phocis, Locris, Bojotia, Attica, Megaris. § 8. Western half of 
Central Greece: Ozolian Locris, JEtolia, Acarnania. § P. Peloponne- 
sus: Arcadia. § 10. Achaia, Argolis, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, § 11. Tlic 
Grecian Iidands. § 12. Influence of the physical geography of Greece 
upon the political destinies of the people. § 13. Likewiseupon their in- 
tellectual character. § 14. Rivers and chief productions. § 15. Climate. 

§ 1. Three peninsulas, very different in form, project from the 
south of Europe into the Mediterranean sea. The most westerly, 
that of Spain and Portugal, is a quadrangular figure united to 
the mainland by an isthmus. The central one, that of Italy, is 
a long tongue of land, dow^n which runs from north to south the 
back-bone of the Apennines. The most easterly, of which Greece 

B 



2 HISTORY OF GREECE. Intuod. 

forms the southern part, is in the shape of a triangle with its 
base extending from the top of the Adriatic to the mouths of 
the river Danube, and having its two sides washed by the sea. 

^ 2. At the fortieth degree of latitude a chain of mountains 
called the Cambunian, and continued under the name of Lingon, 
runs across the peninsula from east to west, and forms the 
northern boundary of Greece. At a time when the Mediterra- 
nean was the great highway of commerce and civilization, no 
position could be more favorable than that of Greece. The 
^gean sea, which bathes its eastern shores, is studded with 
numerous islands, inviting the timid mariner from one to the 
other, and thus establishing an easy communication between 
Asia and Greece. Towards the south it faces one of the most 
fertile portions of Africa ; and on the west it is divided from 
Italy by a narrow chamiel, which in one part is not more than 
thirty miles in breadth. 

§ 3. Greece, which commences at the fortieth degree of lati- 
tude, does not extend farther than the thirty-sixth. Its greatest 
length from Mount Olympus to Cape Tsenarum is not more than 
250 English miles ; its greatest breadth from the western coast 
of Acarnanla to Marathon in Attica is only 180 miles. Its sur- 
face is considerably less than that of Portugal. This small area 
was divided among a number of independent states, many of 
them containing a territory of only a few square miles, and none 
of them larger than an English county. But it is not the mag- 
nitude of their territory which constitutes the greatness of a 
people ; and the heroism and genius of the Greeks have given an 
interest to the insignificant spot of earth bearing their name, 
which the vast empires of Russia and China have never equalled. 

^ 4. The name of Greece was never used by the inhabitants of 
the country. They called their land Hellas, and themselves Hel- 
lenes. It is from the Romans that we have derived the name of 
Greece ; though why the Romans gave it a different appellation 
from that used by the natives cannot be determined. It is however 
a well known fact that foreigners frequently call a people by a name 
different from the one in use among themselves. Thus the nation 
called Germans by us, bear the appellation of Deutsche^ among 
themselves ; and the people whom the Romans named Etruscans 
or Tuscans, were known in their own language by that oiRasoia. 
The word Hellas signified at first only a small district in Thes- 
saly, the original abode of the Hellenes. From this district the 
people, and along with them their name, gradually spread over 
the whole country south of the Cambunian mountains. The 
rude tribes of Epirus, however, were not reckoned among the 
Hellenes, and the ii'^rthern boundary of Hellas proper was a line 



iNTROD. 



OUTLINES OF GRECIAN GEOGRAPHY. 



drawn from the Ambracian gulf to the mouth of the river 
Peneus. The term Hellas was a)so employed in a more ex- 
tended sense to signily the abode of the Hellenes, wherever 
they might be settled ; and accordingly the Grecian cities of 
Cyrene in Africa, of Syracuse in Sicily, and of Tarentum in 
Italy, were as much parts of Hellas as Athens, Sparta, and 
Corinth. 




Map of Greece, sliowing the general direction of the Mountain Ranges. 



1. Thessaly. 
3. Epiius. 

3. Doris. 

4. Phoeis. 

fi. Loori Epiciivmidii. 
6. Locri Opunlii. 



7. Boeotia. 
8 Attica. 
9. Mogarif. 

10. hocri Orolae. 

11. yl'.tolin. 

12. Acaiuania, 



13. Arcadia. 

14. Acliaia. 

15. Arpolis. 

16. I,aoonia. 

17. Messenia. 



IS. Elis. 

19. Euboea. 

20. SalamiB. 

21. TEpina. 

22. Cytliora. 



4 HIOTOEY OF GREECE. Inteod. 

§ 5. Midway between the Ionian and jEgean seas the chain of 
mountains forming the nortli^rn boundary of Greece is intersected 
at right angles by the long and lofty range of Pindus, running 
from north to south, like the Apennines of the Italian penin- 
sula. From Mount Pindus two lateral branches stretch towards 
the eastern sea, running parallel to one another at the distance 
of sixty miles, and enclosing the plain of Thessaly, the richest 
and largest in Greece. The southern of these two branches bore 
the name of Othrys ; the northern, which has been already men- 
tioned under the name of the Cambunian mountains, terminates 
upon the coast in the lofty summit of Olympus, the highest in 
all Greece, being 9700 feet above the level of the sea, and scarcely 
ever free from snow. South of Olympus another range, known 
under the successive names of Ossa and Pehon, stretches along 
the coast parallel to that of Pindus. Thus Thessaly is enclosed 
between four natural ramparts, which are only broken at the 
north-eastern extremity by the celebrated vale of Tempe, between 
Olympus and Ossa, tlirough which the river Peneus finds its way 
into the sea. 

Pindus forms the boundary between Thessaly and Epirus. 
The latter country contains no enclosed plain like that of Thes- 
saly, but is covered by rugged ranges of mountains running from 
north to south, through which the Achelous, the largest river 
of Greece, flows towards the Corinthian gulf. 

§ 6. At about the thirty-ninth degree of latitude Greece is 
contracted uito a kind of isthmus by two opposite gulfs, the Am- 
bracian on the west and the Malian on the east. This isthmus 
separates the peninsula of central G reece from the inainland of 
Thessaly and Epirus. 

Central Greece again may be divided into two unequal halves, 
the eastern half containing the countries of Doris, Phocis, Locris, 
Boeotia, Attica, and Megaris, the western comprising Ozolian 
Locris, jEtolia, and Acamania. 

A little above the thirty-ninth degree of latitude there is a 
summit in the range of Pindus, called Mount Tymphrestus, from 
which ranges of mountains radiate, as from a centre, in all direc- 
tions. On the east two gigantic arms branch off towards the 
sea : the one which runs nearly due east under the name of 
Othrys has been already mentioned ; the other which bears the 
name of CEta, has a south-easterly direction, and forms the 
northern barrier of central Greece. The only entrance into cen- 
tral Greece from the north is through the narrow opening left 
between Mount CEta and the sea, immortalized in history- under 
the name of Thermopylae. 

South of Tymphrestus the chain of Pindus divides intx) two great 



Inteod. outlines OF GRECIAN GEOGRAPHY. 6 

branches, and no longer bears the same name : one strikes to 
the south-east under the names of Parnassus, Helicon, Cithaeron, 
and Hymettus, and finally reaches the sea at Sunium, the south- 
ernmost point of Attica ; the other diverges to the south-west 
under the names of Corax and the Ozolian mountains, and joins 
the sea near the entrance of the Corinthian gulf 

^7. In the highlands between Q3ta and Parnassus is a narrow 
plain called Doris, from which the Dorians are said to have 
issued to the conquest cf Peloponnesus. Here rises the river 
Cephissus, which flows into Phocis. The greater part of Pliocis 
is occupied by Parnassus, which rises to the height of 8000 feet, 
but between this mountain and those of eastern Locris is a fertile 
plain drained by the Cephissus. 

From the eastern extremity of Mount (Eta a range of moun- 
tains runs southward along the coast. It passes through the 
country of the Locrians, called respectively Ej-icnemidian, from 
Mount Cnemis, and Oinintian, from the town of Opus. Bccotia 
extends from sea to sea, but it is separated from the Euboean 
channel by a continuation of the Locrian mountains and from 
the Corinthian gulf by the lofty range of Helicon, celebrated in 
poetry as the abode of the Muses. On its northern frontier 
the offshoots of Parnassus and the Locrian mountains leave only 
a narrow opening through which the Cephissus flows ; and on 
the south the country is shut in by the lofty barrier of Cithseron 
and Parnes, which separate it from Attica. Boeotia is thus a large 
hollow basin, enclosed on every side by mountains, and contain- 
ing a considerable quantity of very fertile land. The Ce- 
phissus, and the streams which descend frcm the surrounding 
hills, form in the centre of the country the lake Copais, which 
finds an cutlet for its waters through subterraneous channels in 
the limestone mountains. 

Attica is in the form of a triangle, having two of its sides 
washed by the sea and its base united to the land. The range 
of Cithaeron and Parnes, which forms its northern boundary, 
shuts off this peninsula from the rest of Greece. Cithaeron is 
prolonged towards the south-west, skirting the shores of the Cor- 
inthian gulf and forming the mountainous country of Mega7'is. 
Here it rises into a new chain under the name of the Geranean 
mountains, which stretch across Megaris from west to east, 
parallel to Cithaeron. These mountains sink down southward 
towards the Isthmus, which separates central Greece from Pelo- 
ponnesus. Here the Corinthian gulf on the west and the Saronic 
gulf on the east penetrate so far inland as to leave only a narrow 
neck of land between them, not more than four miles across at 
its narrowest part. The Isthmus is comparatively level, but im- 



8 HISTORY OF GREECE. Intuo.^. 

mediately to the south rise the Onean hills, protecting Pelopon- 
nesus from invasion by land. 

^ 8, The western half of central Greece consists, as already 
said, of Locris, ^Etolia, and Acarnania. Locris, called Ozolian 
to distinguish it from the eastern district of this name, lies upon 
the Corinthian gulf, and is a wild and mountainous country, 
nearly covered by the offshoots of the Phocian Parnassus and the 
^tolian Corax. ^tolia and Acarnania, separated by the river 
Achelous, are also mountainous, the greater part of their surface 
being occupied by a continuation of the hills of Epirus, but at 
the same time containing a few fertile plains upon the banks 
of the Achelous. All three countries were the haunts of rude 
robber tribes even as late as the Peloponnesian war. 

§ 9. The Isthmus which connects central Grreece with the 
southern peninsula is so small in comparison with the outspread 
form of the latter, that the ancients regarded the peninsula as an 
island, and gave to it the name oi Peloponnesus, or the island of 
Pelops, from the mythical hero of this name. Its form was 
compared in antiquity to the leaf of the plane tree or the vine, 
and its modern name, the Morea, was bestowed upon it from its 
resemblance to the leaf of the mulberry. 

The mountains of Peloponnesus have their roots in the centre 
of the country, from which they branch out towards the sea. 
This central region, called Arcadia, is tho Switzerland of the 
peninsula. It is surrounded by a ring of mountains, forming 
a kind of natural wall, which separates it from the other 
Peloponnesian states. These mountains are unbroken on the 
northern, eastern, and southern frontiers, and it is only on the 
western side that the waters of the Alpheus, the chief river in 
the peninsula, find their way through a narrow opening towards 
the Ionian sea. It is on the northern frontier that the Arcadian 
mountains are the loftiest and most massive ; and at the north- 
eastern extremity of the country Mount Cyllene rises to the 
height of 7788 feet above the level of the sea, a grand and 
miajestic object as seen from the isthmus and the Corinthian 

HO. The other chief divisions of Peloponnesus were Achaia, 
Argolis, Laconia, Messenia, and Elis. Acliaia was a narrow slip 
of country lying between the northern barrier of Arcadia and 
the Corinthian gulf It is intersected by numerous ranges of 
hills, which descend from the Arcadian mountains, and either 
run out into the sea in the form of bold promontories, or subside 
before reaching the shore. The plains thus left on the coast, 
and the valleys between the mountains, are for the most pari 
very fertile 



Introd. outlines OF GRECIAN GEOGRAPHY. 7 

Argolis was used as a collective term to signify the territories 
of several independent states. Of these the most important 
were Corinth and Sicyon, near the eastern extremity of the 
Corinthian gulf, and Argos, situated at the head of the Argolic 
gulf, in a plain ten or twelve miles in length and from four to 
five in breadth. The remainder of Argolis consisted of a rocky 
peninsula between the Saronic and Argolic gulfs, contaming al 
its eastern extremity the territories of Epidaurus, TroBzen, and 
Hermione. 

Laco?tia and Messenia occupied the whole of the south of Pelo- 
ponnesus from sea to sea. They were separated by the lofty 
range of Taygetus, running from north to south and terminating 
in the promontory of Tsenarum (now Cape Matapan), the south- 
ernmost point of Grreece and Europe. Along the eastern side of 
Laconia the range of Mount Parnon extends from north to south 
parallel to that of Taygetus, and terminates in the promontory 
of Malea. Between these two ranges is the valley of the Eurotas, 
in which Sparta stood, and wliich south of this city opens out 
into a plain of considerable extent toward the Laconian gulf. 
Messenia in like manner was drained by the Pamisus, whose 
plain is still more extensive and fertile than that of the Eurotas. 
Elis was the region between the western barrier of Arcadia and 
the Ionian sea. It is covered to a great extent with the offshoots 
of the Arcadian mountains, but contains several plains. In the 
centre of the country is the memorable plain of Olympia, through 
which the Alpheus flows, and in which the city of Pisa stood. 

h II. The numerous islands wliich line the Grecian shores 
were occupied in historical times by the Grecian race. Of these 
the most important was Euboca, ninety miles in length, stretch- 
ing along the coasts of BcEotia and Attica. Through it ran from 
north to south a long chain of mountains which may be regarded 
as a continuation of the range of Ossa and Pelion. South of 
Euboea was the group of islands called the Cyclades, lying round 
Delos as a centre ; and east of these were the Sporades, near the 
Asiatic coast. South of these groups lay the two large islands 
of Crete and Rhodes. In the Saronic gulf between Attica and 
Argolis were the celebrated islands of Salamis and jEgi?m, the 
former reckoned as part of Attica, and the latter long the rival 
and eye-sore of Athens. Off the western coast of Greece, in the 
Ionian sea, we find Corcyra opposite Epirus, Cepliallenia and 
Itlmca opposite Acarnania, and Zacynthus near the coast of Elis 
in Peloponnesus. CytJiera was separated by a narrow chamiel 
from the southern extremity of Laconia, 

k \2. The physical features of the country exercised an im- 
portant influence upon the political destinies of the people. 



8 HISTORY OF GREECE. Intro- 

Greece is one of the most mountainous countries of Europe. 
Its surface is occupied by a number of small plains either entirely 
surrounded by limestone mountains or open only to the sea. 
Mountains, not rivers, have in all ages proved the greatest bar- 
riers to intercourse between neighbouring tribes. This was the 
case in G-reece, and thus the very nature of the land tended to 
produce that large number of independent states which is one of 
the most striking phfBnomena in Grecian history. Each of the 
principal Grecian cities was founded in one of the small plains 
already described ; and as the mountains which separated it from 
its neighbours were lofty and rugged, it grew up in solitary inde- 
pendence, and formed its own character before it could be affected 
by any external influence. 

The mountainous nature of the country also protected it from 
foreign invasion, as well as rendered it difficult lor one section of 
the Grecian race to subdue the rest. The vale of Tempe between 
Mounts Ossa and Olympus, the pass of Thermopylae between 
northern and central Greece, the passes over Mount Cithairon 
between Bceotia and Attica, and those over the Geranean and 
Onean mountains on either side of the Isthmus, could easily be 
defended by a handful of resolute men against vastly superior 
numbers. 

But, while the Grecian states were separated from theirnear- 
est neighbours by their mountains, the sea afforded them easy 
intercourse with one another and with the rest of the world. 
One of the most striking peculiarities of the geography of Greece 
is the wonderful extent of its sea coast. In this respect it has 
the advantage over every other country of Europe. Although 
its surface is not so great as that of Portugal, its line of coast 
exceeds that of the whole peninsula of Portugal and Spain. 
Not only is it surrounded by the sea on every side except on its 
northern frontier, but its coast is also broken by a number of 
bays and gulfs running far into the land. Thus almost every 
Grecian state had ready and easy access to the sea, and Arcadia 
was almost the only political division that did not possess some 
territory upon the coast. 

§ 13. Of all natural objects the mountains and the sea have 
ever been the most powerful instruments in moulding the intel- 
lectual character of a people. The Greeks were both mountaineers 
and mariners, and as such they possessed the susceptibility 
to external impressions, the love of freedom, and the spirit 
of adventure, which have always characterized, more or less, 
the inhabitants of mountainous and maritime districts. The 
poetical beauty of the Grecian mountains has often called 
forth the admiration of modern travelers. Their craggy, broken 



Introd. outlines OF GRECIAISr GEOGRAPHY. 9 

forms and rich silvery colour give to the Grecian landscape a 
pecuUar charm, and justify the description of the poet Gray, 
when he speaks of Greece as a land, 

"Where each old poetic 7nouniai7i, 
Inspiration breathes around." 

The beauty of the scenery is still further enhanced by the gorge- 
ous atmosphere in which every object is bathed. To a native 
of the northern latitudes of Europe nothing is more striking in 
the Grecian climate than the transparent clearness of the air and 
the brilliant colouring of the sky. AVhen Euripides represents 
the Athenians as 

" Ever dehcately marching 

Through most pellucid air"* 

he is guilty of no poetical exaggeration, and the violet colour 
which the Roman poet assigns to the hills of Hymettusf is 
hterally true. 

^ 14. Greece is deficient in a regular supply of water. During 
the autumnal and winter months the rain, which falls in large 
quantities, fills the crevices in the limestone of the hills and is 
carried off by torrents. In summer rain is almost unknown and 
the beds of the torrents full of water in the winter then become 
ravines, perfectly dry and overgrown with shrubs. Even the 
livers, which are partly supplied by springs, dwindle in the sum- 
mer into very insignificant streams. None of the Grecian rivers 
are navigable, and the Achelous, which is the most considerable 
of all, has a course of only 130 miles. 

The chief productions of Greece in ancient times were wheat, 
barley, flax, wine, and oil. The hills afforded excellent pasture 
for cattle, and in antiquity were covered with forests, though 
they are at present nearly destitute of wood. 

In almost every part of Greece there were rich veins of marble, 
affording materials for the architect and the sculptor, such as" 
hardly any other country in the world possesses. The limestone, 
of which most of its mountains is composed, is well adapted for 
military architecture ; and it is to this hard and intractable stono 
that we owe those massive polygonal walls, of which the remains 
still crown the summits of so many Grecian hills. Laurium near 
the southern extremity of Attica yielded a considerable quantity 
of silver, but otherwise Greece was poor in the precious metals 

* del 6iu TiafiTcpoTuTov 

jSaivovrec u^pug aWepog. — Eurip. Med 829. 
f " Est prope purpureas eolles florentis Hymetti 
Fons sacer." — Ovid, Art Amat. 3, 687. 



10 HISTORY OF GREECE. Intror 

Iron was found in the range of Taygetus in Laconia, and copper 
as well as iron near Chalcis in EubcEa. 

§ 15. The climate of Greece appears to have been more healthy 
in ancient times than it is at present. The malaria which now 
poisons the atmosphere in the summer months, could not have 
existed to the same extent when the land was more thickly peo- 
pled and more carefully cultivated. Owing to the inequalities of 
its surface, to its lofty mountains and depressed valleys, the cli- 
mate varies greatly in different districts. In the highlands in 
the interior the winter is often long and rigorous, the snow lying 
upon the ground till late in the spring, while in the lowlands open 
to the sea, sovere weather is almost unknown. The rigour of 
winter is frequently experienced in the highlands of Mantinea 
and Tegea in the month of March, while at the same time the 
genial warmth of spring is felt in the plains of Argos and Laco- 
nia, and almost the heat of summer in the low grounds at the 
head of the Messenian gulf. To this difference in climate the 
ancients attributed the difference in the intellectual character of 
the natives of various districts. Thus the dulness of the Boeo- 
tians was ascribed to the dampness and thickness of their atmos- 
phere, while the dry and clear air of Attica was supposed to 
sharpen the faculties of its inhabitants. 




Arch of Tiryns. 




Head of Olympian Jove. 

BOOK I. 

THE MYTHICx\L AGE, 



CHAPTER I. 



lit 



THE EARLIEST INHABITANTS OF GREECE. 

§ 1. Legendary character of early Grecian history. § 5L Legends of th« 
Greeks respecting their origin. § 3. The Hellenes and their diffusion in 
Greece. § 4. Connexion of the Hellenes wita the Indo-European stem. 
§ 5. The Pelasgians. § 6. Foreign settlers in Greece. § 7. Egyptian 
colonies of Cecrops and Danaus. § 8. Phrygian colony of Pelops. 
§ 9. Phoenician colony of Cadmus. 

\ 1 . The clouds which envelope the early history of Greece arc 
lighted up by the brilliant hues of Grecian fable ; but the reader 
must carefully guard against believing in the reality of the per- 
sonages or of the events commemorated by these beautiful 
legends. Some of them, it is true, probably sprung out of events 
which actually occurred, and may therefore contain a kernel of 
historical truth ; but we have no means of distinguishing be- 
tween what is true and what is false, between the historical facts 
and their subsequent embellishments. Till events are recorded 
in written documents, no materials exist for a trustworthy his- 
tory ; and it was not till the epoch known by the name of tho 



12 HISTORY OF GREECE- Chap. L 

first Olympiad, corresponding to the year 776 before Christ, that 
the Greeks began to employ writing as a means for perpetuating 
the memory of any historical facts. Befofe that period every- 
thing is vague and uncertain ; and for two centuries afterwards 
we meet with only a few isolated events, and possess nothing 
in the form of a continuous history. But even the mythical 
age must not be passed over entirely. In all cases the traditions 
of a people are worthy of record ; and this is especially true of 
the Grreeks, whose legends moulded their faith and influenced 
their conduct down to the latest times. 

§ 2. Few nations have paid more attention to their genealogy 
than the Greeks. In modern times famiUes are ambitious of 
tracing back their origin to some illustrious ancestor ; but in 
Greece this feeling was not confined to families, but pervaded 
alike all associations of men. Every petty tribe or clan claimed 
descent from a common ancestor, whose name was borne by 
each member of the community. This ancestor was usually 
represented as the son or immediate descendant of a god, or else 
as sprung from the earth, ^ which was in such cases regarded as 
a divine being. Thus the Greek people considered themselves 
the children of one common father, in whose name they gloried 
as the symbol of fraternity. This ancestor was Hellen, the son 
of Deucalion and Pyrrha, from whom the people derived the 
name of Hellenes. Hellen had three sons, Dorus, Xuthus, and 
JEolus. Of these Dorus and tEoIus gave their names to the 
Dorians and Cohans ; and Xuthus, through his two sons. Ion 
and Achseus, became the forefather of the lonians and Achseans. 
In this way the four great divisions of the Greek race, the 
Dorians, ^Eolians, lonians, and Achseans, were supposed to be 
the descendants of the patriarch Hellen. 

§3. The descent of the Hellenes from a common ancestor, 
Hellen, was a fundamental article in the popular faith. It was a 
general practice in antiquity to invent fictitious persons for the 
purpose of explaining names of which the origin was buried in 
obscurity. It is in this way that Hellen and his sons came into 
being. But though they never had any real existence, their his- 
tory may be regarded as the traditional history of the races to 
whom they gave their names. Thus when we are told that 
Hellen reigned in the south of Thessaly, near the foot of Mount 
Othrys, which was the part of Greece first call Hellas, we may 
conclude that the Greeks believed this district to be the original 
abode of their race. In like manner the migrations of the sons 
of Hellen from the south of Thessaly, and their settlements 
in the different parts of Greece, represent the current belief 
* Ilenee called an Autochthon {kiroxOuv). 



Chap. I. THE EAELIEST INHABITANTS. 13 

respecting the early history of the four great divisions of the 
race, 

^olus succeeded his father Hellen as king of Hellas in Thes- 
saly, but his descendants occupied a great part of central Greece, 
as far as the isthmus of Corinth, and also took possession of the 
western coast of Peloponnesus. The iEoliaiis were the most 
widely diffused of all the descendants of Hellen. Many of their 
towns, such as Corinth and lolcus in Thessaly, were situated 
upon the coast, and the worship of Poseidon (Neptune), the god 
of the sea, prevailed extensively among them. 

The Achaeans appear in the latter part of the Heroic age as the 
most warlike of the Grecian races. At that time they are repre- 
sented as inhabiting the original abode of the Hellenes in Thes- 
saly, and also the cities of Mycense, Argos, and ISparta, in the 
Peloponnesus. The most distinguished of the Grecian heroes in 
the Troj an war were Acheeans ; and such was the celebrity or 
the race at that period that Homer frequently gives their name 
to the whole body of the Greeks. 

The Dorians and lonians are of far less importance in the 
ancient legends, though they afterwards became the two leading 
races in Greece, to whom the Spartans and Athenians respec- 
tively belonged. The Dorians were almost confined to the small 
mountainous district named after them, lying between Thessaly 
and Phocis ; the lonians were found chiefly in Attica and along 
the narrow shp of coast in the north of Peloponnesus, which in 
historical times was known by the name of Achaia. 

^ 4. Such was the general belief of the Greeks respecting the 
early diffusion of their race. But it is natural for us to go far- 
ther back, and to endeavor to ascertain the real origin of the 
people. Now the only sure and certain means of ascertaining 
the origin of any people is a knowledge of its language. Tra- 
dition misleads as often as it guides the inquirer ; and the' indi- 
cations afforded by mythology, manners and customs, are fre- 
quently deceptive and always vague. Language, on the other 
hand, is an enduring memorial ; and, whatever changes it may 
have undergone in the course of ages, it rarely loses those funda- 
mental elements which proclaim its origin and affinities. If then 
we conduct our inquiry into the origin of the Greek people by 
means of their language, we have no difficulty in coming to a 
satisfactory conclusion. The Greek language is a member of 
that great family of languages to which modern scholars have 
given the name of Indo-European. The various nations speaking 
the different varieties of this language were originally one people, 
inhabiting the high table-land of central Asia. At some period, 
long antecedent to all profane history, they issued from their 



14 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. L 

primeval seats, and spread over a considerable portion both of 
Asia and of Europe. In Asia the ancient Hindoos, who spoke 
Sanscrit, and the Medes and Persians, whose language was the 
Zend, were the two principal branches of this people. In Europe 
the Germans, Pelasgians, Slavonians, and Celts were the four 
chief varieties. It is foreign to our present purpose to give any 
account of the other branches of the Indo-European family ; but 
a few remarks must be made upon the Pelasgians, from whom 
the Greeks derived their origin. 

§ 5. The Pelasgians are represented by the Greeks themselves 
as the most ancient inhabitants of then' land. The primitive 
name of Greece is said to have been Pelasgia. In the historical 
period, those parts of Greece which had been subject to the 
fewest changes of inhabitants were supposed to be peopled by 
the descendants of the Pelasgians. This was especially the case 
with Arcadia and Attica, which claimed to have been inhabited 
by the same tribes from time immemorial. The Pelasgians were 
spread over the Italian as well as the Grecian peninsula ; and the 
Pelasgic language thus formed the basis of the Latin as weU as 
of the Greek. It is true that Herodotus speaks of the Pelasgic 
as a foreign language, totally distinct from the Greek ; but his 
testimony on such a subject is not entitled to any weight, since 
the ancients were lamentably deficient in philological knowledge, 
and had no notion of the affinity of languages. 

Of the Pelasgians themselves our information is scanty. They 
were not mere barbarians. They are represented as tilling the 
ground and dwelling in walled cities. =^ Their religion appears to 
have been essentially the same as the religion of the Hellenes. 
Their great divinity was Jove, the national Hellenic god, and 
the chief seat of his worship was Dodona in Epirus. Hencr 
Homer gives to the Dodonsean Jove the title of Pelasgic ; and his 
oracle* at Dodona was always regarded as the most ancient in 
Greece. 

The Pelasgians were divided into several tribes, such as the 
Hellenes, Leleges, Caucones, and others. In what respects the 
Hellenes were superior to the other Pelasgic tribes we do not 
know ; but they appear at the first dawn of history as the domi- 
nant race in Greece. The rest of the Pelasgians disappeared 
before them or were incorporated with them ; their dialect of 
the Pelasgic tongue became the language of Greece ; and their 
worship of the Olympian Jove gradually supplanted the more 
ancient worship of the Dodonsean god. 

§ 6. The civilization of the Greeks and the development of 
their language bear all the marks of home growth, and probably 
* A fortified town was called Larissa by the Pelasgians. 



Chap. L THE EARLIEST INHABITANTS. 15 

were little afFacted by foreign influence. The traditions, how- 
ever, of the Greeks would point to a contrary conclusion. It 
was a general belief among them that the Pelasgians were re- 
claimed from barbarism by Oriental strangers, who settled in 
the country and introduced among the rude inhabitants the 
first elements of civilization. Many of these traditions, however, 
are not ancient legends, but owe their origin to the philosophical 
speculations of a later age, which loved to represent an imaginary 
progress of society from the time when men fed on acorns and 
ran wild in woods, to the time when they became united into 
political communities and owned the supremacy of law and 
reason. The speculative Greeks who visited Egypt in the sixth 
and fifth centuries before the Christian era were profoundly im- 
pressed with the monuments of the old Egyptian monarchy, 
which even in that early age of the world indicated a gray and 
hoary antiquity. The Egyptian priests were not slow to avail 
themselves of the impression made upon their visitors, and told 
the latter many a wondrous tale to prove that the civilization, 
the arts, and even the religion of the Greeks, all came from the 
land of the Nile. These tales found easy believers ; they were 
carried back to Greece, and repeated with various modifications 
and embellishments ; and thus no doubt arose the greater num- 
ber of the traditions respecting Egyptian colonies in Greece. 

§ 7. Although we may therefore reject with safety the tra- 
ditions respecting these Egyptian colonies, two are of so much 
celebrity that they cannot be passed over entirely in an account 
of the early ages of Greece. Attica is said to have been indebted 
for the arts of civiHzed life to Cecrops, a native of Sais in 
Egypt. To him is ascribed the foundation of the city of Athens, 
the institution of marriage, and the introduction of rehgious 
rites and ceremonies. The Acropolis or citadel of Athens, tc 
which the original city was confined, continued to bear the name 
of Cecropia even in later times. Argos, in like manner, is said 
to have been founded by the Egyptian Danaus, who fled to 
Greece with his fifty daughters to escape from the persecution 
of their suitors, the fifty sons of his brother ^gyptus. The 
Egyptian stranger was elected king by the natives, and from him 
the tribe of the Danai derived their name, which Homer fre- 
quently uses as a general appellation for the Greeks. The only 
fact which lends any countenance to the existence of an Egyptian 
colony in Greece is the discovery of the remains of two pyramids 
at no great distance from Argos ; but this form of building is 
not confined to Egypt. Pyramids are found in India, Babylonia, 
and Mexico, and may therefore have been erected by the early 
inhabitants of Greece independently of any connexion with Egypt- 



16 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chat. L 

§ 8. Another colony, not less celebrated and not more credible 
than the two just mentioned, is the one led from Asia by Pelops, 
from whom the southern peninsula of G-reece derived its name 
of Peloponnesus. Pelops is usually represented as a native of 
Sipylus in Phrygia, and the son of the wealthy king Tantalus. 
By means of his riches, which he brought with him into Greece, 
he became king of Mycenas and the founder of a powerful 
dynasty, one of the most renovinied in the Heroic age of Greece. 
From him was descended Agamemnon, who led the Grecian host 
against Troy. 

^ 9. The case is different with the PhoBnician colony, which is 
said to have been founded by Cadmus at Thebes in Bceotia. We 
have decisive evidence that the Phoenicians planted colonies at 
an early period in the islands of Greece ; and it is only natural 
to believe that they also settled upon the shores of the mainland. 
Whether there was such a person as the Phoenician Cadmus, 
and whether he built the town called Cadmea, which afterwards 
became the citadel of Thebes, as the ancient legends relate, can 
not be determined ; but, setting aside ail tradition on the subject, 
there is one fact which proves indisputably an early intercourse 
between Phoenicia and Greece. It was to the Phoenicians that 
the Greeks were indebted for the art of writing ; for both the 
names and the forms of the letters in the Greek alphabet are 
evidently derived from the Phoenician. With this exception the 
Oriental strangers left no permanent traces of their settlements 
in Greece ; and the population of the country continued to be 
essentially Grecian, uncontaminated by any foreign elements. 




Paris, from the .liEginetan Sculptures. 





Ajax, from the JEginetan Sculptures. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE GRECIAN HEROES. 



§ 1. Mythical character of the Heroic Age. § 2. Hercules. § 3. Theseus. 
§ 4. Minos. § 5. Voyage of the Argonauts. § 6. The Seven against 
Thebes and the Epigoni. § 1. The Trojan War as related in the Iliad. 
§ 8. Later additions. § 9. Return of the Grecian heroes from Troy. 
§ 10. Date of the fall of Troy. § 1 1. Whether the Heroic legends con- 
tain any historical facts. § 12. The Homeric poems present a picture 
of a real state of society. 

M- It was universally believed by tbe Greeks that their native 
land was in the earlier ages ruled by a noble race of beings, pos- 
sessing a superhuman though not a divine nature, and superior 
to ordinary men in strength of body and greatness of soul. These 
are the Heroes of Grecian mytholog}% whose exploits and adven- 
tures form the great mine from which the Greeks derived in- 
exhaustible materials for their poetry — 

•'Presenting Thebes or Pelops' line, 
Or the taie of Troy divine." 



18 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IL 

According to mythical chronology the Heroic age constitutes 
a period of about two hundred years, from the first appearance 
of the Hellenes in Thessaly to the return of the Greeks from 
Troy. Since the legends of this period belong to mythology and 
not to history, they find their proper place in a work devoted to 
the former subject. But some of them are so closely interwoven 
with the historical traditions of Greece that it is impossible to 
pass them by entirely. Among the heroes three stand con- 
spicuously forth : Hercules, the national hero of Greece ; Theseus, 
the hero of Attica ; and Minos, king of Crete, the principal 
founder of Grecian law and civilization. 

§ 2. Of all the Heroic families none was more celebrated than 
that of Danaus, king of Argos. In the fifth generation we find 
it personified in Danae, the daughter of Acrisius, whom Jove 
wooed in a shower of gold, and became by her the father of 
Perseus, the celebrated conqueror of Medusa. Perseus was the 
ancestor of Hercules, being the great-grandfather both of Alc- 
mena and of her husband Amphitryon. According to the well- 
known legend, Jove, enamoured of Alcmena, assumed the form 
of Amphitryon in his absence, and became by her the father 
of Hercules. To the son thus begotten Jove had destined the 
sovereignty of Argos ; but the jealous anger of Hera (Juno) 
raised up against him an opponent and a master in the person 
of Eurysthens, another descendant of Perseus, at whose bidding 
the greatest of all heroes was to achieve those wonderful labours 
which filled the whole world with his fame. In these are realized, 
on a magnificent scale, the two great objects of ancient heroism 
— the destruction of physical and moral evil, and the acquisition 
of wealth and power. Such, for instance, arc the labours, in 
which he destroys the terrible Nemean lion and Lernean hydra, 
carries off the girdle of Ares from Hippolyte, queen of the 
Amazons, and seizes the golden apples of the Hesperides, guarded 
by a hundred-headed dragon. At the same time, however, we 
perceive, as is the case with all the Grecian heroes, that the 
extraordinary endowments of Hercules did not preserve him 
from human weakness and error, and the consequent expiation 
which they demanded. After slaying in his ungovernable rage 
his friend and companion Iphitus, the son of Eurytus, he is seized 
with sickness, becomes the slave of the Lydian queen Omphale, 
devotes himself to effeminate occupations, and sinks into luxury 
and wantonness. At a subsequent period another crime pro- 
duces his death. The rape of lole, the daughter of the same 
Eurytus whose son he had slain, incites his wife Deianira to send 
him the fatal shirt, poisoned with the blood of the centaur 
Nessus. Unable to endure the torments it occasions, he repairs 



Chap. IL THE GRECIAN HEROES. 19 

to Mount OEta, which becomes the scene of his apotheosis. As 
he lies on the funeral pile there erected for him by Hyllus, his 
eldest son by Deianira, a cloud descends and bears him ofi" amidst 
thunder and lightning to Olympus, where he L received among 
the immortal gods, and, being reconciled to Hera, receives in 
marriage her daughter Hebe, the goddess of youth. 

§3. Theseus was the son of ^geus, king of Athens, and of 
iEthra, daughter of Pittheus, king of Troezen. On his return to 
Athens vEgeus left ^thra behind him at Troezen, enjoining her 
not to send their son to Athens till he was strong enough to lift 
from beneath a stone of prodigious weight his father's sword and 
sandals, which would serve as tokens of recognition. Theseus, 
when grown to manhood, accomplished the appointed feat with 
ease, and took the road to Athens over the isthmus of Corinth, a 
journey beset with many dangers from robbers who barbarously 
mutilated or killed the unhappy wayfarers who fell into their 
hands. But Theseus overcame them all, and arrived in safety 
at Athens, where he was recognised by Mgeus, and declared his 
successor. Among his many memorable achievements the most 
famous was his deliverance of Athens from the frightful tribute 
imposed upon it by Minos for the murder of his son. This con- 
sisted of seven youths and seven maidens, whom the Athenians 
were compelled to send every nine years to Crete, there to be 
devoured by the Minotaur, a monster with a human body and 
a bull's head, which Minos kept concealed in an inextricable 
labyrinth. The third ship was already on the point of sailing 
with its cargo of innocent victims, when Theseus offered to go 
with them, hoping to put an end for ever to the horrible tribute. 
Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, became enamoured of the hero, 
and having supplied him with a clue to trace the windings of 
the labyrinth, Theseus succeeded in killing the monster, and 
in tracking his way out of the mazy lair. As he returned 
towards Athens, the pilot forgot to hoist the white sail, agreed 
on as the signal of success, in place of the black sail usually 
carried by the vessel which bore that melancholy tribute, where- 
upon JEgeus, thinking that his son had perished, threw himself 
into the sea which afterwards bore his name. 

Theseus, having now ascended the throne, proceeded to lay the 
foundations of the future greatness of Athens. He united into 
one political body the twelve independent states into which 
Cecrops had divided Attica, and made Athens the capital of the 
new kingdom. In order to accommodate the increased popula- 
tion of the city, he covered with buildings the ground lying to 
the south of the Cecropian citadel ; and in commemoration of 
the union, he instituted the festivals of the Panathenaea and 



20 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. 3L 

Synoikia in honour of Athena (Minerva), the patron goddess of 
the city. He then divided the citizens into three classes, namely, 
Eupatrid(K, or nohles, Geomori, or husbandmen, and Dcniiurgi, 
or artisans. He is further said to have established a constitution- 
al government, retaining in his own hands only certain definite 
powers and privileges, so that ho was regarded in a later age as 
the founder of civil equality at Athens. He also extended the 
Attic territory to the confines of Peloponnesus, and established 
the games in honour of Poseidon (Neptune), which were cele- 
brated on the isthmus. He subsequently engaged in a variety of 
adventures in conjunction with Hercules and Pirithous, king of 
the Lapitha?. But on his return to Athens after these exploits, 
the Athenians refused to obey him any longer, whereupon he 
retired to the island of Scyros, and was there murdered through 
the treachery of king Lycomedes. 

h 4. Minos, king of Crete, whose story is connected with that 
of Theseus, appears, like him, the representative of an historical 
and civil state of life. Minos is said to have received the laws of 
Crete immediately from Jove ; and traditions uniformly represent 
him as king of the sea. Possessing a numerous fleet, he reduced 
the surrounding islands, especially the Cyclades, under his domi- 
nion, and cleared the sea of pirates. A later legend recognizes 
two heroes of the name of Minos ; one, the son of Jove and 
Europa, who after his death became a judge in the lower world, 
and the other his grandson, w^ho held the dominion of the sea. 

\ 5. If, turning from the exploits of individual heroes, we 
examine the enterprises undertaken by a collective body of 
chiefs, we shall again find three expeditions more celebrated 
than the rest. These are the Voyage of the Argonauts, the War 
of the Seven against Thebes, and the Siege of Troy. 

In the Voyage of the Argonauts the Solids play the principal 
part. Pelias, a descendant of ^olus, had deprived his half- 
brother iEson of his dominion over the kingdom of lolcus in 
Thessaly. When Jason, son of ^son, had grown up to manhood, 
he appeared before his uncle and demanded back his throne. 
Pelias consented only on condition that Jason should first fetch 
the golden fleece from ^a,=^ a region in the farthest east, ruled 
by jEetes, ofispring of the Sun-god. Here it was preserved in 
the grove of Ares (Mars), suspended upon a tree, and under the 
guardianship of a sleepless dragon. 

The Argo, a ship built for the expedition, gave its name to the 

adventurers, who, under the conduct of Jason, embarked in the 

harbour of lolcus, for the purpose of bringing back the fleece. 

^hey consisted of the most renowned heroes of the time. Her- 

* Identified by the Greeks of a later age with Colchis. 



Chap. II. THE GRECIAN HEROES. 21 

cules and Theseus are mentioned among them, as well as the 
prmcipal leaders in the Trojan war. Jason, however, is the 
central figure and the real hero of the enterprise. When he and 
his companions arrived, after many adventures, at Ma,, king 
iEetes promised to deliver to him the golden fleece, provided he 
yoked two fire-breathing oxen with brazen feet, ploughed with 
them a piece of land, sowed in the furrows thus made the remain- 
der of the teeth of the dragon slain by Cadmus, and vanquished 
the armed men that would start from the seed. Here, also, as in 
the legend of Theseus, love played a prominent part. Medea, the 
daughter of ^etes, who was skilled in magic and supernatural arts, 
furnished Jason with the means of accomplishing the labours 
imposed upon him ; and as her father still delayed to surrender 
the fleece, she cast the dragon asleep during the night, seized the 
fleece, and set sail in the Argo with her beloved Jason and his 
companions. jEetes pursued them ; but after many long and 
strange wanderings, they at length reached lolcus in safety. 

^ 6. In the Heroic age Thebes was already one of the principal 
cities of Greece. Towards the close of this period it became the 
scene of the last struggles of a fated race, whose legendary his- 
tory is so full of human crime, of the obscure warnings of the 
gods, and of the inevitable march of fate, as to render it one of 
the favourite subjects of the tragic poets of Athens, 

Laius, king of Thebes, was warned by an oracle to beget no 
children, or he would be murdered by his son. He neglected the 
prediction, but to obviate its effects caused his son Oedipus by 
Jocasta to be exposed to death. The infant, however, was saved 
and carried to Corinth, where king Polybus reared him as his 
own. Grown up to manhood, and stung by the reproaches which 
he heard cast upon his birth, (Edipus consulted the Delphic 
oracle respecting his parentage, and was warned by it not to re- 
turn to his native land, as he was there destined to slay his father 
and commit incest with his mother. Oedipus, believing Polybus 
to be his real father, now avoided Corinth and took the road to 
Thebes, but by so doing incurred the very fate which he sought 
to avoid. Meeting Laius in a narrow road he slew him in a 
quarrel, and then proceeding to Thebes obtained the hand of his 
mother, queen Jocasta, promised as a reward to the man who 
should solve a riddle propounded by the sphinx, a monster which 
had long infested the land, but which was driven to slay itself by 
the solution of its enigma. Two sons and two daughters were 
the fruit of the incestuous marriage. These horrors drew down 
a pestilence on the land, and in order to avert it, an oracle com- 
manded the banishment of the murderer of Laius. The inquiries 
instituted to discover the guilty man revealed the fatal truth. 



•22 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IL 

Jocasta hangs herself; (Edipus, unahle any longer to bear the 
light of day, puts out his eyes, and being expelled from the city 
by his two sons, Eteocles and Polynices, pronounces upon them 
a curse which speedily takes effect. In a struggle for undivided 
dominion, Polynices is driven out of Thebes by his brother, and 
repairing to Argos obtains the aid of king Adrastus to reinstate 
him in his rights. Besides that monarch and Polynices five other 
heroes join the expedition, making the confederacy known under 
the name of the " Seven against Thebes." All of them except 
Adrastus are slain, whilst Polynices and Eteocles fall by each 
other's hands. 

Ten years later the sons of the allied princes undertake another 
expedition against Thebes in order to avenge their fathers' fate, 
hence called the war of the Epigoni, or the Descendants. It 
proved successful. Thebes was taken and razed to the ground 
after the greater part of its mhabitants had left the city on the 
advice of the prophet Tiresias. 

§ 7. In mythological chronology the war of the Epigoni im- 
mediately precedes the expedition against Troy, w^hose legend 
forms the termination of the Heroic age. While it was the last, 
it was also the greatest of all the heroic achievements. It formed 
the subject of innumerable epic poems, and has been immortal- 
ised by the genius of Homer. 

Paris, son of Priam, king of Ilium or Troy, abused the hospi- 
tality of Menelaus, king of Sparta, by carrying off his wife Helen, 
the most beautiful woman of the age. All the Grecian princes 
looked upon the outrage as one committed against themselves. 
Responding to the call of Menelaus, they assemble in arms, elect 
his brother Agamemnon, king of Mycense, leader of the expedi- 
tion, and sail across the ^gean in nearly 1200 ships to recover 
the faithless fair one. Several of the confederate heroes excel 
Agamemnon in fame. Among them Achilles, chief of the Thes- 
salian Myrmidons, stands pre-eminent in strength, beauty, and 
valour, whilst Ulysses, king of Ithaca, surpasses all the rest in 
the mental qualities of counsel, subtilty, and eloquence. Thus, 
though by opposite endo^Mnents, these two heroes form the 
centre of the group. Next to them we observe the aged Nestor, 
king of Pylus, distinguished for his wisdom and experience ; 
the valiant Diomedes, king of Argos, son of Tydeus, slain at 
Thebes, and one of the Epigoni ; the Telamonian Ajax, of Sa- 
lamis, who, though somewhat heavy and unwieldy, is next to 
Achilles in person and fighting power ; and lastly, Idomeneus of 
Crete, a grandson of Minos. 

Among the Trojans, Hector, one of the sons of Priam, is most 
distinguished for lieroic qualities, and forms a striking contrast 



CuAv. 11. THE GRECIAN HEEOES. 23 

lo his handsome but efTeminate brother Paris. Next to Hector 
in valour stands ^neas, son of Anchises and Aphrodite (Venus). 
Even the gods take part in the contest, encouraging their iavourite 
heroes, and sometimes fighting by their side or in their stead. 

It is not till the tenth year of the war that Ilium yields to the 
inevitable decree of fate, and it is this year which forms the sub- 
ject of the Iliad. Achilles, ofiended by Agamemnon, abstains 
from the war, and even entreats his mother Thetis to obtain 
from Jove victory for the Trojans. In his absence the Greeks 
are no match for Hector. The Trojans- drive them back into 
their camp, and are already setting fire to their ships, when 
Achilles gives his armour to his friend Patrcclus, and allows him 
to charge at the head of the Myrmidons. Patroclus repulses the 
Trojans from the ships, but the god Apollo is against him, and 
he falls under the spear of Hector. Desire to avenge the death 
of his friend proves more powerful in the breast of Achilles than 
anger against Agamemnon. He appears again in the field in 
new and gorgeous armour, forged for him by the god Hephaestus 
(Vulcan) at the prayer of Thetis. The Trojans fly before him, 
and although Achilles is aware that his own death must speedily 
follow that of the Trojan hero, he slays him in single combat. 

^ 8. The Iliad closes with the burial of Hector. The death of 
Achilles and the capture of Troy were related in later poems, as 
well as his victories over Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and 
Memnon, king of ^Ethiopia. The hero of so many achievements 
perishes by an arrow shot by the unwarlike Paris, but directed 
by the hand of Apollo. The noblest combatants had now fallen 
on either side, and force of arms had proved unable to accom- 
plish what stratagem at length effects. It is TJlj-sses who now 
steps into the foreground and becomes the real conqueror of 
Troy. By his advice a wooden horse is built, in whose inside he 
and other heroes conceal themselves. The infatuated Trojans 
admit the horse within their walls. In the dead of night the 
Greeks rush out and open the gates to their comrades. Ilium 
is delivered over to the sword, and its glory sinks in ashes. 

§ 9. The return of the Grecian leaders from Troy forms ano- 
ther series of poetical legends. Several meet with tragical ends. 
Agamemnon is murdered, on his arrival at Mycenae, by his wife 
Olytaemnestra, and her paramour jEgisthus. Diornedes, who 
also finds his house defiled, is driven from Argos and settles in 
Italy. But of these wanderings the most celebrated and in- 
teresting ure those of Ulysses, which form the subject of the 
Odvsscy. After twenty years' absence he arrives at length in 
Ithaca, where he slays the numerous suitors who devoured his 
substance and contended fur the hand of his wile Penelope. 



24 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IL 

§ 10 It has been already stated that the Trojan war closes the 
Heroic age, and the poet Hesiod relates that the divine race of 
heroes was exhausted before the walls of Thebes and on the 
plain of Ilhum. As the Trojan war was thus supposed to mark 
an epoch in Grecian history, great pains were taken in the later 
periods of antiquity to fix its date. That of Eratosthenes, a 
grammarian at Alexandria, enjoyed most credit, which placed 
the fall of the city 407 years before the first Olympiad, and con- 
sequently in the year 1184 B.C. 

§ 11. In relating the legends of the Heroic age we have made 
no attempt to examine their origin, or to deduce from them any 
historical facts. All such attempts are in our opinion vain and 
fruitless. Whether there were real persons of the name of Her- 
cules, Theseus, and Minos can neither be affirmed nor denied. 
Our only reason lor beheving in their existence is the tradition 
of the Greeks respecting them ; and knowing how worthless is 
tradition, especially when handed down by a rude and unlettered 
people, we cannot accept the Grecian heroes as real personages 
upon such evidence. It has been supposed by many modern 
wrriters that the wonderful story of the Argonauts took its rise 
from the adventurous voyages of early Greek mariners to the 
coasts of the Euxine ; that the expeditions of the " Seven against 
Thebes" and their descendants, represented in a legendary form 
an actual contest between Argos and Thebes ; and that the Ho- 
meric tale of the Trojan war was based upon historical facts. 
But for such statements we have no authority. They are at the 
best only probable conjectures. While therefore we do not deny 
the possibility of an historical Trojan war, we cannot accept it 
as a fact supported by trustworthy evidence, since Homer is our 
sole authority for it. 

sW2. Although the Homeric poems cannot be received as a re- 
cord of historical persons and events, yet they present a valuable 
picture of the institutions and mamiers of a real state of society. 
Homer lived in an age in which antiquarian research was un- 
known ; his poems were addressed to unlettered hearers, and 
any description of life and mamiers which did not correspond to 
the state of things around them would have been unintelligible 
and uninteresting to his contemporaries. In addition to this, 
there is an. artless simplicity in his descriptions which forces 
upon every reader the conviction that the poet drew his pictures 
from real life, and not from an antiquated past or from imaginary 
ideas of his own. The description which ho gives of the govern- 
ment, manners, society, and customs of Lis age demands our 
attentive consideration, since with it our knowledge of the Greek 
people commences. 




Gate of Mycenae. 



CHAPTER IlL 



STATE OF SOCIETY OF THE HEROIC AGE. 



§ 1. Political condition of Greece — the Kings. § 2. The Boule, or Coun- 
cil of Chiefs. § 3. The Agora, or general assembly of freemen. § 4. 
The condition of common freemen and slaves. § 5. State of social 
and moral feeling. § 6. Simplicity of manners. § 7. Advances made 
in civilization. § 8. Commerce and the arts. § 9. The physical 
sciences. § 10. The art of war. 

M- In the Heroic age Greece was already divided into a num- 
ber of independent states, each governed by its ow^n king. The 
authority of the king was not limited by any laws ; his power 
resembled that of the patriarchs in the Old Testament ; and for 
the exercise of it he was responsible only to Jove, and not to 
his people. It was from the Olympian god that his ancestors 
had received the supremacy, and he transmitted it, as a divine 
inheritance, to his son. He had the sole command of his people 
in war, he administered to them justice in peace, and he offered 
up on their behalf prayers and sacrifices to the gods. He was 
the general, judge, and priest of his people. They looked up 
to him with reverence as a being of divine descent and divine 
appointment ; but at the same time he was obliged to possess 
personal superiority, both of body and mind, to keep alive this 
feeling in his subjects. It was necessary that he should be brav© 

C 



26 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. HI. 

in war, wise in counsel, and eloquent in debate. If a king be- 
came weak in body or feeble in mind, he could not easily retain 
his position ; but as long as his personal qualities commanded 
the respect of his subjects, they quietly submitted to acts of vio- 
lence and caprice. An ample domain was assigned to him for 
his support, and he received frequent presents to avert his 
enmity and gain his favor. 

Although the king was not restrained in the exercise of his 
power by any positive laws, there were, even in the Heroic age, 
two bodies which must practically have limited his authority, 
and which became in republican Greece the sole depositaries of 
political power. These were the Boule, or coimcil of chiefs, 
and the Agora, or general assembly of freemen. 

k 2. The king was surrounded by a limited number of nobles 
or chiefs, to whom the title of Basileus was given, as well as to 
the monarch himself. Like the king they traced their descent 
from the gods, and formed his Boule, or Council, to which he 
announced the resolutions he had already formed and from which 
he asked advice. The Boule possessed no veto upon the measures 
of the king, and far less could it originate any measure itself. 
This is strikingly shown by the submissive manner in which 
Nestor tenders his advice to Agamemnon, to be adopted or 
rejected, as the "king of men" might choose,^ and by the 
description which Homer frequently gives of the meetings of 
the gods in Olympus, which are evidently taken from similar 
meetings of men upon earth. In heaven, Jove, like the Homeric 
king, presides in the council of the gods and listens to their ad- 
vice, but forms his own resolutions, which he then communi- 
cates to them. 

k 3. When the king had announced his determination to the 
Council, he proceeded with his nobles to the Agoi'a. The king 
occupied the most important seat in the assembly with the 
nobles by his side,' while the people sat in a circle around them. 
The king opened the meeting by announcing his intentions, and 
the nobles were then allowed to address the people. But no 
one else had the right to speak ; no vote was taken ; the people 
simply listened to the debate between the chiefs ; and the as- 
sembly served only as a means for promulgating the intentions 
of the king. It is true that this assembly formed a germ, out 
of which the sovereignty of the people subsequently sprang ; 
but in the Heroic age the king was the only person who pos- 
sessed any political power, and Homer expresses the general 
feeling of his time in the memorable lines — ' ' The rule of many 
is not a good thing : let us have only one ruler, one king — him 
* Iliad, ix. 95-101. 



CiiAP. III. SOCIETY OF THE HEROIC AGE, 27 

to whom Jove has given the sceptre and the authority."* There 
was another important purpose for which the Agora was sum- 
moned. It was in the Agora that justice was administered by 
the king, sometimes alone and sometimes with the assistance of 
his nobles. It may be remarked in passing that this pubUc 
administration of justice must have had a powerful tendency to 
check corruption and secure righteous judgments. 

§ 4. The Greeks in the Heroic age were divided into the three 
classes of nobles, common freemen,! and slaves. $ The nobles 
wore raised far above the rest of the community in honour, 
power, and wealth. They were distinguished by their warlike 
prowess, their large estates, and their numerous slaves. The 
condition of the general mass of freemen is rarely mentioned. 
They possessed portions of land as their own property, which they 
cultivated themselves : but there was another class of poor free- 
men, called Thetes, who had no land of their own, and who worked 
for hire on the estates of others. Among the freemen we iind 
certain professional persons, whose acquirements and knowledge 
raised them above their class, and procured for them the respect 
of the nobles. Such were the seer, the bard, the herald, and like- 
wise the smith and the carpenter, since in that age a knowledge 
of the mechanical arts was confined to a few. 

Slavery was not so prevalent in the Heroic age as in republican 
Greece, and it appears in a less odious aspect. The nobles alone 
possessed slaves, and they treated them with a degree of kind- 
ness, which frequently secured for the masters their afiectionate 
attachment. 

^ 5. The state of social and moral feeling in the Heroic age 
presents both bright and dark features. Among the Greeks, 
as among every people which has just emerged from bar- 
barism, the family relations are the grand sources of lasting 
union and devoted attachment. The paternal authority was 
highly reverenced, and nothing was so much dreaded as the 
curse of an oflended father. All the members of a family or 
a clan were connected by the closest ties, and were bound to 
revenge with their united strength an injury offered to any indi- 
vidual of the race. The women were allowed greater liberty 
than they possessed in republican Greece ; and to Penelope, 
Andromache, and other women of the Heroic age there is 
an interest attaching, which we never feel in the women of 
the historical period. The wife occupied a station of great dig- 
nity and influence in the family, but was purchased by her 
husband from her parents by valuable presents, s^ a custom which 

* Iliad, ii. 203-206. + drifzo^, XaoL 

X diiC)£^. 8 Called if(5va, oi ^dva. 



28 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IIL 

prevailed among the ancient Jews and the barbarous nations of 
Grermany. In the Heroic age, as in other early stages of society, 
we find the stranger treated with generous hospitahty. The 
chief welcomes him to his house, and does not inquire his name 
nor the object of his journey till he has placed before him his 
best cheer. If the stranger comes as a suppliant, he has a still 
greater claim upon his host — although this tie may expose the 
latter to difficulty and danger, and may even bring upon him the 
hostility of a more powerful neighbour ; for Jove punishes with- 
out mercy the man who disregards the prayer of a suppliant. 

The three facts we have mentioned — the force of the family 
relations, hospitality to the stranger, and protection to the sup- 
pliant — form the bright features in the social and moral feelings 
of the age. We now turn to the darker side of the picture. 

The poems of Homer represent a state of society in which the 
protection of law is practically unknown. The chief who can 
not defend himself is plundered and maltreated by his more pow- 
erful neighbour. The occupation of a pirate is reckoned honoura- 
ble ; homicides are of frequent occurrence ; and war is conducted 
with the most ferocious cruelty. Q-uarter is rarely given ; the 
fallen foe is stripped of his armour, which becomes the spoil of 
his conqueror, avA if the naked corpse remains in the power of 
the latter, it is cast out to beasts of prey. The poet ascribes to 
his greatest heroes savage brutalities. Achilles sacrifices twelve 
human victims on the tomb of Patroclus, and drags the corpse 
of Hector around the walls of Troy, while the Greek chiefs pierce 
it with their spears. 

^6. The society of the Heroic age was marked by simplicity 
of manners. The kings and nobles did not consider it derogatory 
to their dignity to acquire skill in the manual arts. Ulysses is 
represented as building his own bed-chamber and constructing 
his own raft, and he boasts of being an excellent mower and 
ploughman. Like Esau, who made savoury meat for his father 
Isaac, the Heroic cliiefs prepared their own meals and prided 
themselves on their skill in cookery. Kings and private persons 
partook of the same food, which was of the simplest kind. Beef, 
mutton, and goat's flesh were the ordinary meats, and cheese, 
flour, and sometimes fruits, also formed part of the banquet. 
Bread was brought on in baskets, and the guests were supphed 
with wine diluted with water. Before drinking, some of the wine 
was poured on the ground as a libation to the gods, and the 
guests then pledged each other with their cups. But their en- 
tertainments were never disgraced by intemperance, like those 
of our northern ancestors. The enjoyment of the banquet was 
heightened by the song and the dance, and the chiefs took more 



Chap. IIL SOCIETY OF THE HEROIC AGK 29 

delight in the lays of the minstrel than in the exciting influence 
of the wine. 

The wives and daughters of the chiefs, in like manner, did not 
deem it beneath them to discharge various duties which were 
afterward regarded as menial. Not only do we find them con- 
stantly employed in weaving, spinning, and embroidery, but like 
the daughters of the patriarchs they fetch water from the well 
and assist their slaves in washing garments in the river. 

^ 7. Although the Heroic age is strongly marked by martial 
ferocity and simplicity of habits, it would be an error to regard 
it as one essentially rude and barbarous. On' the contrary, the 
Greeks in this early period had already made considerable ad- 
vances in civilization, and had successfully cultivated many of 
the arts which contribute to the comfort and refinement of life. 
Instead of living in scattered villages like the barbarians of Gaul 
and Germany, they were collected in fortified towns, which were 
surrounded by walls and adorned with palaces and temples. 
The houses of the nobles were magnificent and costly, glittering 
with gold, silver, and bronze, while the nobles themselves were 
clothed in elegant garments and protected by highly wrought 
armor. From the Phoenician merchants they obtained the 
finest products of the Sidonian loom, as well as tin, iron, and 
electrum. They traveled with rapidity in chariots drawn by 
high-bred steeds, and they navigated the sea with ease in fifty- 
oared galleys. Property m land was transmitted from father to 
son ; agriculture was extensively practised, and vineyards care- 
fully cultivated. It is true that Homer may have occasionally 
drawn upon his imagination in his brilliant pictures of the palaces 
of the chiefs and of their mode of living, but the main features 
must have been taken from life, and we possess even in the pres- 
ent day memorials of the Heroic age which strikingly attest its 
grandeur. The remains of MycensB and Tiryns and the emis- 
saries of the lake Copais belong to this period. The massive ruins 
of these two cities, and the sculptured lions on the gate of My- 
cenae, still excite the \Konder of the beholder.* The emissaries 
or tunnels wliich the inhabitants of Orchomenus constructed to 
carry ofi'the waters of the lake Copais in Boeotia, are even more 
striking proofs of the civilization of the age. A people who felt 
the necessity of such works, and who possessed sufficient in- 
dustry and skill to execute them, must have already made great 
advances in social life.f 

§ 8. Commerce, however, was little cultivated, and was not 

* See drawings on pp. 10, 25. 

f One of these tunnels is nearly four English miles in length, with 
numerous shafts let down into it. One shaft is about 150 feet deep. 



80 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. HI. 

much esteemed. It was deemed miore honourable for a man to 
enrich himself by robbery and piracy than by the arts of peace. 
The trade of the Mediterranean was then exclusively in the hands 
of the Phoenicians, who exchanged the commodities of the East 
for the landed produce and slaves of the Greek chiefs. Com- 
merce was carried on by barter ; for coined m.oney is not men- 
tioned in the poems of Homer, Statuary was already cultivated 
in this age, as we see from the remains of Mycense, already men- 
tioned ; and although no paintings are spoken of in Homer, yet 
his descriptions of the works of embroidery prove that his con- 
temporaries must have been acquainted with the art of design. 
Whether the Greeks were acquainted at this early period with the 
art of writing is a question that has given rise to much dispute, 
and which will demand our attention when we come to speak of 
the origin of the Homeric poems. Poetry, however, was cultivated 
with success, though yet confined to epic strains, or the narration 
of the exploits and adventures of the Heroic chiefs. The bard 
sung his own song, and was always received with welcome and 
honor in the palaces of the nobles. 

^ 9. In the state of society already described, men had not yet 
begun to study those phsenomena of nature which form the basis 
of the physical sciences. Tiiey conceived the earth to be a plane 
surface surrounded by an ever-flowing river called Oceanus, from 
which every other river and sea derived their waters. The sky 
was regarded as a solid vault supported by Atlas, who kept 
heaven and earth asunder. Their geographical knowledge was 
confined to the shores of Greece and Asia Minor and the principal 
islands of the ^gean sea. Beyond these limits all was uncer- 
tain and obscure. Italy appears to have been unknown to Homer, 
and Sicily he peoples with the fabulous Cyclops. Libya, Egypt, 
and Phoenicia were known only by vague hearsay, while the 
Euxine is not mentioned at all. 

^ 10. In the battles of the Heroic age, as depicted in the poems 
of Homer, the chiefs are the only important combatants, while 
the people are introduced as an almost useless mass, frequently 
put to rout by the prowess of a single hero. The chief is mounted 
in a war-chariot drawn by two horses, and stands by the side of 
his charioteer, who is frequently a friend. He carries into battle 
two long spears, and wears a long sword and a short dagger ; 
his person is protected by shield, helmet, breast-plate, and greaves. 
In the wars, as in the political system, of the Heroic age, the 
chiefs are every thing and the people nothing. 











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V ^""(\ ^ 


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Hercules and Bull. (From a bas-relief in the Vatican.) 



CHAPTER lY. 

RETURN OF THE HERACLlDiE INTO PELOPONNESUS, AND FOUNDATION 
OF THE EARLIEST GREEK COLONIES, 



§ 1. The mythical character of the narrative of these events. § 2. 
Migration of the Boeotians from Thessaly into Boeotia. § 3. Con- 
quest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians. § 4. The legendary account 
of this event. The invasion. § 5. The legendary account continued. 
The division of Peloponnesus among the conquerors. § 6. Remarks 
upon the legendary account. § 7. Foimdation of the Greek colonic.'^ 
in Asia Minor. § 8. The ^olic colonies. § 9. The Ionic colonies. 
§ 10. The Doric colonies. § 11. Colonization of Crete by the Dori- 
ans. §12. Conclusion of the Mythical age. 

§ 1 . At the commencement of G recian history in the first Olym- 
piad we find the greater part of Peloponnesus occupied by tribes 
of Dorian conquerors, and the western shores of Asia Minor cot- 
ered by Greek colonies. The time at which these settlements 
were made is quite uncertain. They belong to a period long 
antecedent to all historical records, and were known to the Greeks 
of a later age by tradition alone. The accounts given of them are 
evidently fabulous, but at the same time these stories are found- 
ed upon a basis of historical truth. That Peloponnesus was at 
some early period conquered by the Dorians, and that Greek 
colonies were planted in Asia, are facts which admit of no dis- 



32 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IV. 

piite ; but whether the conquest of Peloponnesus and the colo- 
nization of Asia Minor took place in the manner and at the 
time described by the ancient legends, is a very different ques- 
tion. These legends are not entitled to more credit than those 
of Hercules and Theseus, although they are proved in these 
particular cases to have been fashioned out of real events ; for, 
as we have already said, it is impossible to separate the histori- 
cal facts from the subsequent embellishments. 

§ 2. Before relating the conquest of Peloponnesus by the 
Dorians, we must say a few words respecting an earlier, though 
less celebrated migration, namely, that of the Boeotians from 
Thessaly into Bceotia. The Thessalians were a rude and unciv- 
ilized race, who originally dwelt in the district of Epirus called 
Thesprotia, from which they migrated into the country named 
after them, Thessaly. These Thessalian conquerors either sub- 
dued or expelled the original inhabitants of the country. The 
BoBotians, who inhabited the fertile district of iEohs, in the 
centre of Thessaly, wandered southwards mto the country called 
after them Boeotia, where they drove out in their turn the ancient 
inhabitants of the land. According to mythical chronology this 
event happened in 1124 B.C., or sixty years after the fall of Troy. 

^ 3. The conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians is said to 
have taken place twenty years after the expulsion of the Bobo- 
tians from Thessaly, and was accordingly placed in 1104 B.C. 
We have already seen that these dates are of no historical value ; 
and the Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus probably took place 
after the time of Homer, since neither in the Iliad nor in the 
Odyssey do we find any traces of Dorians in Peloponnesus. The 
Dorians were a warhke tribe in northern Greece, who had fre- 
quently changed their homes, and who at length settled in a 
mountainous district between Thessaly, Locris, and Phocis. 
They now appear for the first time in Grecian history. They 
had no share in the glories of the Heroic age ; their name does 
not occur in the Iliad, and they are only once mentioned in 
the Odyssey as a small portion of the many tribes of Crete : 
but they were destined to form in historical times one of the 
most important elements of the Greek nation. Issuing from 
their mountain-fastnesses, they overran the greater part of 
Peloponnesus, destroyed the ancient Achaean monarchies, and 
expelled or reduced to subjection the original inhabitants of the 
land, of which they became the undisputed masters. This brief 
statement contains all that we knoAV for certain respecting this 
celebrated event. "We now proceed to give the mythical account. 

^ 4. The Dorians were led to the conquest of Peloponnesus 
by the Hcraclidse, or descendants of the mighty hero Hercules. 



Chap. IV. RETURN OF THE HERACLID^. 33 

Hence this migration is called the Return of the Heraclidae. 
The children of Hercules had long been fugitives upon the earth. 
They had made many attempts to regain possession of the do- 
minions in the Peloponnesus, of which their great sire had been 
deprived by Eurystheus, but hitherto without success. In their 
last attempt Hyllus, the son of Hercules, had perished in single 
combat with Echemus of Tegea ; and the HeraclidaB had become 
bound by a solemn compact to renounce their enterprise for a 
hundred years. This period had now expired ; and the great- 
grandsons of Hyllus — Temenus, Cresphontes, and Aristodemus — 
resolved to make a fresh attempt to recover their birthright. 
They were assisted in the enterprise by the Dorians. This people 
espoused their cause in consequence of the aid which Hercules 
himself had rendered to the Dorian king, ^Egimius, when the 
latter was hard pressed in a contest with the Lapithse. The 
invaders were warned by an oracle not to enter Peloponnesus by 
the Isthmus of Corinth, but across the mouth of the Corinthian 
gulf The inhabitants of the northern coast of the gulf were 
favourable to their enterprise. Oxylus, king of the ^tolians, 
became their guide ; and the Ozolian Locrians granted them a 
port for building their fleet, from which memorable circumstance 
the harbour was soon afterwards called Naupactus.^ Here Aris- 
todemus was struck with lightning and died, leaving twin sons, 
Eurysthenes and Procles ; but his remaining brothers crossed over 
the gulf in safety, landed in Achaia, and marched against Tisa- 
menus, son of Orestes, then the most powerful monarch in Pelo- 
ponnesus. A single battle decided the contest. Tisamenus was 
defeated, and retired with a portion of his Achaean subjects to 
the northern coast of Peloponnesus, then occupied by the lonians. 
He expelled the lonians, and took possession of the country, 
which continued henceforth to be inhabited by the Achaeans, 
and to be called after them. The lonians withdrew to Attica, 
and the greater part of them afterwards emigrated to Asia Minor. 

^ 5. The Heraclidce and the Dorians now divided between them 
the dominions of Tisamenus and of the other Achaean princes. 
The kingdom of Elis was given to Oxylus as a recompense for 
his services as their guide ; and it was agreed that Temenus, 
Cresphontes, and the infant sons of Aristodemus should draw 
lots for Argos, Sparta, and Messenia. Argos fell to Temenus, 
Sparta to the sons of Aristodemus, and Messenia to Cresphontes. 

The settlement of the conquerors in their new territories is 

said to have been made with scarcely any opposiiion. The 

Epeans, who inhabited EHs, submitted to Oxylus and his iEto- 

* From vavc, " a ship," and the root Tray, wliicli occurs \n ir^yvvfiL, 

"fasten," " build." 



84 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IV. 

lians after their king had been killed in single combat by one of 
the jEtolian chiefs. From this time the Epeans disappear from 
history, and their place is supplied by the Eleans, who are re- 
presented as descendants of the ^Etohan conquerors. 

The share of Temenus originally comprehended only Argos 
and its immediate neighbourhood ; but his sons and sons-in-law 
successively occupied Troezen, Epidaurus, ^gina, Sicyon, and 
Phlius, wliich thus became Doric states. 

The sons of Aristodemus obtained possession of Sparta by 
the treason of an Achaean named Philonomus, who received as 
a recompense the neighbouring town and territory of Amy else. 
The towns cire said to have submitted without resistance, with 
the exceptioii of Helos, the inhabitants of wliich were, as a 
punishment, reduced to slavery, thus giving rise to the class of 
slaves or serfs called Helots, 

Messenia yielded to Cresphontes without a struggle. Me- 
lanthus, who ruled over the country as the representative of the 
race of the Pylian Nestor, withdrew to Attica with a portion of 
his subjects. 

Corinth was not conquered by the Dorians till the next gen- 
eration. One of the descendants of Hercules, named Hippotes, 
had put to death the seer Camus, when the Heraclida? were on 
the point of embarking at Naupactus. He had in consequence 
been banished for ten years, and was not allowed to take part 
in the enterprise. His son Aletes, who derived his name from 
his long wanderings, subsequently attacked Corinth at the head 
of a body of Dorians. The mighty dynasty of the Sisyphids 
was expelled, and many of the iEoUan inhabitants emigrated 
to foreign lands. 

~ § 6. Such are the main features of the legend of the Return cf 
the Heraclidse. In order to make the story more striking and im- 
pressive, it compresses into a single epoch events which probably 
occupied several generations. It is in itself improbable that the 
brave AchaBans quietly submitted to the Dorian invaders after a 
momentary struggle. We have, moreover, many indications that 
such was not the fact, and that it was only gradually and after 
a long protracted contest that the Dorians became undisputed 
masters of the greater part of Peloponnesus. The imagination 
loves to assign to one cause the results of numerous and different 
actions. Thus in our own history we used to read that the con- 
quest of England by the Normans was completed by the battle 
of Hastings, in which Harold fell, whereas we now know that 
the Saxons long continued to offer a formidable resistance to the 
Noi-man invaders, and that the latter did not become undisputed 
masters of the country for two or three generations. 



Chap. IV. COLONIES IN ASIA MINOR. 35 

That portion of the tradition which makes the Dorians con- 
ducted into Peloponnesus by princes of Achaean blood, may 
safely be rejected, notwithstanding the general belief of the fact 
in ancient times. The Dorians, as we have already seen, were 
poor in mythical renown ; and it would appear that the royal 
family at Sparta, though of Dorian origin, claimed Hercules as 
their founder in order to connect themselves with the ancient 
glories of the Achaean race. They thus became the representa- 
tives of Agamemnon and Orestes ; and in the Persian war the 
Spartans on one occasion laid claim to the supreme command of 
the Grecian forces in consequence of this connexion. We cannot 
err in supposing the story to be a fabrication of later times, 
seeing that there are such obvious reasons for its forger}-, and 
such inherent improbability in its truth. 

^7. The foundation of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor is 
closely connected in the legends with the conquest of Pelopon- 
nesus by the Dorians. There is nothing improbable in the 
statement, that the original inhabitants, who had been dislodged 
by the invaders, sought new homes on the coasts of Asia Minor ; 
but in this case, as in the conquest of Peloponnesus, many 
separate occunences are unquestionably grouped into one. The 
stream of migration probably continued to flow across the ^gean 
from Greece to Asia Minor for several generations. New adven- 
turers constantly joined the colonists who were already settled 
in the country, and thus in course of time the various Greek 
cities were founded, which were spread over the western coast 
of Asia Minor, from the Propontis on the north to Lycia on the 
south. These cities w^ere divided among the three great races of 
Cohans, lonians, and Dorians, — the -Slolians occupying the 
northern portion of the coast, together with the islands of Lesbos 
and Tenedos, the lonians the central part, with the islands of 
Chios, Samos, and the Cyclades, and the Dorians the south- 
western corner, with the islands of Rhodes and Cos. 

^ 8. The tEoHc colonies are said to have been the earliest. 
Achseans, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus by the 
Dorians, were led by their native princes, the descendants of 
Orestes, to seek new homes in the East. In Boeotia they were 
joined by a part both of the original inhabitants of the country 
and of their Boeotian conquerors. From the latter, who were 
JEolians, the migration is called the jEolic, but sometimes 
also the Boeotian. The united body of emigrants, however, still 
continued under the command of the Achaean princes. They 
embarked at the port of Aulis, from which Agamemnon had 
sailed against Troy. They first occupied Lesbos, where they 
founded six cities ; and a detachment of them settled on the 



S6 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IV. 

opposite coast of Asia Minor, from the foot of Mount Ida to the 
mouth of the river Hermus. Smyrna was originally an tEoUc city, 
but it afterwards passed into the hands of the lonians. In the 
historical times there were eleven ^olic cities on the mainland, 
but of these Cyme was the only one which rose to importance, *= 

^ 9. The Ionic migration was more important than the pre- 
ceding one, and gave rise to some of the most flourishing cities 
in the Hellenic world. It derived its name from the lonians, 
who had been expelled by the Achaeans from their homes on the 
Corinthian gulf, and had taken refuge in Attica. The lonians, 
however, appear to have formed only a small part of the emi- 
grants. Inhabitants from many other parts of Greece, who had 
been driven out of their native countries, had also fled to Attica, 
which is said to have afforded protection and welcome to all 
these fugitives. The small territory of Attica could not per- 
manently support this increase of population ; and accordingly 
these strangers resolved to follow the example of the ^Eolians 
and seek new settlements in the East, They were led by princes 
of the family of Codrus, the last king of Attica, In their pas- 
sage across the JEgean sea they colonized most of the Cyclades; 
and in Asia Minor they took possession of the fertile country 
from the Hermus to the Mseander, which was henceforth called 
Ionia, and also of the neighbouring islands of Chios and Samos. 
In this district we find twelve independent states in later times, 
all of which adopted the Ionic name, notwithstanding the diver- 
sity of their origin, and were united by the common worship of 
the god Poseidon (Neptune) at the great Pan-Ionic festival,! 
There can be no doubt that these cities were really founded 
at different periods and by different emigrants, although their 
origin is ascribed to the great legendary migration of which we 
have been speaking, and which is referred by chronologists to 
one special year, 140 years after the Trojan war. 

MO, The Doric colonies in the south-western corner of Asia 
Minor and in the neighbouring islands may be traced in hke 
manner to the conquest of Pelopomiesus by the Dorians. In the 
general change of population and consequent emigrations caused 
by this important event, some of the Doric chiefs were also in- 
duced to quit the country they had recently subdued, and to 
lead bodies of their own countrymen and of the conquered 

* The names of the eleven ^olic cities were — Cyme, Temnos, Larissa, 
Neon-Tichos, ^gse, Myrina, Grynlum, Cilia, ]S"otium, ^giroessa, Pitane. 

f The names of the twelve Ionic cities, enumerated from south to 
north, were Miletus, Myus, Priene, Samos, EphSsus, Colophon, Lebedus, 
Teos, Erythrse, Chios, Ciazomense, Phocaea. To these twelve Smyrna 
was afterwards added. 



Chap. IY. 



COLONIES IN ASIA MINOR. 



37 



Achseans to Asia. The most celebrated of the Doric migrations 
was that conducted by the Argive Altha^menes, a descendant 
of Temenus, who, after leaving some of his followers at Crete, 
proceeded with the remainder to the island of Rhodes, where he 
founded the three cities of Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus. About 
the same time Dorians settled in the neighbouring island of Cos, 
and founded the cities of Halicarnassus and Cnidus on the main- 
land. These six colonies formed a confederation, usually called 
the Doric Hexapolis. 




Map of the chief Greek Colonies in Asia Minor. 



38 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IV. 

^11. Doric colonies were also founded in mythical times in 
the islands of Crete, Melos, and Thera. The colonization of 
Crete more particularly deserves our attention, on account of the 
similarity of the institutions of its Doric cities to those of Spaita. 
There were Dorians in Crete in the time of the Odyssey, hut 
their chief migrations to this island took place in the third gene- 
ration after their conquest of Peloponnesus. Of these two are 
expressly mentioned, one conducted under the auspices of Sparta, 
and the other hy the Argive Althsemenes. Of the latter we have 
already spoken ; the former consisted chiefly of Minyans, who 
had been settled at Amy else ty the Achaean Philonomus, to whom 
the Spartans had granted this city on account of his treachery, 
as has been already related. These Minyans having revolted 
against Sparta, were sent out of the country as emigrants, but 
accompanied by many Spartans. They sailed towards Crete, and 
in their passage settled some of their number in the island of 
Melos, which remained faithful to Lacedsemon even in the time 
of the Peloponnesian war. In Crete they founded Gortyn and 
Lyctus, which are mentioned as Spartan colonies. The Doric 
colonists in Crete were anxious to comiect themselves with the 
mythical glories of Minos, and consequently ascribed their j)olitical 
and social mstitutions to this celebrated hero. Hence the tra- 
dition arose that the Spartan institutions were boiTowed by 
Lycurgus from those of Crete ; but it seems more probable that 
their similarity was owing to their common origm, and that the 
Dorians of Crete brought from the mother-country usages which 
they sought to hallow by the revered name of Minos. 

^ 12. The Return of the Heraclidse and the foundation of the 
above-mentioned colonies form the conclusion of the Mythical 
Age. From this time to the commencement of authentic history 
in the first Olympiad, there is a period of nearly three hundred 
years, according to the common chronology. Of this long period 
we have scarcely any record. But this ought not to excite our 
surprise. The subjects of mythical narrative are drawn, not 
from recent events, but from an imaginary past, which is sup- 
posed to be separated from the present by an indefinite number 
of years. Originally no attempt was made to assign any par- 
ticular date to the gi-and events of the Mythical Age. It was 
sufficient for the earlier Greeks to believe that their gods and 
heroes were removed from them by a vast number of generations ; 
and it was not till a later time that the literar}'- men of Greece 
endeavoured to count backwards to the Mythical Age, and to 
affix dates to the chief events in legendary Greece. 




QIKOYMENH XPQNQSIAIAZOAYZZEIAQMMPOS MYeOI 
Homer enthroned. 

CHAPTER V. 



THE rOEMS OF HOMER. 

§ 1. Importance of the subject. § 2. Rise of poetry in Greece. Epio 
ballads preparatory to the Epopee. § 3. The poems of the Epic Cycle, 
in which the Iliad and the Odyssey were included. § 4. Diversity of 
opinions respecting the life and date of Homer. § 5. Iliad and Odyssey 
recited to public companies by the Rhapsodists. § 6. A standard text of 
the poems first formed by Pisisti*atus. § 7. Modem controversy respect- 
ing the origin of the Homeric poems. Prolegomena of Wolf. § 8. The 
Iliad and the Odj'ssey were originally not committed to writing. 
§ 9. They were preserved by the Rhapsodists. § 10. They did not 
consist originally of separate lays, but were composed by one poet, 
as is shown by their poetical unity. 

^ 1. No history of Greece would be complete without some 
account of the poems of Homer, and of the celebrated contro- 
versy to which they have given rise in modern times. Homer 
was called by the Greeks themselves The Poet. The IHad and 
the Odyssey were the Greek Bible. They were the ultimate 
standard of appeal on all matters of religious doctrine and early 



40 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. V. 

history. They were learnt by boys at school, they were the 
study of men in their riper years, and even in the time of 
Socrates there were Athenian gentlemen who could repeat both 
poems by heart. In whatever part of the ancient world a Greek 
settled, he carried with him a love for the great poet ; and long 
after the Greek people had lost their independence the Iliad and 
the Odyssey continued to maintain an undiminished hold upon 
their affections. No production of profane literature has exer- 
cised so wide and long continued an influence, and consequently 
the history of these poems demands and deserves our careful 
attention. 

^ 2. The origin of the Iliad and the Odyssey cannot be under- 
stood without a short account of the rise of poetry in Greece. 
Among the Greeks, as among all other nations, poetry was cul- 
tivated before prose. The first poetical compositions appear 
to have been hymns addressed to the gods, or simple ballads 
recounting the adventures and exploits of some favourite hero. 
We have already seen that the Greeks of the Heroic age were 
passionately fond of poetry, and that the entertainments of the 
nobles were enlivened by the songs of the bard. Originally 
these songs appear to have been short unconnected lays. They 
may be regarded as epic poems in the more indefinite sense 
of the term, since they perpetuated and adorned the memory 
of great men or great deeds. The next important step in the 
progress of popular poetry was to combine these separate epi- 
cal songs into one comprehensive whole. Such a poem may 
be called an Epopee, and presents a much more advanced state 
of the art. It requires genius of a far higher order, a power of 
combination and construction, not needed in poems of the former 
class. Short epical poems appear to have existed before the 
time of Homer, as we may infer from, the Lay of the Trojan 
Horse, sung by the bard Demodocus in the Odyssey ; but the 
construction of the epopee, or the epic poem in the nobler 
sense, is probably to be attributed to the genius of Homer. 

^ 3. There was a large number of these epic poems extant in 
antiquity. We know the titles of more than thirty of them. 
Their subjects were all taken from the Greek legends. They 
were arranged by the grammarians of Alexandria, about the 
second century before the Christian era, in a chronological series, 
beginning with the intermarriage of Heaven and Earth, and con- 
cluding Avith the death of Ulysses by the hands of his son Telc- 
gonus. This collection was known by the name of the Epic Cycle, 
and the poets whose works formed part of it were called Cychc 
poets. The IHad and the Odyssey were comprised in the Cycle, 
and consequently the name of Cyclic poet did not originally 



Chap. V. POEMS OF HOMER. 41 

carry with it any association of contempt. But as the best 
poems in the Cycle were spoken of by themselves or by the 
titles of their separate authors, the general name of Cyclic poets 
came to be applied only to the worst, especially as many of the 
inferior poems in the Cycle appear to have been anonymous. 
Hence we can understand why Horace* and others speak in 
such disparaging terms of the Cyclic writers, and how the infe- 
riority of the Cyclic poems is contrasted with the excellence of 
the Iliad and the Odyssey, although the latter had been originally 
included among them. 

s^ 4. All these poems are now lost with the exception of the 
Iliad and the Odyssey, which stood out prominently above all 
the others. Tlii'oughout the flourishing period of Greek litera- 
ture these unrivalled works were universally regarded as the pro- 
ductions of a single mind. At a later time some of the Alex- 
andrine grammarians attributed the Iliad and the Odyssey to 
two different authors, but this innovation in the popular belief 
was never regarded with much favour, and obtained few converts.! 
Although antiquity was nearly unanimous in ascribing the Iliad 
and Odyssey to Homer, there was very little agreement respect- 
ing the place of his birth, the details of his life, or the time 
in which he lived. Nor is this surprising. His poems were 
the productions of an age in which writing was either totally 
unknown or at all events Uttle practised, and which was un- 
accustomed to anything like historical investigation. Seven 
cities laid claim to his birth, $ and most of them had legends to 
tell respecting his romantic parentage, his alleged blindness, and 
his life of an itinerant bard acquainted with poverty and sorrow. 
It cannot be disputed that he was an Asiatic Greek ; but this 
is the only fact in his life which can be regarded as certain. 
Several of the best writers of antiquity supposed him to hav^ 
been a native of the island of Chios, where there existed a 
poetical gens or fraternity of Homerids, who traced their descent 
from a divine progenitor of this name. Most modern scholars 
believe Smyrna to have been his birth-place. The discrepancies 
respecting his date are no less worthy of remark. The different 
epochs assigned to him offer a diversity of nearly 500 years. 
Herodotus places Homer 400 years before himself, according to 

* "Xec sic incipies, ut scriptor cyclicus olim." — Hor. Ars Poet. 
137. 

f The grammarians, who maintained the separate origin of the 
Iliad and Odyssey, were called Chorizontes (;^;(jptfovref) or Separa- 
tists. 

\ Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodos, Argos, Athenai, 
Orbis de patria certat, Ilomere, tua. 



■ 42 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. V. 

which he would have Hved about B.C. 850. This date, or a Uttle 
later, Spears more probable than any other. He must be placed 
before the first Olympiad, or b.c. 776 ; while if we suppose him 
to have lived very long before that epoch, it becomes still more 
wonderful that his poems should have come down from such an 
age and society to historical times. 

^ 5. The mode in which these poems were preserved has occa- 
sioned great controversy in modern times. On this point we 
shall speak presently ; but even if they were committed to 
writing by the poet himself, and were handed down to posterity 
in this manner, it is certain that they were rarely read. We 
must endeavor to realize the difference between ancient Greece 
and our own times. During the most flourishing period of 
Athenian literature manuscripts were indifierently written, with- 
out division into parts and without marks of punctuation. They 
were scarce and costly, could only be obtained by the wealthy, 
and only read by those who had had considerable literary train- 
ing. Under these circumstances the Greeks could never become 
a reading people ; and thus the great mass even of the Athenians 
became acquainted with ths productions of the leading poets of 
Greece only by hearing them recited at their solemn festivals and 
on other public occasions. This was more' strikingly the case at 
an earlier period. The Iliad and the Odyssey were not read 
by individuals in private, but were sung or recited at festivals 
or to assembled companies. They were addressed to the ear 
and feelings of a sympathizing multitude ; and much of the 
impression which they produced must have been owing to the 
talent of the reciter, and would have disappeared altogether in 
solitary reading. The bard originally sung his own lays to the 
accompaniment of his lyre. He was succeeded by a body of pro- 
fessional reciters, called Rhapsodists,* who rehearsed the poems 
of others. They employed no musical accompaniment, and de- 
pended solely for effect upon voice and manner. They travelled 
from town to town, bearing in their hands a laurel branch or 
wand as their badge of ofhce ; and many of them seem to have 
acquired great excellence in their art. We do not know at what 
time the rhapsodist succeeded to the bard ; but the class cf pro- 
fessional reciters must have arisen as epic poetry ceased to be 
produced ; and it is certain that before the time of Solon the 
epic poems were recited exclusively by the Rhapsodists, either 

* Theetymologyof the -word Rliapsodist(/5ai/;w(56f) is uncertain; some 
deriving it from the staff or wand of office {^uj36oc, or ^anig), and others 
from ^uTTTEiv (loidr/v to denote the coupling together of verses without 
any considera])le pauses, — the even, unbroken flow of the epic poem as 
contrasted with lyric verses. 



Chap. V. POEMS OF HOMER. 43 

in short fragments before private companies, or as continuous 
poems at public festivals. 

^6. In early times the Rhapsodists appear to have had ex- 
clusive possession of the Homeric poems. But in the seventh 
century before the Christian era literary culture began to prevail 
among the Greeks ; and men of education and wealth were 
naturally desirous of obtaining copies of the great poet of the 
nation. From this cause copies came to be circulated among 
the Greeks ; but most of them contained only separate portions 
of the poems, or single rhapsodies, as they were called. Entire 
copies of such extensive works must have been very rare at this 
early period of literature. The way in which the separate parts 
should be arranged seems to have given rise to some dispute ; 
and it was found that there were numerous variations in the 
text of different copies. The very popularity and wide exten- 
sion of the poems contributed to the corruption of the text. Since 
the Iliad and the Odyssey were the recognized standard of early 
history and mythology, each tribe was anxious that honourable 
mention should be made of their heroes and their race in these 
poems, and endeavoured to supply such omissions by interpo- 
lating passages favourable to themselves. The Rhapsodists also 
introduced alterations, and in order to gratify their vanity in- 
serted lines of their own composition. From these causes, as 
well as from others, we can easily account for the variations 
found in the text by the reading class which began to be formed 
in the seventh century. The discovery of these varieties na' 
turally led to measures for establishing a standard text of the 
national poet. Solon is said to have introduced improved regu- 
lations for the public recitations of the poems at the Athenian 
festivals ; but it is to Pisistratus, the tyrant or despot of Athens, 
that the great merit is ascribed of collecting and arranging the 
poem.s in their present form, in order that they might be recited 
at the great Panathenaic festival at Athens. It is expressly 
stated by Cicero* that Pisistratus is "reputed to have arranged 
the books of Homer, previously in a state of confusion, in the 
form in which we now possess them ;" and this statement is 
supported by the testimony of other ancient writers. From this 
time therefore (about b.c. 530) we may conclude that the Greeks 
possessed a standard text of their great poet, which formed the 
basis of all subsequent editions. 

^ 7. We have already seen that the whole of antiquity, with 
scarcely an exception, regarded the Iliad and the Odyssey as the 
productions of the one poet, called Homer. This opinion con- 
tinued to be held by almost all modern scholars down to tho 
* De Oratore, iii. 34. 



44 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. V. 

year 1795, when the celebrated German Professor, F. A. Wolfj 
published his Prolegomena, or Prefatory Essay to the Iliad. In 
this work he maintained the startling hypothesis that neither 
the Ihad nor the Odyssey was composed as a distinct whole, but 
that they originally consisted of separate epical ballads, each con- 
stituting, a single poem, and that these separate lays, which had 
no common purpose nor fixed arrangement, were for the first 
time reduced to writing and formed into the two great poems of 
the Iliad and the Odyssey by Pisistratus and his friends. Strange 
and startling as this theory seems, it was not entirely new. The 
substance of it had been already propounded by Vico, a Neapo- 
litan writer of great originality, and by our own great country- 
man Bentley ;* but their opinions had not been supported by 
arguments, and were soon forgotten. Accordingly the publi- 
cation of Wolf's Essay took the whole literary world by sur- 
prise, and scarcely any book in modern times has efiected so 
complete a revolution in the opinions of scholars Even those 
who were the most opposed to his views have had their own 
opinions to some extent modified by the arguments which he 
brought forward, and no one has been able to establish the 
old doctrine in its original integrity. It is impossible in the 
present work to enter into the details of the controversy to 
which Wolf's Essay has given rise. We can only endeavour to 
give a sketch of his principal arguments and of the chief objec- 
tions of his opponents, stating at the same time the opinion which 
seems to us the most probable. 

k 8. The first argument which Wolf brought forward to sup- 
port his position was, that no written copies of the Iliad and 
the Odyssey could be shown to have existed during the earlier 
times to which their composition is referred, and that without 
writing such long and complicated works could neither have been 
composed nor transmitted to posterity. In order to prove this 
he entered into a minute discussion concernuig the age of the 
art of writing. It is sufficient to state here a few of the more 
important results at which he arrived. In early times the Greeks 
had no easy and convenient materials for writing, such as must 
have been indispensable for long manuscripts hke the Iliad and 
the Odyssey. Moreover the traces of writing in Greece are ex- 
ceedingly rare, even in the seventh century before the Christian 
era, and we have no remaining inscriptions earlier than the 40th 

* Vico died in 1744. The words of Bentley are: "Homer wrote a 
sequel of songs and rhapsodies, to be sung by himself, for small earnings 
and good cheer, at festivals and other days of merriment ; the Iliad he 
made for the men, the Odyssies for the other sex. These loose songs wero 
not collected together into the form of an epic poem until 500 years after." 



CIL^p. V POEMS OF HOMER. 45 

Olympiad (b.c. 620). In the Homeric poems themselves there is 
not a single trace of the art of writing.^ We find no mention of 
any epitaph or inscription ; coins are unknown, and even the 
supercargo of a ship has no written list of his cargo, hut is ohhgcd 
to remember it.f In addition to this the absence of the letter 
called Digamma in the text of the poems is a strong proof that 
they were not originally committed to writing. This letter ex- 
isted at the time of the composition of the poems, and was con- 
stantly employed by the poet, but it had entirely vanished from 
the language when they were first WTitten. 

§ 9. It seems therefore necessary to admit the former part oi 
Wolf's first argument, that the Ihad and Odyssey were original- 
ly not written ; but does it therefore follow that without this 
means such long poems could neither have been composed noi 
handed down to posterity ? These two questions are not neces- 
sarily connected, though they have been usually discussed to- 
gether. Those who have maintained the original unity of the 
Ihad and Odyssey in opposition to Wolf have generally thought 
it incumbent upon them to prove that the poems were written 
from the begiiming. But this appears to us quite unnecessary. 
In the present day the memory has become so much weakened 
by the artificial aid of writing that it may be difficult for us to 
conceive of the production of a long work without such assistance. 
But there is nothing impossible in it. Even modern poets have 
composed long poems and have preserv^ed them, faithfully in their 
memories before conmiitting them to WTiting. It must also be 
recollected that poetry was the profession of the ancient bards ; 
that it was not the amusement of their leisure hours, but that they 
devoted to it all the energies of their hearts and souls. The poems 
which they thus composed Avere treasured up in the memories 
of their faithful disciples, and were handed down to posterity by 
ihe Rhapsodists, whose lives were also devoted to this object. 
The recollection of these poems was rendered easier by the sim- 
ple nature of the story, by the easy structure of the verse, by the 
frequent recurrence of the same words, phrases, and similes, and 
by the absence of abstract ideas and reflective thoughts. Accord- 
ingly we believe that the Iliad and the Odyssey might have been 
composed and might have been handed down to posterity with- 
out being written. 

§ 10. The second argument employed by Wolf to maintain his 
hypothesis was derived from an examination of the Iliad and 

* The only passage in which letters are supposed to be mentioned is 
in the Iliad, vi. 108. but here the CTJ/iara ?.vypd are supposed by Wolf 
and others to signify pietorial and not alphabetical characters, 

•)■ lie is (pogrov fivr/ficjv. Odyss. viii. !64. 



46 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. Y. 

Odyssey themselves. He endeavoured to show that the only 
unity of the poems arises from their subjects, and that the nu- 
merous contradictions found in them plainly prove that they 
could not have been the productions of a single mind. The 
Trojan war and the wanderings of Ulysses, he remarks, had 
formed the subjects of numerous epic ballads, and it was only 
because they had happened to fit into one another that they were 
combined into two comprehensive poems by Pisistratus and his 
literary friends. A modern disciple of his school has gone so far 
as to attempt to resolve the Iliad into the original independent 
lays out of which he supposes the poem to have been formed. 
Now it is evident that this question can only be settled by a 
minute examination of the structure of the poems, for which 
there is no space in the present work. We can only state that 
the best modem scholars, with very few exceptions, have come 
to a conclusion directly contrary to Wolf's daring theory. Some 
of the ablest critics in modern times have directed their attention 
to this subject, and while they have not denied the existence of 
interpolations, more or less extensive, in both poems, the general 
result has been to establish their poetical unity, and to vindicate 
their claim to be the greatest models of the epic art. 




Bust cf Hcmer. 




Primitive Vessels from Athens and Argos. 

BOOK IT. 

GROWTH OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 

B.C. 776—500. 



CHAPTER VI. 



GENERAL SURVTSY OF THE GREEK PEOPLE. 

§ 1. Nature of the subject. §2. The chief ties which bound the Greeks 
together. Commimity of blood and of language. §.3. Community of 
religious rites and festivals. §4. The Amphictyonie Council. § 5. The 
Olympic games. § 6. The Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games. 
§ 7. The influence of these festivals. § 8. Influence of the oracle of 
Apollo at Delphi. §9. Community of manners and character. §10. 
The independent sovereignty of eaca city a settled maxim in the Greek 
mind. 

i 1. The present Book will contain the History of Greece from 
the first Olympiad, or the year 776 B.C., to the commencement of 
the revolt of the Ionic Greeks from Persia, in the year 500 e.g. 
Our knowledge of the early part of this period is very scanty, 
and consists of only a small number of solitary facts, which have 
little or no connexion with one another. The division of Greece 
into a number of small independent states is a circumstance 



48 HISTORY OF GREECE^ Chap. YL 

that causes great difficulties to the historian. UnHke the histoiy 
of Rome, which is confined to an account of the origin and de- 
velopment of a single people, the history of Greece from its 
commencement to its close suffers to a greater or a less extent 
from a want of unity in its subject. This is strikingly the case 
with the first two centuries of the period narrated in the present 
Book ; and it is not till we come to its close that we are able to 
present a connected history of the Grecian nation. It was the 
Persian invasions of Greece which first impressed the leading 
Greek states with the necessity of uniting together against the 
common foe ; and since the militaiy resources of Sparta were 
then confessedly superior to these of all the other Greeks, they 
naturally intrusted to her the conduct of the war. In this way 
Grecian history acquires a unity of interest which is altogether 
wanting in the earlier times. There are, however, some facts 
during the earher period which claim our attention. Of these 
the most important are the growth of Sparta and Athens ; the 
number of despots who arose in the various Grecian cities ; the 
foundation and progress of the numerous colonies planted on the 
coasts of the Mediterranean and its connected seas ; and, last of 
all, the origin and progress of literature and art. 

Before Ave proceed to give an account of these events, it may 
be useful to take a general survey of the Greeks in the earlier 
period of their histor}', and to point out the various causes which 
united them as a people, notwithstanding their separation into 
so many independent communities. 

^ 2. The chief ties, which bound together the Grecian world, 
were community of blood and language — community of re- 
ligious rites and festivals — and community of manners and cha- 
racter. Of these the first and the most important was the 
possession of a common descent and a common language. The 
Greeks were all of the same race and parentage ; they all con- 
sidered themselves descendants of Hellen ; and they all described 
men and cities which were not Grecian by the term Barbarian. 
This word has passed mto our own language, but with a very 
different idea ; for the Greeks applied it indiscriminately to 
every foreigner, to the civiHzed inhabitants of Egj^pt and Persia, 
as well as to the rude tribes of Scythia and Gaul. Originally it 
seems to have expressed repugnance to one using a foreign lan- 
guage ; but as the Greeks became in course of time superior 
ill intelligence to the surrounding nations, it conveyed also 
a notion of contempt. Notwithstanding the various dialects 
employed in different parts, there was, throughout the Grecian 
world, sufficient uniformity in the language to render it cvery- 
v/here intelligible to a Greek ; and there can bo no doubt that 



CiiAP.VL AMPIIICTYONIC COUNCIL. 49 

the wide-spread popularity of the Homeric poems in early times 
powerfully assisted in maintaining the same type of language 
among the diflerent Greek races. 

§ 3 . The second bond of union was a community of religious 
rites and festivals. From the earliest times the Greeks appear 
to have worshipped the same gods ; but originally there were no 
religious meetings common to the whole nation. Such meetings 
were of gradual growth. They were either formed by a number 
of neighbouring towns, which entered into an association for the 
periodical celebration of certain religious rites, or they grew 
out of a festival originally confined to a single state, but which 
was gradually extended to the inhabitants of other cities till at 
bngth it became open to the whole Grecian world. Of the former 
class we have an example in the Amphictyonies, of the latter ia 
the Olympic, Pythian, Ncmean, and Isthmian games. 

^ 4. The word Amjjhictyony is usually derived from the mythic- 
al hero Amphictyon ; but the name probably signifies only resi- 
dents around and neighbors,'"' and was used to designate a relig- 
ious association of neighbouring tribes or cities, who were accus- 
tomed to meet at fixed times to ofler sacrifices to the god of a 
particular temple, which was supposed to be the common property 
and under the common protection of all. There were many re- 
ligious associations of this kind in Greece ; but there was one of 
so much celebrity, that it threw all the others into the shade, 
and came to be called the Amphictyonic Council. This assem- 
bly seems to have been originally of small importance ; and it 
acquired its superiority over other similar associations by the 
wealth and grandeur of the Delphian temple, of which it was the 
appointed guardian. It held two meetings every year, one in the 
spring at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, and the other in the 
autumn at the temple of Demeter (Ceres) at Thermopylae. Its 
members, who were called the Amphictyons,t consisted of sacred 
deputies sent from twelve tribes, each of which contained several 
independent cities or states. The deputies were composed of 
two classes of representatives from each tribe ; a chief called 
Hieromnemon, and subordinates named Pylagorae. The names 
of these twelve tribes are not the same in all accounts, but they 
were probably as follows : — Thessalians, Boeotians, Dorians, 
■ lonians, Perrhaebians, Magnetos, Locrians, (Etseans,. Acheeans, 
Phocians, Dolopes, and Malians. These names are of themselves 
sufficient to prove the great antiquity of the Council. Several 
of the tribes here mentioned scarcely ever occur in the historical 

* The original form of tlio name seems to have been 'ki^upcK-Lovia, not 
' kli^LKTvovta. The Avord ufi(l>iKTiov€^ signifies those that dwell round or 
near. j- 01 'XfifiKTvovcx. 

D 



50 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VL 

period ; and tlie fact of the Dorians standing on an equality with 
the Dolopes and the MaUans, shows that the Council must have 
existed before the Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus. The tribes 
represented in it stood on a footing of perfect equality, tw^o votes 
being given by the deputies from each of the twelve. 

Of the duties of the Amphictyonic Council nothing will give us 
a better idea than the oath taken by its members. It ran thus — ■ 
^" *' We will not destroy any Amphictyonic town, nor cut it off from 
rumiing water in war or peace : if any one shall do so, we will 
march against him and destroy his city. If any one shall plun- 
der the property of the god, or shall be cognizant thereof, or shall 
take treacherous counsel against the things in his temple at 
Delphi, we will punish him with foot, and hand, and voice, and by 
every means m our power." ' We thus see that the main duties of 
the Council were to restrain acts of aggression against its mem- 
bers, and to preserve the rights and dignity of the temple of 
Delphi. It is true that the Amphictyons sometimes tco]f a 
larger view of their functions ; but these were only employed 
for political purposes when they could be made subservient to 
the views of one of the leading (xrecian states. They were never 
considered as a national congress, whose duty it was to protect 
and defend the common interests of Greece. If such a congress 
had ever existed, and its edicts had commanded the obedience 
of the Greeks, the history of the nation would have had a 
different course ; the Macedonian kings would probably have 
remained in their subordinate condition, and united Greece 
might even have defied the legions of conquering Rome. 

The Amphictyonic Council is rarely mentioned, except in con- 
nexion with the Delphian temple ;jtT3ut when the rights of the 
god had been violated, it invoked the aid of the different mem- 
bers of the league. Of this we have a memorable instance in the 
earlier period of Greek history. The Phocian town of Crissa was 
situated on the heights of Mount Parnassus, near the sanctuary 
of the god, which belonged to this town in the most ancient 
times. It possessed a fertile and valuable territory, extendmg 
down to the Corinthian Gulf, on which it had a port called 
Cirrha. Gradually the port seems to have grown into import- 
ance at the expense of the town ; while at the same time the 
sanctuary of the god fell into the hands of the Dorian tribe of the 
Delphians, and expanded into a town under the name of Delphi. 
It was at the port of Cirrha that most of the strangers landed 
who came to consult the god ; and the inhabitants of this place 
availed themselves of their position to levy exorbitant tolls upon 
the pilgrims, and to ill-use them in other ways. In consequence 
of these outrages the Amphictyons resolved to punish the 



Chap. YL NATIONAL FESTIVALS. 51 

Cirrhseans ; and after waging war against them for ten years 
(b.c. 590—585), the Council at length succeeded, chiefly by the 
assistance of the Thessalians and Athenians, in taking the guilty 
city. It is related, but on rather suspicious authority, that the 
city was taken by a stratagem of Solon, who poisoned the waters 
of the river Plistus, which flowed through the place. Cirrha 
was razed to the ground, and its territory — the rich Cirrhajan or 
Criss£ean plain — was consecrated to the god, and curses impre- 
cated upon any one who should cultivate it. Thus ended the First 
Sacred ATar, as it is usually called ; and the spoils of the city were 
employed by the victorious allies in founding the Pythian games. 
— \ 5. The four great festivals of the Olympic, Pythian, Isth- 
mian, and Kemean games were of greater efficacy than the Ara- 
phictyonic Council in promoting a spirit of union among the 
various branches of the Greek race, and in keeping alive a feeling 
of their common origin. They were open to all persons who 
could prove their Hellenic blood, and were frequented by spec- 
tators from all parts of the Grecian world. The most ancient as 
well as the most famous of these festivals was that celebrated 
at Olympia, on the banks of the Alpheus, in the territor}^ of 
Elis, and near an ancient temple of the Olympian Jove. The 
origin of this festival is lost in the Mythical ages. It is said 
to have been revived by Iphitus king of Elis, and Lycurgus 
the Spartan legislator, in the year 776 B.C. ; and, accordingly, 
when the Greeks at a later time began to use the Olympic con- 
test as a chronological era, this year was regarded as the first 
01}Tnpiad. It continued to maintain its celebrity for many cen- 
turies after the extinction of Greek freedom ; and it was not till 
394 A.D. that it was finally abolished by the emperor Theo- 
dosius. It was celebrated at the end of every four years,*' and 
the inters'al which elapsed between each celebration was called 
an Olympiad. The whole festival was under the management 
of the E leans, who appointed some of their own number to 
preside as judges, under the name of the Hellanodicae.f During 
the month in which it was celebrated all hostilities were sus- 
pended throughout Greece. The territory of Elis itself was 
considered especially sacred during its continuance, and no armed 
force could enter it without incurring the guilt of sacrilege. The 
number of spectators was very great ; and consisted not only of 
those who were attracted by private interest or curiosity, but of 

* The festival was called by the Greeks a Penta'eieris (TrevraeTrjpic), 
because it was celebrated every Jifth year, according to the ancient mode 
of reckoning. In the same manner a festival, which occun-ed at the end 
of every two years, was said to be celebrated every t/ilrd year, and 
was called a frietcris {Tpcerjjpi^). f 'EA?.avodiKcu. 



52 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VI 

deputies* from the difTerent Greek states, who vied with one 
another in the number of their ofierings and the splendour of their 
general appearance, in order to support the honour of their native 
cities. At first the festival was confined to a single day, and 
consisted of nothing more than a match of runners in the sta- 
dium ; hut in course of time so many other contests were intro- 
duced, that the games occupied five days. They comprised 
various trials of strength and skill, such as wrestling, boxing, the 
Pancratium (boxing and wrestling combined) and the compli- 
cated Pentathlum (including jumping, running, the quoit, the 
javelin, and wrestling), but no combats with any kind of weapons. 
There were also horse-races and chariot-races ; and the chariot- 
race, with four full-grown horses, became one of the most popular 
and celebrated of all the matches. 

The only prize given to the conqueror was a garland of wild 
olive ; but this was valued as one of the dearest distinctions in 
life. To have his name proclaimed as victor before assembled 
Hellas was an object of ambition with the noblest and the 
wealthiest of the Greeks. Such a person was considered to have 
conferred everlasting glory upon his family and his country, 
and was rewarded by his fellow-citizens with distinguished 
honours. His statue was generally erected in the Altis or sacred 
grove of Jove at Olympia ; and on his return home he entered 
his native city in a triumphal procession, in which his praises 
were sung, frequently in the loltiest strains of poetry. He also 
received still more substantial rewards. He was generally re- 
lieved from the payment of taxes, and had a right to the front 
seat at all public games and spectacles. An Athenian victor 
in the Olympic games received, in accordance with one of Solon's 
laws, a prize of 500 drachmas, and a right to a place at the table 
of the magistrates in the prytaneum or town-hall ; and a Spartan 
conqueror had the privilege of fighting on the field of battle near 
the person of the king. 

^ 6. During the sixth century before the Christian era the 
three other festivals of the Pythian, ISTemean, and Isthmian 
games, which were at first only local, became open to the whole 
nation. The Pythian games, as a national festival, were insti- 
tuted by the Amphictyons after the destruction of Cirrha in 
585 B.C., in honour of Apollo, as has been already related. They 
were celebrated in every third Olympic year, on the Cirrhsean 
plain, under the superintendence of the Amphictyons. The 
games consisted not only of matches in gymnastics and of horse 
and chariot races, but also of contests in music and poetry. 

* Called Thcori {Qeupoi). 



Chap. VL NATIONAL FESTIVALS. 53 

They soon acquired celebrity, and became second only to the 
great Olympic festival. 

The Nemean and Isthmian games occurred more frequently 
than the Olympic and Pythian. They were celebrated once in 
two years — the Nemean in honor of the Nemean Jove, in the 
valley of Nemea, between Phlius and Cleonee, originally by the 
Cleonseans and subsequently by the Argives — and the Isthmian 
by the Corinthians, on their isthmus, in honour of Poseidon 
(Neptune). As in the Pythian festival, contests in music and 
in poetry, as well as gymnastics and chariot-races, formed part 
of these games. 

^ 7. Although the four great festivals of which we have been 
speaking had no influence in promoting the political union of 
Greece, they nevertheless were of great importance in making 
the various sections of the race feel that they were all mem- 
bers of one family, and in cementing them together by common 
sympathies and the enjoyment of common pleasures. The fre- 
quent occurrence of these festivals, for one was celebrated every 
year, tended to the same result. The Greeks were thus annu- 
ally reminded of their common origin, and of the great dis- 
tinction which existed between them and barbarians. Nor must 
we forget the incidental advantages which attended them. The 
concourse of so large a number of persons from every part of 
the Grecian world afforded to the merchant opportunities for 
traffic, and to the artist and the literary man the best means of 
making their works known. During the time of the games the 
Altis was surrounded with booths, in which a busy commerce 
was carried on ; and in a spacious hall appropriated for the 
purpose the poets, philosophers, and historians were accustomed 
to read their most recent works. 

The perfect equality of persons at the festival demands par- 
ticular mention. The games were open to every Greek without 
any distinction of country or of rank. The horse-races and 
chariot-races were necessarily confined to the wealthy, who were 
allowed to employ others as riders and drivers ; but the rich and 
poor alike could contend in the gymnastic matches. This, how- 
ever, w^as far from degrading the former in public opinion ; and 
some of the greatest and wealthiest men in the various cities 
took part in the running, wrestling, boxing, and other matches. 
Cylon, who attempted to make himself tyrant of Athens, had 
gained the prize in the foot-race ; Alexander, son of Amyntas, 
prince of Macedon, had also run for it ; and instancei occur in 
which cities chose their generals from the victors in these games. 

^ 8. The habit of consulting the same oracles in order to ascer- 
tain the will of the gods was another bond of union. It was the 



54 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. VI 

universal practice of the Greeks to undertake no matter of im- 
portance without first asking the advice of the gods ; and there 
were many sacred spots in which the gods were always ready 
to give an answer to pious worshippers. Some of these oracles 
were consulted only hy the surrounding neighbourhood, hut 
others obtained a wider celebrity ; and the oracle of Apollo at 
Delphi in particular surpassed all the rest in importance, and 
was regarded with veneration in every part of the Grecian world. 
So great was its fame that it was sometimes consulted by foreign 
nations, such as the Lydians, Phrygians, and Romans ; and the 
Grecian states constantly applied to it for counsel in their diffi- 
culties and perplexities. In the centre of the temple at Delphi 
there was a small opening in the ground, from which it was said 
that a certain gas or vapour ascended. Wlienever the oracle was 
to be consulted, a virgin priestess, called Pythia, took her seat 
upon a tripod, which was placed over the chasm. The ascending 
vapour affected her brain, and the words which she uttered in 
this excited condition were believed to be the answer of Apollo 
to his worshippers. They were always in hexameter "verse, and 
were reverently taken down by the attendant priests. Most cf 
the answers were equivocal or obscure ; but the credit of the 
oracle continued unimpaired long after the downfall of Grecian 
independence, 

§ 9. A further element of union among the Greeks was the 
similarity of manners and character. It is true the difference in 
this respect between the polished inhabitants of Athens and the 
rude mountaineers of Acarnania was marked and striking ; but 
if we compare the two with foreign contemporaries the contrast 
between them and the latter is still more striking. Absolute 
despotism, human sacrifices, polygamy, deliberate mutilation of 
the person as a punishment, and selling of children into slavery, 
existed in some part or other of the barbarian world, but are not 
found in any city of Greece in the liistorical times. Although 
we cannot mention many customs common to all the Greeks 
and at the same time peculiar to them, yet we cannot doubt 
that there did exist among them certain general characteristics 
in their manners and customs, which served as a bond of union 
among themselves, and a line of demarcation from foreigners, 

HO, The elements of union of which we have been speaking 
— community of blood and language, of religion and festivals, 
and of manners and character — only bound the Greeks together 
in common feelings and sentiments. They never produced any 
political union. The independent sovereignty of each city was a 
fundamental notion in the Greek mind. The only supreme au- 
thority which a Greek recognised was to be found withui his 



c!hap. VL want of political UNION. 55 

own city walls. The exercise of authority by one city over 
another, whatever advantages the weaker city might derive 
from such a connexion, was repugnant to every Greek. This 
was a sentiment common to all the different members of the 
Greek race, under all forms of government, whether oligarchical 
or democratical. Hence the dominion exercised by Thebes over 
the cities of Boeotia, and by Athens over subject allies, was sub- 
mitted to with reluctance, and was disowned on the first oppor- 
tunity. This strongly rooted feeling deserves particular notice 
and remark. Careless readers of history are tempted to suppose 
that the territory of Greece was divided among a comparatively 
small number of independent states, such as Attica, Arcadia, 
Bceotia, Phocis, Locris, and the like ; but this is a most serious 
mistake, and leads to a total misapprehension of Greek history. 
Every separate city was usually an independent state, and con- 
sequently each of the territories described under the general 
names of Arcadia, Boeotia, Phocis, and Locris, contained numerous 
political communities independent of one another. Attica, it is 
true, formed a single state, and its different towns recognised 
Athens as their capital and the source of supreme power ; but 
this is an exception to the general rule. 

The patriotism of a Greek was confined to his city, and rarely 
kindled into any general love for the common welfare of Hellas. 
The safety and the prosperity of his city were dearer to him than 
the safety and prosperity of Hellas, and to secure the former he 
was too often contented to sacrifice the latter. For his own city 
a patriotic Greek was ready to lay down his property and his 
life, but he felt no obligation to expend his substance or expose 
his life on behalf of the common interests of the country. So 
complete was the political division between the Greek cities, 
that the citizen of one was an alien and a stranger in the terri- 
tory of another. He was not merely debarred from all share in 
the government, but he could not acquire property in land or 
houses, nor contract a marriage with a native woman, nor sue 
in the courts of justice, except through the medium of a friendly 
citizen.^ The cities thus mutually repelling each other, the 
sympathies and feelings of a Greek became more centered in 
his own. It was this exclusive patriotism which rendered it 
difficult for the Greeks to unite under circumstances of common 
danger. It was this political disunion which led them to turn 
their arms against each other, and eventually made them sub- 
ject to the Macedonian monarchs. 

* Sometimes a city granted to a citizen of another state, or even to 
the whole state, the right of intermarriage and of acquiring landed pro- 
perty. The former of these rights was called iiriyafiia, the latter iyKTrjat^, 




View of Mount Taygetus from the site of Sparta. 



CHAPTER VIL 



EARLY HISTORY OF PELOPONNESUS AND LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS. 



§ 1. Conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians. Division of the Pelo- 
ponnesus into the Doric states, Elis, Achaia, and Arcadia. § 2. Divi- 
sion of the Doric states in Peloponnesus. Argos originall}^ the first 
Doric state, Sparta second, Messene third. § 3. Phidon of Argos. 
§ 4. Legislation of Lycurgus. § 5. Life of Lycurgus. § 6. The chief 
object of Lycurgus in his legislation. § T. Population of Laconia 
divided into three classes, Spartans. § 8. Periceci. § 9. Helots. 
§ 10. Political government of Sparta. The kings. The senate. The 
popular assembly. The ephors. §11. Training and education of 
the Spartan youths and men. § 12. Training of the Spartan women. 
§13. Division of landed property. §14. Other regulations ascribed 
to Lycurgus, Iron money. § 15. Defensible position of Sparta. §16. 
Growth of the Spartan power, a consequence of the discipline of 
Lycurgus, Conquest of Laconia. 

§ 1 , In the Heroic ages Peloponnesus was the seat of the greal 
Achsean monarchies. Mycena3 was the residence of Agamemnon, 
king of men, Sparta of his brother Menelaus, and Argos of Dio- 
medes, who dared to contend in battle with the immortal gods. 
But before the commencement of history all these monarchies 
had been swept away, and their subjects either driven out of the 
land or compelled to submit to the dominion of the Dorians, 
The history of the conquest of Peloponnesus by this warlike race 
is clothed in a legendary form, and has been already narrated 



Chap. VIL EARLY HISTORY OF PELOPONNESUS. 67 

in the preceding Book, In what manner this conquest was really 
eflected is beyond the reach of history, but we have good reasons 
for believing that it was the work of many years, and was not 
concluded by a single battle, as the legends would lead us to 
suppose. We find, however, in the early historical times the 
whole of the eastern and southern parts of Peloponnesus in the 
undisputed possession of the Dorians. 

The remaining parts of the peninsula were in the hands of 
other members of the Greek race. On the western coast from 
the mouth of the Neda to that of the Larissus was the territory 
of Elis, including the two dependent states of Pisa and Triphylia. 
The Eleans are said to have been descendants of the ^tolians, 
who had accompanied the Dorians in their invasion, and received 
Elis as their share of the spoil. The Pisatans and the Triphylians 
had been originally independent inhabitants of the peninsula, but 
had been conquered by their more powerful neighbours of Elis. 

The strip of land on the northern coast of Peloponnesus, and 
south of the Corinthian gulf, was inhabited by Achseans, and 
was called after them Achaia. This territory extended from 
the promontory Araxus on one side to the confines of 
Sicyonia on the other, and was divided among twelve Achaean 
cities, which are rarely mentioned in the earlier period of 
Greek history, and only rose to importance in the Macedonian 
times. 

The mountainous region in the centre of Peloponnesus wa? 
inhabited by the Arcadians, who may be regarded as genuine 
Pelasgians, since they are uniformly represented as the earliest 
inhabitants of the comitiy. Their country was distributed into 
a large number of villages and cities, among which Tegea and 
Mantinea were the two most powerful. 

^ 2. The division of Peloponnesus among the Dorian states 
differed at various times. At the close of the period which 
forms the subject of the present Book, Sparta was unquestionably 
the first of the Dorian powers, and its dominions far exceeded 
those of any other Dorian state. Its territory then occupied the 
whole of the southern region of the peninsula from the eastern 
to the western sea, being separated from the dominions of Argos 
by the river Tanus, and from Triphylia by the river Neda. At 
that time the territory of Argos was confined to the Argolic 
peninsula, but did not include the whole of this district, the 
south-eastern part of it being occupied by the Doric cities of 
Epidaurus and Troezen, and the Dryopian city of Hermione. On 
the Isthmus stood the powerful city of Corinth, westward Sicyon, 
and to the south of these Cleona) and Phlius, both also Doric 
cities. North-east of Corinth came Megara, the last of the Doria 



58 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chat. Y Li 

cities, whose territory stretched across the Isthmus from sea 
to sea. 

But if we go back to the first Olympiad, we shall find Sparta 
in possession of only a very small territory, instead of the exten- 
sive dominion described above. Its territory at that time ap- 
pears to have comprehended little more than the valley of the 
river Eurotas. "Westward of this valley, and separated from it 
by Mount Taygetus, were the Messenian Dorians, while eastward 
of it the whole of the mountainous district along the coast, from 
the head of the Argohc gulf down to Cape Malea, v^^as also inde- 
pendent of Sparta, belonging to Argos. In the earliest historical 
times Argos appears as the first power in the Peloponnesus, a 
feet which the legend of the Heraclids seems to recognize by 
m^aking Temenus the eldest brother of the three. JN"ext came 
Sparta, and last the Messene. The importance of Argos appears 
to have arisen not so much from her own territory as from 
her being the head of a powerful confederacy of Dorian states. 
Most of these states are said to have been founded by colonies 
from Argos, such as Cleonse, Phlius, Sicyon, Epidaurus, TroBzen, 
and jEgina. They formed a league, the patron god of which 
was Apollo Pythaeus, whose common worship was a means of 
uniting them together. There was a temple to this god in each 
of the confederated cities, while his most holy and central sanc- 
tuary was on the acropolis of Argos. But the power of Argos 
rested on an insecure basis ; the ties which held the confederacy 
together became gradually weakened; and Sparta was able to 
wrest from her a large portion of her territory and eventually to 
succeed to her place as the first Dorian state in the peninsula. 

§ 3. The importance of the privileges possessed by Argos 
before the rise of the Spartan power is shown by the histor}'- of 
Phidon. This remarkable man may be placed about the 8th 
Olympiad, or 747 B.C., and claims our attention the more as one 
of the first really historical personages hitherto presented to us. 
He was king of Argos, and is represented as a descendant of the 
Heraclid Temenus. Having broken through the limits which 
had been imposed on the authority of his predecessors, he 
changed the government of Argos into a despotism. -He then 
restored her supremacy over all the cities of her confederacy, 
which had become nearly dissolved. He appears next to have 
attacked Corinth, and to have succeeded in reducing it under his 
dommion. He is further reported to have aimed at extending 
his sway over the greater part of Pelopoimesus, — laying claim, 
as the descendant of Hercules, to all the cities which that hero 
had ever taken. His power and his infiuence became so great 
in the Peloponnesus that the Pisatans, who had been accustomed 



B.C. 14:1. EARLY HISTORY OF PELOPONNESUS. 69 

to preside at the Olympic games, but who had been deprived of 
this privilege by the Eleaiis, invited him, in the 8th Olympiad, 
to restore them to their original rights and expel the intruders. 
This invitation fell in with the ambitious projects of Phidon, who 
claimed for himself the right of presiding at these games, which 
had been instituted by his great ancestor Hercules. He accord- 
ingly marched to Olympia, expelled the E leans from the sacred 
spot, and celebrated the games in conjunction with the Pisatans. 
But his triumph did not last long ; the Spartans took the part of 
the E leans, and the contest ended in the defeat of Phidon. In 
the following OljTnpiad the Eleans again obtained the manage- 
ment of the festival. 

It would appear that the power of Phidon was desticyed in 
this struggle, but of the details of his fall we have no information. 
He did not however fall without leaving a very striking and per- 
manent trace of his influence upon Greece. He was the first per- 
son who introduced a copper and a silver coinage and a scale of 
weights and measures into Greece. Through his influence they 
became adopted throughout Peloponnesus and the greater part of 
the north of Greece, under the name of the jEginetan scale. There 
arose subsequently another scale in Greece called the Euboic, 
which was employed at Athens and in the Ionic cities generally, 
as well as in EuboBa. It is usually stated that the coinage of 
Phidon w^as struck in the island of jEghm, but it appears more 
probable that it was done in Argos, and that the name of jEgine- 
tan was given to the coinage and scale, not from the place where 
they first originated, but from the people whose commercial ac- 
tivity tended to make them more generally known. 

^ 4. The progress of Sparta from the second to the first place 
among the states in Peloponnesus was mainly owing to the pecu- 
har institutions of the state, and more particularly to the mili- 
tary discipline and rigorous training of its citizens. The singular 
constitution of Sparta was mianimously ascribed by the ancients 
to the legislator Lycurgus, but there were difierent stories respect- 
ing his date, birth, travels, legislation, and death. Some mod- 
ern writers on the other hand have maintained that the Spartan 
institutions were common to the whole Doric race, and there- 
fore cannot be regarded as the work of a Spartan legislator. In 
their view Sparta is the full type of Doric principles, tendencies, 
and sentiments. This, however, appears to be an erroneous 
view ; it can be showTi that the institutions of Sparta were pe- 
culiar to herself, distinguishing her as much from the Doric 
cities of Argos and Corinth, as from Athens and Thebes. The 
Cretan institutions bore, it is true, some analogy to those of 
Sparta, but the resemblance has been greatly exaggerated, and 



60 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. VII. 

was chiefly confined to the syssitia or pubHc messes. The 
Spartans, doubtless, had original tendencies common to them 
with the other Dorians ; but the constitution of Lycurgus im- 
pressed upon them their peculiar character, which separates 
them so strikingly from the rest of Greece. Whether the sys- 
tem of Spartan laws is to be attributed to Lycurgus, camiot 
now be determmed. He lived in an age when wTiting was 
never employed for literary purposes, and consequently no ac- 
count of him from a contemporary has come down to us. None 
of the details of his life can be proved to be historically true ; 
and we are obliged to choose out of several accounts the one 
which appears the most probable. 

^ 5. There are very great discrepancies respecting the date of 
Lycurgus ; but all accounts agree in supposing him to have lived 
at a very remote period. His most probable date is b. c. 776, 
in which year he is said to have assisted Iphitus in restoring the 
Olympic games. He belonged to the royal family of Sparta. 
According to the common account he was the son of Eunomus, 
one of the two kings who reigned together in Sparta. His father 
was killed in the civil dissensions which afflicted Sparta at that 
time. His elder brother, Polydectes, succeeded to the crown, 
bat died soon afterward, leaving his queen with child. The 
ambitious woman offered to destroy the cliild, if Lycurgus would 
share the throne with her. Lycurgus pretended to consent ; but 
as soon as she had given birth to a son, he presented him in the 
market-place as the future king of Sparta ; and, to testify the 
people's joy, gave him the name of Charilaus. The young king's 
mother took revenge upon Lycurgus by accusing him of enter- 
taining designs against liis nephew's life. Hereupon he resolved 
to withdraw from hi? native countr}', and to visit foreign lands. 
He was absent many years, and is said to have employed his 
time in studying the institutions of other nations, and in con- 
versing with their sages, in order to devise a system of laws and 
regulations which might deliver Sparta from the evils under 
which it had long been suffering. He first visited Crete and 
Ionia ; and not content with the Grecian world, passed from Ionia 
into Eg}^t ; and according to some accounts is reported to have 
visited Iberia, Libya, and even India. 

During his absence the young king had grown up, and assumed 
the reins of government ; but the disorders of the state had 
meantime become worse than ever, and all parties longed for a 
termination to their present sufferings. Accordingly the return 
of Lycurgus was hailed with delight, and he found the people 
both ready and willing to submit to an entire change in their 
government and institutions. He now set himself to work to 



B.C. 776. LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS. 61 

carry his long projected reforms into effect ; but before he com- 
menced his arduous task, he consulted the Delphian .oracle, from 
which he received strong assurances of divine support. Thus 
encouraged by the god, he suddenly presented himself in the 
market-place, surrounded by thirty of the most distmguished 
Spartans in arms. The king, Charilaus, was at first disposed to 
resist the revolution, but afterwards supported the schemes of 
his uncle. Lycurgus now issued a set of ordmances, called 
Rhetra, by which he effected a total revolution in the political 
and mihtary organization of the people, and in their social and 
domestic life. His reforms were not carried into effect without 
violent opposition, and in one of the tmiiults which they excited, 
his eye is said to have been struck out by a youth of the name 
of Alcander. But he finally triumphed over all c bstacles, and 
succeeded in obtahiing the submission of all classes m the com- 
inunity to liis new constitution. His last act was to sacrifice 
himself for the welfare of his countr}^ Having obtained from 
the people a solemn oath to make no alterations in Lis laws 
before his return, he quitted Sparta for ever. He set out on a 
journey to Delphi, where he obtained an oracle from the god, 
approving of all he had done, and promising everlastmg prosperity 
to the Spartans as long as they preserved his laws. AYhither he 
went afterwards, and how and where he died, nobody could tell. 
He vanished from earth like a god, leavmg no traces behind him 
but his spirit : and his grateful countrymen honoured him with 
a temple, and worshipped him. with annual sacrifices down to 
the latest times. 

s^ 6. In order to understand the constitution of Lycurgus, it 
is necessary to recollect the pecuhar circumstances in which the 
Spartans were placed. They were a handful of men in possession 
of a country which they had conquered by the sword, and 
which they could only maintain by the same means. They pro- 
bably did not exceed 9000 men ; and the great object of the 
legislator was to unite this small body together by the closest 
ties, and to train them in such habits of hardihood, bravery, 
and military subordination that they might maintain their 
ascendency over their subjects. The means which he adopted 
to attain this object were exceedingly severe, but eminently 
successful. He subjected the Spartans to a disciplme at once 
monastic and warlike, unparalleled either in ancient or in modern 
times. His system combined the ascetic rigours cf a monastery 
with the stem discipline of a garrison. But before we proceed to 
relate the details of this extraordinary system, it will be necessary 
to give an account of the difierent classes of tb.e population of 
the country, and also of the nature of the government. 



62 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. VII 

§ 7. The population of Laconia was divided into the three 
classes of Spartans, Perioeci, and Helots. 

The Spartans were the descendants of the leading Dorian 
conquerors. They formed the sovereign power of the state, and 
they alone were eligible to honours and public offices. They 
lived in Sparta itself, and were all subject to the discipline of 
Lycurgus. They were maintained from their estates in different 
parts of Laconia, which were cultivated for them by the Helots, 
who paid them a fixed amount of the produce. Originally all 
Spartans were on a footing of perfect equality. They were 
divided into three tribes, — the Hylleis, the Pamphyli, and the 
Dymanes, — which were not, however, peculiar to Sparta, but 
existed in all the Dorian states. They retained their full rights 
as citizens, and transmitted them to their children, on two con- 
ditions, — first, of submitting to the discipline of Lycurgus ; and 
secondly, of paying a certain amount to the public mess, which 
was maintained solely by these contributions. In course of time 
many Spartans forfeited their full citizenship from being unable to 
comply with the latter of these conditions, either through losing 
their lands or through the increase of children in the poorer 
families. Thus there arose a distinction among the Spartans 
themselves, unknown at an earlier period — the reduced number 
of qualified citizens being called the Equals or Peers,* the dis- 
franchised poor the Inferiors.! The latter, however, did not 
become Perioeci, but might recover their original rank if they 
again acquired the means of contributing their portion to the 
public mess. 

§ 8. The PerioeciX were personally free, but politically subject 
to the Spartans. They possessed no share in the government, 
and were bound to obey the commands of the Spartan magis- 
trates. They appear to have been partly the descendants of the 
old Achaean population of the country, and partly of Dorians 
who had not been admitted to the full privileges of the ruling 
class. They were distributed into a hundred townships, which 
were spread through the whole of Laconia. They fought in the 
Spartan armies as heavy-armed soldiers, and therefore must have 
been trained to some extent in the Spartan tactics ; but they 
were certainly exempt from the peculiar discipline to which the 
ruling class was subject, and possessed more individual free- 
dom of action. The larger proportion of the land of Laconia 

* Oi "OfioLOL. f 01 'TTTO/Lietoveg. 

■\. The name TcepiotKoi signifies literally " dwellers around the city," 
and is used generally by the Greeks to signify tlie inhabitants in the 
country districts, who possessed inferior political privileges to the citi- 
zens who lived in the city. 



p.C.VTG. LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS. 63 

belonged to Spartan citizens, but the smaller half was the pro- 
perty of the PerioBci. The whole of the commerce and manu- 
factures of the country was in their exclusive possession, since 
no Spartan ever engaged in such occupations. They thus had 
means of acquiring wealth and importance, from wliich the 
Spartans themselves were excluded ; and although they were 
probably treated by the Spartans with the same haughtiness 
which they usually displayed toward inferiors, their condition 
upon the whole does not appear as oppressive or degrading. 
They were regarded as members of the state, though not pos- 
sessing its full citizenship, and were included along with the 
Spartans as Laconians or Lacedaemonians. 

§ 9. The Helots were serfs bound to the soil, which they tilled 
for the benefit of the Spartan proprietors. Their condition was 
very different from that of the ordinary slaves in antiquity, and 
more similar to the villanage of the middle ages. They lived in 
the rural villages, as the Perioeci did in the towns, cultivating 
the lands and paying over the rent to their masters in Sparta, 
but enjoying their homes, wives, and families, apart from their 
master's personal superintendence. They appear to have been 
never sold, and they accompanied the Spartans to the field as 
light-armed troops. But while their condition was in these 
respects superior to that of the ordinary slaves in other parts of 
Greece, it was embittered by the fact that they were not strangers 
like the latter, but were of the same race, and spoke the same 
language as their masters. Their name is variously explained, 
and we have different accounts of their origin ; but there is no 
doubt that they were of pure Hellenic blood, and were probably 
the descendants of the old inhabitants, who had offered the most 
obstinate resistance to the Dorians, and had therefore been re- 
duced to slavery.* In the earlier times they appear to have 
been treated with comparative mildness, but as their numbers 
increased, they became objects of greater suspicion to their 
masters, and were subjected to the most wanton and oppressive 
cruelty. They were compelled to wear a peculiar dress — a 
leather cap and a sheepskin — to distinguish them from the rest 
of the population ; every means was adopted to remind them 
of their inferior and degraded condition ; and it is said they 
were often forced to make themselves drunk, as a warning to 
the Spartan youth. Yf hatever truth there may be in these and 

* The common account derives the name of Helots (Ei'Awref) from 
tlie town of Helos ("EAof) in the south of Laconia, the inhabitants of 
Avliich liad rebelled and been reduced to slaver}'. Others connect their 
name with e'A?/, marshes, as if it signified inhabitants of the lowlands. 
Others, again, with more probability explain EiAwrfc as meaning jana- 
oners, from the root of kXiiv, to take. 



64 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. YIL 

similar tales, it is certain that the wanton and impolitic oppres- 
sions of the Spartans produced in the minds of the Helots a 
deep-seated and inveterate detestation of their masters. They 
were always ready to seize any opportunity of rising against 
their oppressors, and would gladly " have eaten the flesh of 
the Spartans raw." Hence Sparta was always in apprehension 
of a revolt of the Helots, and had recourse to the most atro- 
cious means for removing any who had excited their jealousy 
or their fears. Of this we have a memorable instance in the 
secret service, called Cryptia,^ which authorized a select body 
of Spartan youths to range the country in all directions, armed 
with daggers, and secretly to assassinate such of the Helots as 
were considered formidable. Sometimes, however, the Helots, 
who had distinguished themselves by their bravery in war, 
received their freedom from the government ; but in that case 
they formed a distinct body in the state, known at the time of 
the Peloponnesian war by the name of Ncodamddes.\ 

MO. The functions of the Spartan government were distri- 
buted among two kings, a senate of thirty members, a popular 
assembly, and an executive directory of five men called the 
Ephors. This political constitution is ascribed to Lycurgus ; but 
there is good reason for believing that the Ephors were added at 
a later time ; and there cannot be any doubt that the senate and 
the popular assembly were handed down to the Spartans from 
the Heroic age, and merely received some modification and regu- 
lations from Lycurgus. 

At the head of the state were the two hereditary kings. The 
existence of a pair of kings was peculiar to Sparta, and is said to 
have arisen from the accidental circumstance of Aristodemus 
having left twin sons, Eurysthenes and Procles.| This division 
of the royal power naturally tended to weaken its influence and 
to produce jealousies and dissensions between the two kings, who 
constantly endeavored to thwart each other. The royal power 
was on the decline during the whole historical period, and the 
authority of the kings was gradually usurped by the Ephors, 
who at length obtained the entire control of the government, 
and reduced the kings to a state of humiliation and dependence. 
Originally the Spartan kings were the real and not the nominal 
chiefs of the state, and exercised most of the functions of the 
monarchs of the Heroic age. In later times the most important 
of the prerogatives which they were allowed to retain, was the 
supreme command of the miilitary force on foreign expeditions. 
But even in this privilege their authority was restricted at a 

* KpvTrTeia, a secret commission, from KpvTTu, hid3, conceal. 

\ Neoda/j.6(hi^ : that is, newly eiifranchised. \ See above, p. 33. 



B.C. 776. LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS. 65 

later time by the presence of two out of the five Ephors. Al- 
though the political power of the kings was thus curtailed, they 
possessed many important privileges, and were always treated 
with the profoundest honour and respect. They were regarded 
by the people with a feeling of religious reverence as the de- 
scendants of the mighty hero Hercules, and were thus supposed 
to connect the entire state with the gods. They were the high- 
priests of the nation, and ever}^ month offered sacrifices to Jove 
on behalf of the people. They possessed ample domains in 
various parts of Laconia, and received frequent presents on many 
public occasions. Their death was lamented as a public calamity, 
and their funeral was solemnized by the most striking obsequies. 

The Senate, called Gerusia,^ or the Council of Elders, con- 
sisted of thirty members, among whom the two kings were in- 
cluded. They were not chosen under sixty years of age, and 
they held their office for life. They jiossessed considerable power, 
and were the only real check upon the authority of the Ephors. 
They discussed and prepared all measures which were to be 
brought before the popular assembly, and had some share in the 
general administration of the state. But the most important of 
their functions was, that they were judges in all criminal cases 
affecting the life of a Spartan citizen, without being bound by 
any wTitten code. 

The Popular Assembly was of little importance, and appears 
to have been usually summoned only as a matter of form ibr the 
election of certain magistrates, for passing laws, and for determ- 
ining upon peace and v/ar. It would appear that open discus- 
sion was not allowed, and that the assembly rarely came to a 
division. Such a popular assembly as existed at Athens, in 
which all public measures were exposed to criticism and com- 
ment, M'ould have been contrary to one of the first pruiciples of 
the Spartan government in historical times, which was charac- 
terized by the extreme secrecy of all its proceedings. 

The Ephors may be regarded as the representatives of the 
popular assembly. They were elected aimually from the general 
body of Spartan citizens, and seem to have been originally 
appointed to protect the interests and liberties of the people 
against the encroachments of the kings and the senate. They 
correspond in many respects to the tribunes of the people at 
Rome. Their functions were at first limited and of small im- 
portance ; but in the end the whole political power became cen- 
tred in their hands. They were thus the real rulers of the state, 
and their orders were submissively obeyed by all classes in 
Sparta. Their authority was of a despotic nature, and they ex- 
* Tepovaia, 



66 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chat. YH 

ercised it without responsibility. They had the entire manage- 
ment of the internal as well as of the foreign affairs of the state ; 
they formed a court to decide upon causes of great importance ; 
they dismissed at their pleasure subordinate magistrates, and 
imposed upon them fines and imprisonment ; they even arrested 
the kings, and either fined them on theix own authority, or 
brought them to trial before the senate. 

It will be seen from the preceding account that the Spartan 
government was in reaUty a close ohgarchy, in which the kings 
and the senate, as well as the people, were alike subject to the 
irresponsible authority of the five Ephors. 

Ml. The most important part of the legislation of Lycurgus 
did not relate to the political constitution of Sparta, but to the 
discipline and education of the citizens. It was these which 
gave Sparta her peculiar character, and distinguished her in so 
striking a manner from all the other states of Greece. In mod- 
ern times it has been usually held that the state exists for the 
citi'zen, and that the great object of the state is to secure the 
citizen in the enjoyment of his life and his property. In Sparta, 
on the contrary, the citizen existed only for the state, and was 
bound to devote to its honour and glory not only all his time, 
affections, and energies, but to sacrifice to its interests his property 
and his life. We have already seen that the position of the 
Spartans, surrounded by numerous enemies, whom they only 
held in subjection by the sword, compelled them to be a nation 
of soldiers. Lycurgus determined that they should be nothing 
else ; and the great object of his whole system was to cultivate 
a martial spirit, and to give them a training which would make 
them invincible in battle. To accomplish this the education of 
a Spartan was placed under the control of tho state from his 
earliest boyhood, and he continued to be mider public inspection 
to his old age. 

Every child after birth was exhibited to public view, and if 
deemed deformed and weakly, and unfit for a future life of labour 
and fatigue, was exposed to perish on Mount Taygetus. At the 
age of seven he was taken from his mother's care, and handed 
over to the public classes. His training was under the special 
charge of an officer nominated by the state, *" and was subject to 
the general superintendence of the elders. He was not only taught 
all the gymnastic games, which would give vigour and strength 
to his body, and all the exercises and movements required from 
the Lacedaemonian soldiers in the field, but he was also subjected 
to severe bodily discipline, and was compelled to submit to hard- 
ships and suffering without repining or complaint One of the 
* Called Pccdonomus {Tra-6uv6fio^), 



B.C. Y76. LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS. 67 

tests to which the fortitude of the Spartan youths was subjected, 
was a cruel scourging at the altar of Artemis (Diana), until their 
hlood gushed forth and covered the altar of the goddess. It 
was infhcted publicly before the eyes of their parents and in the 
presence of the whole city ; and many were known to have died 
under the lash without uttering a complaining murmur. No 
means were neglected to prepare them for the hardships and 
stratagems of war. They were obliged to wear the same garment 
winter and summer, and to endure hunger and thirst, heat and 
cold. They were purposely allowed an insufficient quantity of 
food, but were permitted to make up the deficiency by hunting 
in the woods and mountains of Laconia. They were even en- 
couraged to steal whatever they could ; but if they were caught 
in the fact, they were severely punished for their want of dex- 
terity. Plutarch tells us of a boy, who, having stolen a fox, and 
liid it under liis garment, chose rather to let it tear out his very 
bowels than be detected in the theft. 

The literary education of a Spartan youth was of a most re- 
stricted kind. He was taught to despise literature as unworthy 
of a warrior, while the study of eloquence and philosophy, which 
were cultivated at Athens with such extraordinary success, was 
regarded at Sparta with contempt. Long speeches were a Spar- 
tan's abhorrence, and he was trained to express himself with 
sententious brevity. He v/as not, however, an entire stranger 
to the humanizing influence of the Muses. He was taught to sing 
and play on the lyre ; but the strains which he learnt were either 
martial songs or hymns to the gods. Hence the warlike poems 
cf Homer were popular at Sparta from an early period, and arc 
even said to have been introduced into Peloponnesus by Lycurgus 
himself The poet Tyrtseus was for the same reason received 
wii h liigh honours by the Spartans, notwithstanding their aversion 
to strangers ; while Archilochus was banished licm the country 
because he had recorded in one cf his poems his flight from the 
field cf battle. 

A Spartan was not considered to have reached the full age cf 
manliood till he had completed his thirtieth year. He was then 
allowed to marry, to take part in the public assembly, and was 
ehgible to the offices of the state. But he still continued under 
the public discipline, and was not peiinitted even to reside 
and take his meals with his wife. The greater part cf his 
time was occupied in g}'mnastic and military exercises ; he 
took his meals with liis comrades at the public mess, and ho 
slept at night in the public barracks. It was not till lie had 
reached his sixtieth year that he was released from the public 
discipline and from military service. 



68 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VII. 

The public mess — called SyssUia,^ — is said to have been insti- 
tuted by Lycurgus to prevent all indulgence of the appetite. 
Public tables were provided, at which every male citizen was 
obliged to take his meals. Each table accommodated fifteen per- 
sons, who formed a separate mess, into which no new member 
was admitted, except by the unanimous consent of the whole 
company. Each sent monthly to the common stock a specified 
quantity of barley-meal, wine, cheese, and figs, and a little money 
to buy flesh and fish. No distinction of any kind was allowed at 
these frugal meals. Meat was only eaten occasionally ; and one 
of the principal dishes was black broth. Of what it consisted 
we do not know. The tyrant Dionysius found it very unpala- 
table ; but, as the cook told him, the broth was nothing without 
the seasoning of fatigue and hunger. 

sW2. The Spartan women in their earlier years were subjected 
to a course of training almost as rigorous as that of the men. 
They were not viewed as a part of the family, but as a part of the 
state. Their great duty was to give Sparta a vigorous race of 
citizens, and not to discharge domestic and household duties. 
They were therefore trained in gymnastic exercises, and con- 
tended with each other in running, wrestling, and boxing. The 
youths were present at these exercises, and the maidens were 
allowed in like manner to witness those of the youths. The two 
sexes Avere thus brought into close intercourse in a manner un- 
known to the rest of Greece ; but it does not appear to have 
been followed by any injurious consequences, and the morals of 
the Spartan women were probably purer than those of any other 
females in G-reece. At the age of tw^enty a Spartan woman usually 
married, and she Avas no longer subjected to the public disciphne. 
Although she enjoyed little of her husband's society, she was 
treated by him wdth deep respect, and was allowed a greater de- 
gree of liberty than was tolerated in other Grecian states. Hence 
she took a lively interest in the welfare and glory of her native 
land, and was animated by an earnest and lofty spirit of patriot- 
ism. The Spartan mother had reason to be proud of herself and 
of her children. When a woman of another country said to 
Gorgo, the wife of Leonidas, " The Spartan women alone rule the 
men," she replied, " The Spartan women alone bring forth men." 
Their husbands and their sons Avere fired by their sympathy to 
deeds of heroism, and were deterred from yielding to the foe by 
the certain reproaches and contempt which aAvaited them at 
their domestic hearths. " Ueturn either with your shield, or upon 

* liVGGiTia, that is, eating, oi' messing together or in common. The pub' 
lie mesa Avas also called Phlditia (ra <^EidLTLa\ or frugal meals. 



B.C. 776. LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS. 69 

it," was their exhortation to their sons, when going to battle ; 
and after the fatal day of Leuctra those mothers whose sons had 
fallen returned thanks to the gods ; while those were the hitter 
sufierers whose sons had survived that disgraceful day. The tri- 
umphant resignation of a Spartan mother at the heroic death of 
her son, and her fierce wrath when he proved a recreant coward, 
are well expressed in two striking poems of the Greek Anthology : 

"Eight sons DcmjEncta at Sparta's call 
Sent forth to fight; one tomb received them all. 
No tear she shed, but shouted 'Victor}'! 
Sparta, I bore them but to die for thee.' " 



" A Spartan, his companion slain, 
Alone from battle fled ; 
His mother, kindling with disdain 

That she bad borne him, struck him dead ; 
For courage, and not birth alone, 
In Sparta, testifies a son!"* 

§ 13. One of the most celebrated measures ascribed to Lycur- 
gus by later writers was his redi vision of the land of the country. 
It is related that the disorders of the state arose mainly from 
the gross inequality of property : the greater part of the land 
was in the hands of a few rich men, whilst the majority of the 
])eople were left in hopeless misery. In order to remedy this 
fearful state of things, he resolved to make a new division of 
lands, that the citizens might all live together in perfect equality. 
Accordingly, he redistributed the territory belonging to Sparta 
into 9000 equal lots, and the remainder of Laconia into 30,000 
equal lots, and assigned to each Spartan citizen one of the former 
of these lots, and to each Perioecus one of the latter. 

It is, however, very questionable whether Lycurgus ever made 
any division of the landed property of Laconia. It is not men- 
tioned by any of the earlier writers, and we find in historical 
times great inequality of property among the Spartans. It is 
suggested with great probability by Mr. Grote, that the idea 
of an equal division of landed property by Lycurgus seems 
to have arisen in the third century before the Christian era, 
when an attempt was made by Agis and Cleomenes, kings of ij 

Sparta, to rescue their country from the state of degradation 
into which it had sunk. From the time of the Persian war, the 
number of the Spartan citizens was constantly declining, and the 
property accumulating in a few hands. The number of citizens, 
reckoned by Herodotus at 8000, had dwindled down in the time 
of Aristotle to 1000, and had been still further reduced in that of 
* Sec Anthologia Pohjglotta, edited by Dr. Wcllesley, j)p. 101, 202. 



70 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chat. VH 

Agis to 700 ; and in the reign of tliis king 100 alone possessed 
nearly the whole of the landed property in the state, while the 
remainder were miserably poor. At the same time the old dis- 
cipline had degenerated into a mere form ; numbers of strangers 
had settled in the city ; and Sparta had long lost her ancient 
influence over her neighbours. The humiliating condition of 
their country roused Agis and other ardent spirits to endeavour 
to restore Sparta to her former glories ; and for this purpose 
they resolved to establish again the discipline of Lycurgus in 
its pristine vigour, and to make a fresh division of the landed 
property. Agis perished in his attempt to carry these reforms 
into efiect ; but a similar revolution was shortly afterwards ac- 
complished by Cleomenes. It was in the state of public feeling 
which gave birth to the projects of Agis and Cleomenes, that 
the idea arose of an equal division of property having been one 
of the ancient institutions of their great lawgiver. The discipline 
and education orLycurgus tended greatly to introduce equality 
among the rich and the poor in their habits and enjoyments ; 
and hence we can easily understand how this equality suggested 
to a subsequent age an equality of property as hkewise one of 
the institutions of Lycurgus. 

§ 14. It has been already remarked that the Spartans v.-ere 
not allowed to engage in any trade or manufactures ; and that all 
occupations, pursued for the sake of gain, were left in the hands 
of the Perioeci. We are told that Lycurgus therefore banished 
from Sparta all gold and silver money, and allowed nothing but 
bars of iron to pass in exchange for every commodity. It is, how- 
ever, absurd to ascribe such a regulation to Lycurgus, since silver 
money was first coined in Greece by Phidon of Argos in the suc- 
ceeding generation, and gold money was first coined in Asia, and 
was very little known in Greece, even in the time of the Pelopon- 
nesian war. In this case, as in others, the usage of later times 
was converted into a primitive institution of the lawgiver. As 
the Spartans were not allowed to engage in commerce, and all 
luxury and display in dress, furniture, and food was forbidden, 
they had very little occasion for a circulating medium, and iron 
money was found sufficient for their few wants. But this pro- 
hibition of the precious metals only made the Spartans more 
anxious to obtain them ; and even in the times of their greatest 
glory the Spartans were the most venal of the Greeks, and could 
rarely resist the temptation of a pecuniary bribe. 

The Spartans were averse to all changes, both in their govern- 
ment and their custcms. In order to preserve their national 
character and the primitive simplicity of their habits, Lycurgus 
is said to have forbidden all strangers to reside at Sparta without 



B.C. 776. LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS. 71 

special permission. For the same reason the Spartans were not 
allowed to go abroad without leave of the magistrate. 

Caution was also another characteristic of the Spartans. 
Hence we are told that they never pursued an enemy farther than 
was necessary to make themselves sure of the victory. They 
were also forbidden by Lycurgus to make frequent war upon the 
same foes, lest the latter should learn their peculiar tactics. 

§ 15. The city of Sparta was never fortified, even in the days 
of her greatest power, and continued to consist of five distinct 
quarters, which were originally separate villages, and which were 
never united into one regular town. It is said that Lycurgus 
had commanded them not to surround their city with walls, but 
to trust for their defence to their own military prow^ess. Another 
and a better reason for the absence of walls is to be sought in the 
admirable site of the city, in the midst cf a territory ahuost in- 
accessible to invaders. The northern and western frontiers of 
Laconia were protected by lofty ranges of mountains, through 
which there were only a few difficult passes ; while the rocky 
nature of its eastern coast protected it frcm invasion by sea. 
Sparta w^as situated inland, in the middle cf the valley of the 
Eurotas ; and all the principal passes cf Laconia led to the city, 
which was thus placed in the best position for the defence of the 
country. There can be no doubt that one cf the causes of the 
Spartan power is to be traced to the strength of its frontiers and 
to the site of Sparta itself 

^16. The legislation cf Lycurgus was followed by important 
results. It made the Spartans a body of professional soldiers, 
well trained and well disciplined, at a time when military train- 
ing and discipline were little known, and almost unpractised in 
the other states of Greece. The consequence was the rapid 
growth of the political power of Sparta, and the subjugation of 
the neighbouring states. At the time of Lycurgus the Spartans 
held only a small portion of Laconia ; they were merely a garrison 
in the heart of an enemy's country. Their first object was to 
make themselves masters of Laconia, in which they finally suc- 
ceeded after a severe struggle. The military ardour and love of 
war, which had been implanted in them by the institutions of 
Lycurgus, continued to animate them after the subjugation cf 
Laconia, and led them to seek new conquests. We have already 
seen that they offered a successful resistance to the formidable 
power of Phidon of Argos. They now began to cast longing 
eyes upon the possessions of their Dorian brethren in Messenia, 
and to meditate the conquest of that fertile country. 




Early Greek Armour, from Vase-paintings. 



V 



CHAPTER VIII. 



HISTORY OF SPARTA. 



THE MESSENIAN, ARCADIAN, AND ARGIVE 
WARS. 



§ 1. Authorities for the history of the Messenian wars. § 2. The first 
Messenian war, b.c. 743 — 724. § 3. The second Messenian war, b.c. 
685 — 668. Aristomenes, the Messenian hero, and Tyrtseiis, the Spartan 
hero, of this war. §4. "Wars between the Spartans and Arcadians. 
Conquest of the southern part of Arcadia by Sparta. War between 
Sparta and Tegea. § 5. Wars between the Spartans and Argives. 
Battle of the three hundred champions to decide the possession of 
Cynuria. 

\ 1. The early wars of Sparta were carried on against the Mes- 
senians. Arcadians, and Argives. They resulted in making 
Sparta the undisputed mistress of two-thirds of Peloponnesus, 
and the most powerful of the Grecian states. Of these wars the 
two waged against Messenia were the most celebrated and the 
most important. They were both long protracted and obsti- 
nately contested. They both ended in the victory of Sparta, and 
in the subjugation of Messenia. These facts are beyond dispute, 
and are attested by the contemporary poet Tyrtajus. But of the 
details of these wars we have no trustworthy narrative. The 
accomit of them, which is inserted in most histories of Greece, 
is taken from Pausanias, a writer who lived in the second cen- 
tury (^f the Christian era. He derived his narrative of the first 



B.C. '743. FIRST MESSEKIAN WAR. 73 

war from a prose writer of the name of Myron, who did not hve 
earUer than the third centuiy before the Christian era ; and he 
took his account of the second from a poet called Rhianus, a 
native of Crete, who lived about B.C. 220. Both these Writers 
were separated from, the events which they narrated by a period 
of 500 years, and probably derived their materials from the stories 
current among the Messenians after their restoration to their na- 
tive land by Epaminondas. Information of an historical character 
could not be expected from the work of Rhianus, which was an 
epic poem celebrating the exploits of the great hero Aristcmenes. 
We must not, therefore, receive the common account of lhe Mes- 
eenian wars as a real history ; and we shall consequently give 
only a brief outline of the narrative of Pausanias. The dates of 
the two wars cannot be fixed with certaii:ty. Pausanias makes 
the first last from B.C. 743 to 724, and the second from B.C. 685 
to 068. Both of these dates are probably too early. 

S^ 2. The real cause of the first Messeiiian war was doubtless 
the lust of the Spartans for the fertile territories of their neigh- 
bours. But its origin was narrated in the following manner. 
On the heights of Mount Taygetus, which separated the two 
kingdoms, there was a temple of Artemis (Diana), comracn to the 
Spartans and Messenians. It was here that the Spartan king 
Teleclus was slain by the Messenians ; but the two people gave a 
difTerent version of the cause of his death. The Spartans asserted 
that Teleclus was murdered by the Messenians, while he w^as 
attempting to defend some Spartan virgins, whom he was con- 
ducting to the temple, from the insults of the Messenian youth. 
The Messenians, on the other hand, averred that Teleclus had 
dressed up young men as virgins with concealed daggers, and 
that Teleclus was slain in the aflray which ensued upon the dis- 
covery of the plot. The war did not, however, immediately 
break out ; and the direct cause of it v/as owing to a private 
quarrel. Polycharcs, a distinguished Messenian, who had gained 
the prize at the Olympic games, had been grossly injured by the 
Spartan Eueephnus, who had robbed him of his cattle and mur- 
dered his son. Being unable to obtain redress from the Spartan 
government, Polycharcs took the revenge into his own hands, 
and killed all the Lacedaemonians that came in his way. The 
Spartans demanded the surrender of Polycharcs, but the Messe- 
nians refused to give him up. Thereupon the Spartans deter- 
mined upon war. They silently prepared their forces ; and 
without any formal declaration of war, they crossed the frontier, 
surprised the fortress of Amphca, and put the inhabitants to the 
pword. 

Thus commenced the first Messenian war. E uphaes, who was 
E 



74 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cn.vp. YIII. 

then king of Messenia, carried on the war with energy and vigour. 
For the first four years the Lacedaemonians made httle progress ; 
hut in the fifth a great battle was fought, and although its result 
was indecisive, the Messenians did not venture to risk another 
engagement, and retired to the strongly fortified mountain of 
Ithdme. In their distress they sent to consult the oracle at 
Delphi, and received the appalling answer that the salvation of 
Messenia required the sacrifice of a virgin of the house of 
JEpytus =* to the gods of the lower world. Aristodemus ofiered 
his own daughter as the victim ; but a young Messenian, who 
loved the maiden, attempted to save her life by declaring that 
she was about to become a mother. Her father, enraged at tliis 
assertion, killed his daughter with his own hand, and opened 
her body to refute the calumny. Although the demands of 
the oracle had not been satisfied, since this was a murder and 
not a sacrifice, the Spartans were so disheartened by the news, 
that they abstained from attacking the Messenians for some 
years. In the tliirteenth year of the war, the Spartan king 
Theopompus marched against Ithome, and a second great battle 
was fought, but the result was again indecisive. Euphaes fell 
in the action ; and Aristodemus, who was chosen king in his 
place, prosecuted the war with vigour and abihty. In the fifth 
year of his reign a tliird great battle was fought, in which the 
Corinthians fought on the side of the Spartans, and the Arca- 
dians and Sicyonians on the side of the Messenians. This time 
the Messenians gained a decisive victor}", and the Lacedaemonians 
were driven back into their own territor)\ They now sent to 
ask advice of the Delphian oracle, and were promised success 
upon using stratagem. They therefore had recourse to fraud ; 
and at the same time various prodigies dismayed the bold spirit 
of Aristodemus. His daughter too appeared to him in a dream, 
showed to him her wounds, and summoned him away. Seeing 
that his country was doomed to destruction, Aristodemus slew 
himself on his daughter's tomb. Shortly afterwards, in the 
twentieth year of the war, the Messenians abandoned Ithome, 
wliich the Lacedaemonians razed to the ground, and the whole 
country became subject to Sparta. Many of the jiihabitants 
fled into Arcadia, and the priestly families withdrew" to Eleusis, 
in Attica. Those who remained m the country were treated with 
great severity. They were reduced to the condition of Helots, and 
were compelled to pay to their masters half of the produce of 
their lands. This is attested by the authority of Tyrtaeus, who 
says, " Like asses worn down by heavy burthens they were com- 

* The royal family of Messenia was descended from, ^pytus, who 
was a son of Cresphontes. 



B.C. 685. SECOND MESSENIAN WAR. 75 

pelled to make over to their masters an entire half of the produce 
of their fields, and to come in the garb of woe to Sparta, them- 
selves and their wives, as mom-ners at the decease of the kings 
and principal persons." 

^ 3. For thirty-nine years the Messenians endured this degrad- 
ing yoke. At the end of this time (b.c. 685) they took up arms 
against their oppressors, having fomid a leader in Aristomenes, 
of Andania, sprung from the royal line of ^Epytus. The exploits 
of this hero form the great subject of the second Messenian war. 
It would appear that most of the states in Peloponnesus took 
part in this struggle. The Argives, Arcadians, Sicyonians, and 
Pisatans were the principal allies of the Messenians ; but the 
(Jorinthians sent assistance to Sparta. The first battle was 
f jught before the arrival of the allies on either side ; and though 
it was indecisive, the valour of Aristomenes struck fear into the 
hearts of the Spartans. To frighten the enemy still more, the 
hero crossed the frontier, entered Sparta by night, and affixed a 
shield to the temple of Athena (Minerva) of the Brazen House, 
with the inscription, " Dedicated by Aristomenes to the goddess 
from the Spartan spoils." 

The Spartans in alarm sent to Delphi for advice. The god 
bade them apply to Athens for a leader. Fearing to disobey the 
oracle, but with the vieAV of rendering no real assistance, the 
Athenians sent Tyrtseus of AphidnaB, who is represented in the 
popular legend as a lame man and a schoolmaster. The Spartans 
received their new leader with due honour ; and he was not long, 
in justifying the credit of the oracle. His martial Bongs roused 
the fainting courage of the Spartans, and animated them to new 
eilbrts against the foe.^ The Spartans showed their gratitude 
by making him a citizen of their state. So efficacious were his 
poems, that to them is mainly ascribed the final success of the 
Spartans. Hence he appears as the great hero of Sparta during 
the second Messenian war. Some of his celebrated songs have 
come down to us, and the following war-march is a specimen : — 

"To the field, to the field, gallant Spartan band, 
"Worthy sons, like your sires, of our warlike land ! 
Let each arm be prepared for its part in the fight, 
Fix the shield on the left, poise the spear with the right, 
Let no care for your lives in your bosoms find place, 
Ko such care knew the heroes of old Spartan race." f 

Encouraged by the strains of Tyrta3us, the Spartans again 

* " Tyrtseusqiie mares animos in Martia bella 

Versibus exacuit." — Hor. Am Poet. 402. 
f Mure's History of Greek Literature, vol. iii. p. 195. 



♦76 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. YIIL 

marched against the Messeiiian?. But they were not at first sue 
cessful. A great battle was fought at the Boar's Grave ra th« 
plain of Stenyclerus, ui which the allies of both sides were pre- 
sent. The Spartans were defeated with great loss ; and the 
Messenian maidens of a later day used to sing how " Aristo- 
menes pursued the flying Lacedaemonians down to the mid-plain 
of Stenyclerus, and up to the very summit of the mountain." lo 
the third year of the war another great battle was fought, io 
which the Messenians suffered a signal defeat, in consequence of 
the treachery of Aristocrates, the king of the Arcadian Orcho- 
menus. So great was the loss of the Messenians, that Aristo- 
menes no longer ventured to meet the Sportans in the open 
field ; and he therefore resolved to follow the example of the 
Messenian leaders in the former war, and concentrate his strength 
in a fortified spot. For this purpose he cho.se the mountain 
fortress of Ira, and there he continued to prosecute the Avar for 
eleven years. The Spartans encamped at the foot of the moun- 
tain ; but Aristomenes frequently sallied from his fortress, and 
ravaged the lands of Laconia with fire and sword. It is unne- 
cessary to relate all the wonderful exploits of this hero in his 
various incursions. Thrice did he ofier to Jove Ithomates the 
sacrifice called Hecatomphonia, reserved for the warrior who 
had slain a hundred enemies with his own hand. Thrice was he 
taken prisoner ; on two occasions he burst his bonds, but on the 
third he was carried to Sparta, and thrown with his fifty com- 
panions into a deep pit, called Ceadas. His comrades were all 
killed by the fall ; but Aristomenes reached the bottom unhurt. 
He saw, however, no means of escape, and had resigned himself 
to death ; but on the third day perceiving a fox creeping among 
the bodies, he grasped its tail, and foUowmg the animal as it 
struggled to escape, discovered an opening in the rock. Through 
the favor of the gods the hero thus escaped, and on the next 
day was again at Ira to the surprise alike of friends and foes. 
But his single prowess was not sufficient to avert the ruin of his 
country ; he had incurred moreover the anger of the Dioscuri or 
the Twin gods ; and the favour of heaven was therefore turned 
from him. One night the Spartans surprised Ira, Avhile Aristo- 
menes was disabled by a wound ; but he collected the bravest of 
his followers, and forced his way through the enemy. He took 
refuge in Arcadia, where he was hospitably received ; but the 
plan which he had formed for surprising Sparta was betrayed 
by Aristocrates, whom his countrymen stoned for his treachery. 
Many of the exiled Messenians went to Rhegium, in Italy 
under the sons of Aristomenes, but the hero himself finished his 
<Iays in Rhodes. His memory long lived in the hearts of hia 



B.C. 560. WAR BETWEEN SPARTA AND TEGEA. 77 

countrymen ; and later legends related, that in the fatal battle of 
Leuctra, which destroyed for ever the Lacedaemonian power, the 
hero was seen scattering destruction among the Spartan troops. 

The second Messenian war was terminated by the complete 
subjugation of the Messenian s, who again became the serfs of 
their conquerors (b.c. 668). In this condition they remained till 
the restoration ol* their independence by Epaminondas, in the 
year 369 b.c. During the whole of the intervening period the 
Messenians disappear from history. The country called Messenia 
in the map was in reality a portion of Laconia, which, after the 
second Messenian Avar, extended across the south of Pelopon- 
nesus from the eastern to the western sea. 

§ 4. Of the history of the w^ars between the Spartans and 
Arcadians we have fewer details. The Spartans made various 
attempts to extend their dominion over Arcadia. Hence the 
Arcadians afforded assistance to the Messenians in their struggle 
against Sparta, and they evinced their sympathy for this gallant 
people by putting to death Aristocrates of Orchomenus, as has 
been already related. The conquest of Messenia was probably 
followed by the subjugation of the southern part of Arcadia. 
"VYe know that the northern frontier oi" Laconia, consisting of 
the districts called Sciritis, Beleminatis, Maleatis, and Caryatis, 
originally belonged to Arcadia, and was conquered by the Lace- 
daemonians at an early period. 

The Lacedaemonians, however, did not meet with equal success 
in their attempts against Tegea. This city was situated in the 
south-eastern corner of Arcadia, on the very frontiers of Laconia. 
It possessed a brave and warlike population, and defied the 
Spartan power for more than two centuries. As early as the 
reign of Charilaus, the nephew of Lycurgus, the Lacedaemonians 
had invaded the territory of Tegea ; but they were not only 
defeated with gieat loss, but this king was taken prisoner with 
all his men who had survived the battle. Long afterward, in 
the reign of Leon and Agesicles (about B.C. 580), the Lace- 
daemonians again marched against Tegea, but were again defeat- 
ed with great loss, and were compelled to work as slaves in the 
very chains which they had brought with them for the Tegeatans. 
For a whole generation their arms continued unsuccessful ; but 
in the reign of Anaxandrides and Ariston, the successors of 
Leon and Agesicles (about b.c. 560), they were at length able 
to bring the long protracted struggle to a close. In their dis- 
tress they had applied as usual to the Delphic oracle for advice, 
and had been promised success if they could obtain the bones 
of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon. The directions of the god 
enabled them to find the remains of the hero at Tegea : and l)y a 



78 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. YIII. 

skilful stratagem one of their citizens succeeded in carrying the 
holy rehcs to Sparta. The tide of the war now turned. The 
Tegeatans were constantly defeated, and were at length obliged 
to acknowledge the supremacy of Sparta. They w^ere not, how- 
ever, reduced to subjection, like the Messenians. They still con- 
tinued masters of their own city and territory", and only became 
dependent allies of Sparta. 

§ 5. The history of the early struggle between Argos and 
Sparta is quite unknown. "We have already seen that the whole 
eastern coast of Peloponnesus had originally belonged to Argos, 
or the confederacy over which this city presided. The LacedsB- 
monians, however, succeeded not only in conquering all the 
eastern coast of Laconia, but also in annexing to their territory 
the district of Cynuria,* on their northern frontier, which had 
originally formed part of the dominions of Argos. It is uncer- 
tain at what time the Lacedaemonians obtained this important ' 
acquisition ; but the attempt of the Argives to recover it in 
547 B.C. led to one of the most celebrated combats in early 
Grecian history. It was agreed between the Lacedsemonians and 
Argives that the possession of the territory should be decided 
by a combat between three hundred chosen champions on either 
side. So fierce was the conflict that only one Spartan and two 
Argives survived. The latter, supposing that all their opponents 
had been slain, hastened home with the new^s of victory ; but 
Othr}'ades, the Spartan warrior, remained en the field, and 
spoiled the dead bodies of the enemy. Both sides claimed the 
victory, whereupon a general battle ensued, in which the Argives 
w^ere defeated. The brave Othryades slew himself on the field 
of battle, being ashamed to return to Sparta as the one survivor 
of her three hundred champions. This victory secured the 
Spartans in the possession of Cynuria, and eftectually humbled 
the power of Argos. 

Sparta was now by far the most powerful of the Grecian states. 
Her own territory, as w^e have already seen, included the whole 
southern portion of Peloponnesus ; the Arcadians were her sub- 
ject allies ; and Argos had suffered too much from her recent 
defeat to offer any further resistance to her formidable neighbour. 
North of the Isthmus of Corinth there was no state whose power 
could compete with that of Sparta. Athens was still suffering 
from the civil dissensions which had led to the usurpation of 
Pisistratus, and no one could have anticipated at this time the 
rapid and extraordinary growth of this state, which rendered her 
before long the rival of Sparta. 

* The plain, called Tliyreatis from the town of Thyrea, was the most 
important part of Cynuria. 




Leaden Slir.g-bnllcts and Arrow-heads, found at Athens, Marathon, and LeontinL 



CHAPTEE IX. 



THE AGE OF THE DESPOTS. 



§ 1. Abolition of royalty throughout Greece, except in Sparta, § 2. Estab- 
lishment of the oligarchical governments. § 2. Overthrow of the oli- 
garchies by the despots. Character of the despots, and causes of their 
fall. § 4. Contest between oligarchy and democracy on the removal 
of the despots. § 5. Despots of Sicyon. History of Clisthenes. § 6. Des- 
pots of Corinth. History of Cypselus and Periander. § V. Conflicts 
of the oligarchical and democratieal parties at Megara. DespotisoD 
of Theagenes. The poet Theognis. 

^ 1. Sparta was the only state in Greece which continued to 
retain the kingly form of government during the brilliant period 
of Grecian history. In all other parts of Greece royalty had 
been aboUshed at an early age, and various forms of repubhcan 
government established in its stead. In all of these, though dif- 
fering widely from each other in many of their institutions, 
hatred of monarchy was a universal feehng. This change in 
the popular mind deserves our consideration. In the Heroic age, 
as we have already seen, monarchy was the only form of govern- 
ment known. At the head of every state stood a king, who had 
derived his authority from the gods, and whose commands were 
reverently obeyed by his people. The only check upon his au- 
thority was the council of the chiefs, and even they rarely ven- 
tured to interfere with his rule. But soon after the commence- 
ment of the first Olympiad this reverential feeling towards the 
king disappears, and his authority and his functions are trans- 
ferred to the council of cliicfs. 



80 HISTORY CF GREECE. Chap. IX 

This important revolution was owing mainly to the smallness 
of the Grecian states. It must be constantly rememhered that 
each political community consisted only of the inhabitants of a 
single city. Among so small a body the king could not surround 
himself with any pomp or mystery. He moved as a man among 
his fellow-men ; his faults and his foibles became known to all ; 
and as the Greek mind developed and enlarged itself, his subjects 
lost all belief in his divine right to their obedience. They had 
no extent of temtory which rendered it advisable to maintain a 
king for the purpose of preserving their union ; and, conse- 
quently, when they lost respect for his person, and faith in his 
divine right, they abohshed the dignity altogether. This change 
appears to have been accomplished Avithout any sudden or violent 
revolutions. Sometimes, on the death of a king, his son was ac- 
knowledged as iTder for life, or for a certain number of years, with 
the title oi Archon ;^ and sometimes the royal race was set aside 
altogether, and one of the nobles was elected to supply the place 
of the king, with the title oi Prytanis or President.! In all cases, 
however, the new magistrates became more or less responsible 
to the nobles ; and in course of time they were elected for a 
brief period from the whole body of the nobles, and were ac- 
coimtable to the latter for the manner in which they discharged 
the duties of their office. 

k 2. The abolition of royalty was thus followed by an Oli- 
garchy, or the government of the Few. This was the first form 
of republicanism in Greece. Democracy, or the government cf 
the Many, was yet unkno\\Ti ; and the condition of the general 
mass of the freemen appears to have been unaffected by the re- 
volution. But it paved the way to greater changes. It taught 
the Greeks the important principle that the political power was 
vested in the citizens of the state. It is true that these were at 
first only a small portion of the freemen ; but their number 
might be enlarged ; and the idea could not fail to occur that the 
power which had been transferred from the One to the Few 
might be still further extended from the Few to the Many. 

The nobles possessed the greater part of the land of the state, 
and were hence frequently distinguished by the name of Gco- 
mori or Gamori.t Their estates AA'ere cultivated by a rural and 
dependent population ; whilst they themselves lived in the city, 
and appear to have formed an exclusive order, transmitting their 
privileges to their sons alone. But besides this governing body 
and their rustic dependents, there existed two other classes, con- 
sisting of small landed proprietors, who cultivated their fields 

* 'Apxcjv. f UpvTavic. 

X TsiojiopoL (Ionic), Ta/iopot (Doric), landowners. 



B.C. 650. THE GRECIAN DESPOTS. 81 

M'^ilh their own hands, and of artisans and traders residing in the 
town. These two classes were constantly increasing in numbers, 
wealth, and intelligence, and, consequently, began to demand a 
share in the government, from which they had hitherto been 
excluded. The ruling body meantime had remained stationary, 
or had even declined in numbers and in wealth ; and they had 
excited, moreover, the discontent of the people by the arbitrary 
and oppressive mamier in wdiich they had exercised their au- 
thority. But it was not from the people that the ohgarchies 
received their first and greatest blow. They were generally over- 
thrown by the usurpers, to whom the Greeks gave the name of 
Tyrants.*" 

§ 3. The Greek w^ord Tyrant does not correspond in r.eaning 
to the same word in the English language. It signifies simply 
an irresponsible ruler, and may therefore be more correctly ren- 
dered by the term Despot. The rise of the Despots seems to 
have taken place about the same time in a large immber of the 
Greek cities. They begin to appear in the middle of the seventh 
century B.C. ; and hi the course of the next hundred and fifty years 
(from B.C. 650 to 500) there were few cities in the Grecian 
world which escaped this revolution in their government. The 
growing discontent of the general body of the people aflbrded 
facilities to an ambitious citizen to overthrow the existing oli- 
garchy, and to make himself supreme ruler of the state. In most 
cases the despots belonged to the nobles, but they acquired their 
power in various w^ays. The most frequent manner in w^hich 
they became masters of the state was by espousing the cause of 
the commonalty, and making use of the strength of the latter to 
put dow^i the oligarchy by Ibrce. Sometimes, but more rarely, 
one of the nobles, who had been raised to the chief magistracy 
for a temporary period, availed himself of his position to retain 
his dignity permanently, in spite of his brother nobles. There 
was another class of irresponsible rulers to whom the name of 
^sy7nnetcs,i or Dictator, was given. The supreme power w^as 
voluntarily entrusted to him by the citizens, but only for a limited 
period, and in order to accomplish some important object, such 
as reconciling the various factions m the state. 

The government of most of the despots was oppressive and 
cruel. In many states they were at first popular with the gen- 
eral body of the citizens, who had raised them to power and were 
glad to see the humihation of their former masters. But discon- 
tent soon began to arise ; the despot had recourse to violence to 
put dow^i disaftection, and thus became an object of hatred to 
his fellow-citizens. In order to protect himself he called in the 
* Tvpavvoi. f Aiav/iv^TTji . 



82 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IX 

aid of foreign troops, and took up his residence in the Acropolis, 
surrounded by his mercenaries. The most illustrious citizens 
were now exiled or put to death, and the government became 
in reality a tyranny in the modern sense of the word. Some of 
these despots erected magnificent public works, either to gratify 
their own love of splendour and display, or with the express view 
of impoverishing their subjects. Others were patrons of litera- 
ture and art, and sought to gain popularity by inviting literary 
men to their court. But even those who exercised their sov- 
ereignty with moderation were never able to retain their popu- 
larity. The assumption of irresponsible power by one man had 
become abhorrent to the G-reek mind. A person thus raising 
himself above the law was considered to have forfeited all title 
to the protection of the law. He was regarded as the greatest 
of criminals, and his assassination was viewed as a righteous 
and holy act. Hence few despots grew old m their goveriunent ; 
still fewer bequeathed their power to their sons ; and very rarely 
did the dynasty continue as long as the third generation. 

^ 4. Many of the despots in Greece were put down by the 
L«acedaemonians. The Spartan government, as we have already 
seen, was essentially an oligarchy ; and the Spartans were always 
ready to lend their powerful aid to the support or the establish- 
ment of the government of the Few. Hence they took an active 
part in the overthrow of the despots, with the intention of es- 
tablishing the ancient oligarchy in their place. But this rarely 
happened ; and they thus became unintentional instruments in 
promoting the principles of the popular party. The rule of the 
despot had broken down the distinction between the nobles and 
the general body of freemen ; and upon the removal of the des- 
pot it was found impossible in most cases to reinstate the former 
body of nobles in their ancient privileges. The latter, it is true, 
attempted to regain them, and were supported in their attempts 
by Sparta. Hence arose a new struggle. The first contest 
after the abolition of royalty was between oligarchy and the 
despot ; the next which now ensued was between oligarchy and 
democracy. 

The history of Athens will" afford the most striking illustration 
of the different revolutions of which we have been speaking ; but 
there are some examples in the other Greek states which must 
not be passed over entirely. 

^ 5. The city of Sicyon, situated to the west of the Corinthian 
isthmus, was governed by a race of despots for a longer period 
than any other Greek state. Their dynasty lasted for a hundred 
years, and is said to have been founded by Orthagoras, about 
E.G. G76. This revolution is worthy of notice, because Ortha- 



B.C. 625. DESPOTS OF SICYON AND CORINTH. 83 

goras did not belong to the oligarchy. The latter consisted of a 
portion of the Dorian conquerors ; and Orthagoras, who belonged 
to the old inhabitants of the country, obtained the power by the 
overthrow of the Dorian oligarchy. He and his successors were 
doubtlegs supported by the old population, and this was one 
reason of the long continuance of their power. The last of the 
dynasty was Clisthenes, who was celebrated for his wealth and 
magnificence, and who gained the victory in the chariot race in 
the Pythian and Olympic games. He aided the Amphictyons in 
the sacred war against Cirrha (b.c. 595), and he was also engaged 
in hostilities against Argos. But the chief point in his history 
which claims our attention was his systematic endeavour to 
depress and dishonour the Dorian tribes. It has been already 
remarked* that the Dorians in all their settlements were di- 
vided into the three tribes of Hylleis, Pamphyli, and Dymanes. 
These ancient and venerable names lie changed into new ones, 
derived from the sow, the ass, and the pig,t while he declared 
the superiority of his own tribe by giving it the designation of 
Archelai, or lords of the people. Clisthenes appears to have 
continued despot till his death, which may be placed about 
B.C. 560. The dynasty perished with him. He left no son; 
but his daughter Agarista, whom so many suitors wooed, was 
married to the Athenian Megacles, of the great family of 
the Alcmseonidae, and became the mother of Clisthenes, the 
founder of the Athenian democracy after the expulsion of the 
Pisistratidse. 

k 6. The despots of Corinth were still more celebrated. Their 
dynasty lasted 74 years. It was founded by Cypselus, who over- 
threw the ohgarchy called the Bacchiadae in b.c. 655. His mother 
belonged to the BacchiadaB ; but as none of the race would marry 
her on account of her lameness, she espoused a man who did not 
belong to the ruling class. The BacchiadsB having learnt that an 
oracle had declared that the issue of this marriage would prove 
their ruin, endeavoured to murder the child ; but his mother 
preserved him in a chest, from which he derived his name. J 
When he had grown up to manhood he came forward as the 
champion of the people against the nobles, and with their aid 
expelled the Bacchiadse, and established himself as despot. He 
held his power for thirty years (b.c. 655—625), and transmitted 
it on his death to his son Periander. His government is said to 
have been mild and popular. 

The sway of Periander, on the other hand, is universally repre- 

* Above, c. 7. § Y. 

f Hyatae ('Tdrat), Oneatse {^OveuTai), Choereatai {XoLpedraL). 

X Cypselus from cypsele (KvfE?i.j}), a chest. 



84 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IX 

sented as oppressive and cruel. Many of the tales related of him 
may be regarded as the calumnies of his enemies ; but there is 
good reason for believing that he ruled with a rod of iron. The 
way in which he treated the nobles is illustrated by a well-known 
tale, which has been transferred to the early history of Rome. 
Soon after his accession Periander is said to have sent to Thra- 
sybulus, despot of Miletus, to ask him for advice as to the best 
mode of maintaining his power. AVithout giving an answ^er in 
•vvTiting, Thrasybulus led the messenger through a corn-field, 
cutting off, as he went, the tallest ears of corn. He then dis- 
missed the messenger, telling him to inform his master how he 
had found L:m employed. The action was rightly interpreted 
by Periander, who proceeded to rid himself of the powerful 
nobles of the state. The anecdote, whether true or not, is an 
indication of the common opinion entertained of the govern- 
ment of Periander, We are further told that he protected his 
person by a body-guard of mercenaries, and kept all rebellion in' 
check by his rigorous measures. It is admitted on all hands 
that he possessed great ability and military skill ; and, however 
oppressive his government may have been to the citizens of 
Corinth, he raised the city to a state of great prosperity and 
power, and made it respected ahke by friends and foes. Under 
his sway Corinth was the wealthiest and the most powerful of 
all the commercial communities of Greece ; and at no other pe- 
riod in its history does it appear in so flourishing a condition. 
In his reign many important colonies were founded by Corinth 
on the coast of Acarnania and the surrounding islands and 
coasts, and his sovereignty extended over Corcyra, Ambra- 
cia, Leucas, and Anactorium, all of which were independent 
states in the next generation. Corinth possessed harbours on 
either side of the isthmus, and the customs and port-dues 
were so considerable that Periander required no other source 
of revenue. 

Periander was also a warm patron of literature and art. He 
welcomed the poet Arion and the philosopher Anacharsis to 
his court, and was numbered by some among the Seven Sages 
of Greece. 

The private life of Periander was marked by great misfortunes, 
which embittered his latter days. He is said to have killed his 
wife Melissa in a fit of anger ; whereupon his son Lycophron 
left Corinth and withdrew to Corcyra. The youth continued 
so incensed against his father that he refused to return to Cor- 
mth, when Periander in his old age begged him to come back 
and assume the government. Finding him inexorable, Periander, 
who was anxious to insure the continuance of his dynasty, then 



B.C. 600. DESPOTS OF CORINTH AND ISIEGARA. 85 

offered to go to Oorcpa, if Lycophron ^vould take his place at 
Corinth. To this his son assented ; Liit the Corcyni:a:ii, ieenin^ 
the stern rule of the old man, put Lycophron to death. 

Periander reigned forty years (b.c. C25— 585). He was suc- 
ceeded by a relative, Psammetichus, son of Gorgias, who oidy 
reigned between three and four years, and is said to have been 
put down by the Lacedaemonians. 

^ 7. During the reign of Periander at Corinth, Theagenes made 
himself despot in the neighbouring city of Megara, probably 
about B.C. 630. He overthrew the oligarchy by espousing the 
popular cause ; but he did not mauitam his power till his 
death, but was driven from the govenmient about b.c. 600. A 
stiTiggle now ensued between the oligarchy and the democracy, 
wliich v>'as conducted with more than usual violence. The 
popular party obtained the upper hand, and abused their vic- 
tory. The poor entered the houses of the rich, and forced 
them to provide costly banquets. They confiscated the property 
of the nobles, and drove most of them into exile. They not 
only cancelled their debts, but also forced the aristocratic cre- 
ditors to refund all the interest which had been paid. But the 
expatriated nobles returned in arms and restored the oligarchy. 
They were, however, again expelled, and it was not till after 
long struggles and convulsions that an oligarchical government 
was permanently established at Megara. 

These Megarian revolutions are interesting as a specimen of 
the struggles between the oligarchical and democratical parties, 
vrhich seem to have taken place in many other Grecian states 
about the same time. Some account of them is given by the 
contemporary poet Theognis, who himself belonged to the oligar- 
chical party at Megara. He Avas born and spent his life in the 
midst of these convulsions, and most of his poetry was composed 
at the time when the ohgarchical party was oppressed and ui 
exile. 

In his poems the nobles are the good, and the commons 
the bad, terms which at that time were regidarly used in this 
political signification, and not in their later ethical meaning. *= 
\Ye find in his poems some mterestmg descriptions of the 
social changes Mdiich the popular revolution had effected. It 
had rescued the country population from a condition of abject 
poverty and serfdom, and had given them a share in the govern- 
ment. 

* It should be recollected that the terms ol ayaOoi, kcdloi, fSe?.ria-oi, 
&c. are frequently used by the Greek vrriters to signify tlie nobles, and 
ol itaKoi, deiXoL, <fce., to signify the cororaons. The Latin writers eniploy 
in like manner boni, optimaies, and vidli. 



86 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciiat. IX 

" Our commonwealth preserves its former fame : 
Our common people are no more the same. 
They that in skins and hides were rudely dress'd, 
Nor dreamt of law, nor sought to be redress'd 
By rules of right, but in the days of old 
Liv'd on the land, like cattle in the fold, 
Are now the Brave and Good ; and we, the rest. 
Are now the Mean and Bad,* though once the best." 

An aristocracy of wealth had also hegun to spring up in place 
of an aristocracy of birth, and intermarriages had taken place 
between the two parties in the state. 

" But in the daily matches that we make 
The price is everything; for money's sake 
Men marry — Women are in marriage given; 
The Bad or Coward* that in wealth has thriven, 
May match his offspring with the proudest race : 
Thus everything is mixed, noble and base." 

Theognis lost his property in the revolution, and had been 
driven into exile ; and the following hues show the ferocious 
spirit which sometimes animated the Greeks in their party 
struggles. 

" Yet my full wish, to drink their very blood. 
Some power divine, that watches for my good, 
May yet accomplish. Soon may he fulfil 
My righteous hope — my just and hearty will."f 

These Sicyonian, Corinthian, and Megarian despots were some 
of the most celebrated ; and their history will serve as samples 
of what took place in most of the Grecian states in the seventh 
c nd sixth centuries before the Christian era. 

* All these terms are used in their political signification. 
f The preceding extracts from Theognis are taken from the trangla- 
tion of the poet published by Mr. Frere at Malta in 1842. 




Coin of Corinth. 




Croesus on the Funeral Pile. (See p. 100.)— From an ancient Vasse, 



V 



CHAPTER X. 



EARLY HISTORY OF ATHENS DOWN TO THE USURPATION OF 
PISISTRATUS. 



§ 1. Early division of Attica into twelve independent states, said tohava 
been united by Thesens. § 2. Abolition of royalty. Life archons. 
Decennial archons. Annual archons. § 3. Twofold division of the 
Athenians. (1.) Eupatridse, Geomori, Demiurgi. (2.) Four tribes: 
Geleontes, Hopletes, ^gicores, Argades. § 4. Division of the four 
tribes into Trittyes and Naucrarise, and into Phratrise and Gentes. 
§ 5. The government exclusively in the hands of the Eupatridaj. The 
nine archons and their functions. The senate of Areopagus. §6. The 
legislation of Draco. § 7. The conspiracy of Cylon. His failure, and 
massacre of his partisans by Megacles, the Alcmseonid. Expulsion of 
the Alcmoeonidse. § 8. Visit of Epimenides to Athens, His purifica- 
tion of the city. § 9. Life of Solon. § 10. State of Attica at the 
time of Solon's legislation. § 11. Solon elected archon, b.c. 69-1, with 
legislative powers. § 12. His Seisachtneia or disburdening ordinance. 
§ 18. His oonstitutional changes. Diyision of the people into four 



88 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. X. 

classes, according to their property. § 14, Institution of the Senate 
of Four Hundred. Enlargement of the powers of the Areopagus. 
The Athenian government continues an oligarchy after the time of 
Solon. §15. The special laws of Solon. §16. The travels of Solon. 
§ 17. Usurpation of Pisistratus. Return and death of Solon. 

§ 1 . The history of Athens before the age of Solon is almost a 
blank. Its legendary tales are few, its historical facts still fewer. 
Cecrops, the first ruler of Attica,* is said to have divided the 
country into twelve districts, which are represented as inde- 
pendent communities, each governed by a separate king. They 
were afterwards united into a single state, having Athens as its 
capital and the seat of government. At what time this im- 
portant union was effected cannot be determined. It took place 
at a period long antecedent to all historical records, and is 
ascribed to Theseus, as the national hero of the Athenian people. f 
The poets and orators of a later age loved to represent him as 
the parent of the Athenian democracy. It would be a loss of 
time to point out the folly and absurdity of such a notion. 
Theseus belongs to legend, and not to history ; and in the age 
in which he is placed a democratical form of government was a 
thing quite unknown. 

^2: A few generations after Theseus, the Dorians are said to 
have invaded Attica. An oracle declared that they would be vic- 
torious if they spared the life of the Athenian king ; whereupon 
Codrus, who then reigned at Athens, resolved to sacrifice himself 
for the welfare of his country. Accordingly he went into the 
invader's camp in disguise, provoked- a quarrel with one of the 
Dorian soldiers, and was killed by the latter. Upon learning the 
death of the Athenian king, the Dorians retired from Attica 
without striking a blow ; and the Athenians, from respect to the 
memory of Codrus, abolished the title of king, and substituted 
for it that of Archon | or Ruler. The office, however, was held 
for life, and was confined to the family of Codrus. His son, 
Medon, was the first archon, and he was followed in the dignity by 
eleven members of the family in succession. But soon after the 
accession of Alcmseon, the thirteenth in descent from Medon, 
another change was introduced, and the duration of the archon- 
ship was limited to ten years (e.g. 752), The dignity was still 
confined to the descendants of Medon ; but in the time of Hippo- 
menes (b.c, 714) this restriction was removed, and the office was 
thrown open to all the nobles in the state. In b.c, 683 a still more 
important change took place. The archonship was now made 
annual, and its duties were distributed among nine persons, all of 
whom bore the title, although one was called the archon pre-emi- 
* See p. 15. f For details see p. 20. X '^PX^'^- 



B.C. 683. EARLY HISTORY OF ATHENS. 89 

nently, and gave his name to the year. The last of the decennial 
archons was Eryxias, the first of the nine annual archons Creon. 

Such is the legendary account of the change of government at 
Athens, from royalty to an oligarchy. It appears to have taken 
place peaceably and gradually, as in most other Greek states. 
The whole political power was vested in the nobles ; from them 
the nine annual archons were taken, and to them alone these 
magistrates were responsible. The people, or general body of 
freemen, had no share in the government. 

^ 3 . The Athenian nobles were called Eiqjatridcc. Their name 
is ascribed to Theseus, who is said to have divided the Athenian 
people into three classes, called EupatridcE, Gcomori or husband- 
men, and Demiurgi * or artisans. The Eupatridse were the sole 
depositaries of political and religious power. In addition to the 
election of the archons, they possessed the superintendence of 
all religious matters, and were the authorized expounders of all 
laws, sacred and profane. They corresponded to the Roman 
patricians ; while the two other classes, who were their subjects, 
answered to the Roman plebeians. 

There was another division of the Athenians still more ancient, 
and one which continued to a much later period. We have seen 
that the Dorians in most of their settlements were divided into 
three tribes. The lonians, in like manner, were usually distri 
buted into four tribes. f This division existed in Attica from 
the earliest times, and lasted in full vigour do^ATi to the great 
revolution of Clisthenes (b.c. 509). The four Attic tribes had 
different appellations at various periods, but were finally distni- 
guished by the names of Geleontes (or Teleontes), Hoj^letes, jEgi- 
cores, and Argddcs,t which they are said to have derived from 
the four sons of Ion. The etymology of these names would seem 
to suggest that the tribes were so called from the occupations of 
their members ; the Geleontes (Teleontes) being cultivators, the 
Hopletes the tvarriar-class, the ^^gicores goat-lierds, and the 
Argades artisans. Hence some modern writers have supposed 
that the Athenians were originally divided into castes, like the 
Egj^tians and Indians. But the etymology of these names is 
not free from doubt and dispute ; and even if they were bor- 
rowed from certain occupations, they might soon have lost 
their original meaning, and become mere titles without any 
significance. 

k 4. There were two divisions of the four Athenian tribes, one 
for political, and another for religious and social purposes. 

* Y.i)TTargi6aL, Teu/^opoi, ATjfiiovpyoL 

J^v?Mv, pi. ^v7m. 
TeltovTcc, or TeAt'ovrtf, "GTrA^yrff, AlyiKopelr, WpyddciQ. 



90 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. X. 

For political purposes each tribe was divided into three Trit- 
tyes, and each Trittys into four Naucrariai.* There were thus 
12 Trittyes and 48 Naucrarise. These appear to have been 
local divisions of the whole Athenian people, and to have been 
made chiefly for financial and military objects. Each Naucrary 
consisted of the Naucrari, or householders,! who had to furnish 
the amount of taxes and soldiers imposed upon the district to 
which they belonged. 

The division of the tribes for religious and social purposes is 
more frequently mentioned. Each tribe is said to have contained 
three PhratrisB, each Phratry thirty Gentes, and each Gens thirty 
heads of families. $ Accordingly there would have been 12 
Phratrise, 360 Gentes, and 10,800 heads of families. It is evident, 
however, that such symmetrical numbers could never have been 
preserved, even if they had ever been instituted ; and while it is 
certain that the number of families must have increased in some 
gentes, and decreased in others, it may also be questioned whe- 
ther the same number of gentes existed in each tribe. But 
whatever may be thought of the numbers, the phratriae and 
gentes were important elements in the religious and social life 
of the Athenians. The families composing a gens were united 
by certain religious rites and social obligations. They were 
accustomed to meet together at fixed periods to offer sacri- 
fices to a hero, whom they regarded as the common ancestor 
of all the families of the gens. They had a common place of 
burial and common property ; and in case of a member dying 
intestate, his property devolved upon his gens. They were 
bound to assist each other in difficulties. There was also a con- 
nection between the gentes of the same phratry, and between 
the phratries of the same tribe, by means of certain religious 
rites ; and at the head of each tribe there was a magistrate 
called the Phylo-Basileus,k or King of the Tribe, who offered 
sacrifices on behalf of the whole body. 

§ 5. The real history of Athens begins with the institution of 
annual archons, in the year 683 B.C. This is the first date in 
Athenian history on which certain reliance can be placed. The 
duties of the government were distributed among the nine 
archons, in the following manner. The first, as has been already 

* TpLTTvg, 'NavKpapia. 

•j- 'NavKgagog seems to be connected with vaio), dwell, and is only an- 
other form for vavKXagog or vavKTirjgog. 

\ ^gargla, i.e. brotherhood: the word is etymologically connected with 
frater and brother. The word Thog, or Gens, answers nearly in meaning 
to our clan. The members of a yhog were called -yevvT/rat or 6/j.oyaXuKTec. 

§ ^^v'ko^iaatlEvc. 



B.a 683. EARLY HISTORY OF ATTICA. 91 

remarked, was called The Arclwn^ by way of pre-eminence, 
and sometimes the Arclton Epomjmus,\ because the year was 
distinguished by his name. He was the president of the body, 
and the representative of the dignity of the state. He was the 
protector of widows and orphans, and determined all disputes 
relating to the family. The second arclion was called The Basi- 
leus or The Kl/ig, because he represented the king in his capaci- 
ty as high-priest of the nation. | All cases respecting religion and 
homicide were brought before him. The third archon bore the 
title of The Polemarch,k or Commander-in-chief, and was, down 
to the time of Clisthenes, the commander of the troops. He had 
jurisdiction in all disputes between citizens and strangers. The 
remaining six had the common title of Thesmotlietce^W or Legis- 
lators. They had the decision of all disputes which did not 
specially belong to the other three. Their duties seem to have 
been almost exclusively judicial ; and for this reason they re- 
ceived their name, not that they made the laws, but because 
their particular sentences had the force of laws in the absence 
of a written code. 

The Senate, or Council of Areopagus, was the only other 
political power in the state in these early times. It received its 
name from its place of meeting, which was a rocky eminence 
opposite the Acropolis, called the Hill of Ares (Mars' Hill).^ 
Its institution is ascribed by some writers to Solon ; but it ex- 
isted long before the time of that legislator, and may be regard- 
ed as the representative of the council of chiefs in the Heroic 
ages. It was originally called simply The Senate or Council, 
and did not obtain the name of the senate of Areopagus till 
Sojon instituted^nother senate, from which it was necessary to 
distinguish it. It was of course formed exclusively of Eupatrids, 
and all the archons became members of it at the expiration of 
their year of office. 

k 6. The government of the Eupatrids, like most of the early 
oligarchies, seems to have been oppressive. In the absence of 
written laws, the archons possessed an arbitrary power, of which 
they probably availed themselves to the beneht of their friends 
and their order, and to the injury of the general body of citizens. 

* 'O 'Kgxf^v. f 'A.Qx<^^ k-n^vvjiog. 

X 'O l3aaL?.evg. In the same manner the title of Hex Sacrijicu- 
lua or Hex Sacrorum was retained at Rome after the abolition of 
royalty. 

§ 'O IioXi[Ma()xog. 

I Qeoftoderai. The word deafioi was the ancient term for laws, and 
was afterwards supplanted by vofioL The latter expression for making 
laws is dtadai vo/novg. 

^ 'O 'Ageiog nayoc 



92 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciiap. X 

The consequence was great discontent, which at length hecame 
so serious, that Draco was appointed in G24 b.c. to draw up a 
written code of laws. He did not change the political constitu- 
tion of Athens, and the most remarkable characteristic of his 
laws was their extremie severity. He affixed the penalty of death 
to all crimes alike ; — to petty thefts, for instance, as well as to 
sacrilege and murder. Hence they were said to have been writ- 
ten not in ink, but in blood ; and we are told that he justified this 
extreme harshness by saying, that small offences deserved death, 
and that he knew no severer punishment for great ones. This 
severity, however, must be attributed rather to the spirit of the 
times, than to any peculiar harshness in Draco himself; for he 
probably did little more than reduce to writing the ordinances 
which had previously regulated his brother Eupatrids in their de- 
cision of cases. His laws would of course appear excessively 
severe to a later age, long accustomed to a milder system of 
jurisprudence ; but there is reason for believing that their severi- 
ty has been somcAvhat exaggerated. In one instance, indeed, 
Draco softened the ancient rigour of the law, Beibre his time 
all homicides were tried by the senate of Areopagus, and if found 
guilty, were condemned to suffer the full penalty of the law, — 
either death, or perpetual banishment Avith confiscation of prop- 
erty. The senate had no power to take account of any extenuat- 
ing or justifying circumstances. Draco left to this ancient body 
the trial of all cases of wilful murder ; but he appointed fifty-one 
new judges, called Eplietcc,^ who were to try all cases of homi- 
cide in which accident or any other justification could be pleaded. 
His regulations with respect to homicide continued in use after 
his other ordinances had been repealed by Solon. 

k 7. The legislation of Draco failed to calm the prevailing dis- 
content. The people gained nothing by the written code, except 
a more perfect knowledge of its severity ; and civil dissensions 
prevailed as extensively as before. The general dissatisfaction 
with the government was favourable to revolutionary projects ; 
aiid accordingly, twelve years after Draco's legislation (b.c. 012), 
one of the nobles conceived the design of depriving his brother 
Eupatrids of their power, and making himself despot of Athens. 
This noble was Cylon, one of the most distinguished members 
of the order. He had gained a victory at the Olympic games, 
and had married the daughter of Theagenes, of Megara, who 
had made himself despot of his native city. Encouraged by 
the success of" his father-in-law, and excited by his own cele- 
brity and position in the state, he consulted the Delphic oracle 
on the subject, and was advised to seize the Acropolis at " the 



B.C. C12. CONSPIRACY OF CYLOK 93 

greatest festival of Jove." Cylon naturally supposed that the 
god referred to the Olympic games, in which he had gained so 
much distinction, forgetting that the Diasia was the greatest 
festival of Jove at Athens. Accordingly, during the celebration 
of the next Olympic games, he took possession of the Acropolis 
with a considerable force, composed partly of his own jiartisans, 
and partly of troops furnished by Theagenes. But he did not 
meet with any support from the great mass of the people, and 
he soon found himself closely blockaded by the forces which the 
government was able to summon to its assistance. Cylon and 
his brother made their escape : but the remainder of his asso- 
ciates, hard pressed by hunger, abandoned the defence of the 
walls, and took refuge at the altar of Athena (Minerva). Here 
they were found by the archon Megacles, one of the illustrious 
family of the AlcmsBoinda3 ; who, fearing lest their death should 
pollute the sanctuary of the goddess, j)romised that their lives 
should be spared on their quitting the place. But directly they 
had quitted the temple, the promise was broken, and they were 
put to death ; and some who had taken refuge at the altar of 
the Eumenides, or the Furies, were murdered even at that sa- 
cred spot. 

The conspiracy thus failed ; but its suppression was attended 
with a long train of melancholy consequences. The whole family 
of the Alcmseonidse were believed to have become tainted by the 
daring act or sacrilege committed by Megacles ; and the friends 
and partisans of the murdered conspirators were not slow in de- 
manding vengeance upon the accursed race. Thus a new ele- 
ment of discord was introduced into the state. The power and 
influence of the Alcmseonidse enabled them long to resist the 
attempts of their opponents to bring them to a public trial ; and 
it was not till many years after these events that Solon per- 
suaded them to submit their case to the judgment of a special 
court composed of three hundred Eupatridse. By this court they 
were adjudged guilty of sacrilege, and were expelled from Attica ; 
but their punishment was not considered to expiate their im- 
piety, and we shall find in the later times of Athenian history 
that this powerful family was still considered an accursed race, 
which by the sacrilegious act of its ancestor brought upon their 
native land the anger of the gods. The expulsion of the Alc- 
maeonidai appears to have taken place about the year 597 B.C. 

^ 8. The banishment of the guilty race did not, however, de- 
liver the Athenians from their religious fears. They imagined 
that their state had incurred the anger of the gods : and the 
pestilential disease with which they were visited was regarded 
aa an unerring sign of the divine wrath. Upon the advice of 



Vi HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. X. 

the Delphic oracle, they invited the celebrated Cretan prophet 
and sage Epimenides to visit Athens, and purify their city frcm 
pollution and sacrilege. 

Epimenides was one of the most renowned prophets of the 
age. In his youth he w^as said to have been overtaken by a sleep, 
which lasted for fifty-seven years. During this miraculous trance 
he had been favoured with frequent intercourse with the gods, 
and had learnt the means of propitiating them and gaining their 
favour. This venerable seer was received with the greatest re- 
verence at Athens. By performing certain sacrifices and expi- 
atory rites, he succeeded in staying the plague, and in purifying 
the city from its guilt. The religious despondency of the Athe- 
nians now ceased, and the grateful people oliered their bene- 
factor a talent of gold ; but he refused the money, and con- 
tented himself with a branch from the sacred olive tree, which 
grew on the Acropolis. The visit of Epimenides to Athens oc- 
curred about the year 596 B.C. 

Epimenides had been assisted in his undertaking by the ad- 
vice of Solon, who now enjoyed a distinguished reputation at 
Athens, and to whom his fellow-citizens looked up as the only 
person in the state who could deliver them from their political 
and social dissensions, and secure them from such misfortunes for 
the future. 

§ 9. We have now come to an important period in Athenian 
and in Grecian history. The legislation of Solon laid the founda- 
tions of the greatness of Athens. Solon himself was one of the 
most remarkable men in the early history of Greece. He pos- 
sessed a deep knowledge of human nature, and was animated in 
his public conduct by a lofty spirit of patriotism. It is, there- 
fore, the more to be regretted that we are acquainted with only 
a few facts in his life. His birth may be placed about the year 
638 B.C. He was the son of Execestides, who traced his descent 
from the heroic Codrus ; and his mother was first cousin to the 
mother of Pisistratus. His father possessed only a moderate 
fortune, which he had still further diminished by prodigality ; 
and Solon in consequence was obliged to have recourse to trade. 
He visited many parts of Greece and Asia as a merchant, and 
formed acquaintance with many of the most eminent men of his 
time. At an early age he distinguished himself by his poetical 
abihties ; and so widely did his reputation extend, that he was 
reckoned one of the Seven Sages. 

The first occasion which induced Solon to take an active part 
in political afiairs, was the contest between Alliens and Megara 
for the possession of Salamis. That island had revolted to Me- 
gara ; and the Athenians had so repeatedly failed in their at- 



B.C. 600. LIFE OF SOLON. 9b 

tempts to recover it, that they forbade any citizen, under 
penalty of death, to make any proposition ibr the renewal of the 
enterprise. Indignant at such pusillanimous conduct, Solon 
caused a report to be spread through the city that he was mad, 
and then in a state of frenzied excitement he rushed into the 
market-place, and recited to a crowd of bystanders a poem 
which he had previously composed on the loss of Salamis. He 
upbraided the Athenians with their disgrace, and called upon 
them to reconquer " the lovely island." " Rather (he exclaimed) 
would 1 be a denizen of the most contemptible community in 
Greece than a citizen of Athens, to be pointed at as one of those 
Attic dastards who had so basely relinquished their right to 
Salamis." His stratagem was completely successful. Hisiriends 
seconded his proposal : and the people unanimously rescinded 
the law, and resolved once more to try the fortune of war. Solon 
was appointed to the command of the expedition, in which he 
was accompanied by his young kinsman Pisistratus. In a single 
campaign (about B.C. 600) Solon drove the Megarians out of the 
island ; but a tedious war ensued, and at last both parties agreed 
to refer the matter in dispute to the arbitration of Sparta. So- 
lon pleaded the cause of his countrjmien, and is said on this 
occasion to have forged the line in the Iliad,=* which represents 
Ajax ranging his ship with those of the Athenians. The Lace- 
daemonians decided in favor of the Athenians, in whose hands 
the island remained henceforward down to the latest times. 

Soon after the conquest of Salamis, Solon's reputation w^as 
further increased by espousing the cause of the Delphian temple 
against Cirrha. He is said to have moved the decree of the Am- 
phictyons, by which war was declared against the guilty city 
(B.C. 595).t 

§ 10. The state of Attica at the time of Solon's legislation de- 
miands a more particular account than we have hitherto given. 
Its population was divided into three factions, who were now in 
a state of violent hostility against each other. These parties 
consisted of the Pedieis,t or wealthy Eupatrid inhabitants of the 
plains ; of the Diacrii,k or poor inhabitants of the hilly districts 
in the north and east of Attica ; and of the Farali,\\ or mercantile 
inhabitants of the coasts, who held an intermediate position be- 
tween the other two. 

The cause of the dissensions between these parties is not 
particularly mentioned ; but the difficulties attending these dis- 
putes had become aggravated by the miserable condition of tho 
poorer population of Attica. The latter were in a state of 

* ii. 668. f See p. 5L % Tledul^ or liedLaloc. 

§ AidicgLOc. H TlugaXoL 



96 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. X. 

abject poverty. They had borrowed money from the wealthy 
at exorbitant rates of interest upon the security of their pro- 
perty and their persons. If the principal and interest of the 
debt Avere not paid, the creditor had the power of seizing the 
person as well as the land of his debtor, and of using him as a 
slave. Many had thus been torn from their homes and sold to 
barbarian masters : while others were cultivating as slaves the 
lands of their wealthy creditors in Attica. The rapacity of the 
rich and the degradation of the poor are recorded by Solon in 
the existing fragments of his poetry ; and mat1 1 is had now come 
to such a crisis, that the existing laws could no longer be en- 
forced, and the poor were ready to rise in open insurrection 
against the rich. 

§ 11. In these alarming circumstances, the ruling ohgarchy 
were obliged to have recourse to Solon. They were aware of the 
vigorous protest he had made against their injustice ; but they 
trusted that his connexion with their party would help them over 
their present difficulties ; and they therefore chose him Archon 
in B.C. 594, investing him under that title with unlimited powders 
to efiect any changes he might consider beneficial to the state. 
His appointment was hailed with satisfaction by the poor ; 
and all parties were willing to accept his mediation and re- 
forms. 

Many of Solon's friends urged him to take advantage of his 
position and make himself despot of Athens. There is no doubt 
he would have succeeded if he had made the attempt, but he 
had the wisdom and the virtue to resist the temptation, telling 
his friends that " despotism might be a fine country, but there 
was no way out of it." Dismissing, therefore, all thoughts of 
personal aggrandisement, he devoted all his energies to the diffi- 
cult task he had undertaken. 

s^ 12. He commenced his undertaking by relieving the poorer 
class of debtors from their existing distress. This he etlected 
by a celebrated ordinance called Seisachtheia, or a shaking off of 
burthens. =^ This measure cancelled all contracts by which the 
land or person of a debtor had been given as security : it thus 
relieved the land from all encumbrances and claims, and set at 
liberty all persons who had been reduced to slavery on account 
of their debts. Solon also provided means of restoring to their 
homes those citizens who had been sold into foreign countries. 
He forbad for the future all loans in which the person of the 
debtor was pledged as security. This extensive measure entirely 
released the poorer classes from their difficulties, but it must 
have left many of their creditors unable to discharge their obli- 

* lleiGaxOeca. 



B.C. 5y^. LEGISLATION OF SOLOIf. jj 

gations. To give the latter some relief, he lowered the standard 
of the coinage, so that the debtor saved rather more than a 
fourth in every payment.* 

Some of his friends having obtained a hint of his intention 
borrowed large sums of money, with which they purchased 
estates ; and Solon himself would have suftered in public esti- 
mation, if it had not been found that he was a loser by his own 
measure, having lent as much as five talents. 

§ 13, The success attending these measures was so great, that 
Solon was now called upon by his fellow-citizens to draw up a 
new constitution and a new code of laws. As a prelimmaiy step 
he repealed all the laws of Draco, except those relating to murder. 
He then proceeded to make a new classification of the citizens, 
according to the amount of their property, thus changing the 
government from an Oligarchy to a Timocracy.f 

The title of the citizens to the honours and offices of the state 
was henceforward regulated by their wealth, and not by their 
birth. This was the distinguishing feature of Solon's constitu- 
tion, and produced eventually most important consequences ; 
though the change was probably not great at first, since there 
were then few wealthy persons in Attica, except the Eupatrids. 
Solon then distributed all the citizens into four classes, accord- 
ing to their property, which he caused to be assessed. The first 
class consisted of those whose annual income was equal to 500 
medimni of corn and upwards, and were called Pe/itacosiome- 
dimni.X The second class consisted of those whose incomes 
ranged between 300 and 500 medirmii, and were called K?iights,k 
from their being able to furnish a war-horse. The third class 
consisted of those who received between 200 and 300 medimni, 
and were called Zeiigit<x,\\ from their being able to keep a yoke 
of oxen for the plough. The fourth class, called TJietes,^ included 
all whose property fell short of 200 medimni. The members of 
the first three classes had to pay an mcome-tax according to the 
amount of their property ; but the fourth class were exempt 
from direct taxation altogether. The first class were alone 
eligible to the archonship and the higher offices of the state. 
The second and third classes filled inferior posts, and were liable 

* Solon is said to have made the mina contain 100 drachmas instead 
of "73; that is, 73 old drachmas contained the same quantity of silver 
as 100 of the new standard. 

f TtfiOKQaria from ti/iti assessment, and KQarecj ride. 

\ UevraKoaiofieSiuvou The medimnus contained nearly 12 imperial 
gallons, or 1^ bushel: it was reckoned equal to a draclmia. 

I Zevylrai, from ^evyor, a yoke of beasts. ^ Orjrei: 

F 



yb HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. X. 

to military service, the former as horsemen, and the latter as 
heavy-armed soldiers on foot. The fourth class were excluded 
from all public offices, and served in the army only as light- 
armed troops. Solon, however, admitted them to a share in the 
political power by allowing them to vote in the pubHc assem- 
bly,* where they must have constituted by far the largest num- 
ber. He gave the assembly the right of electing the archons and 
the other officers of the state ; and he also made the archons 
accountable to the assembly at the expiration of their year of 
office. Solon thus greatly enlarged the functions of the public 
assembly, which, under the government of the Eupatrids, proba- 
bly possessed little more power than the agora, described in the 
poems of Homer, 

§ 14. This extension of the duties of the public assembly led 
to the institution of a new body. Solon created the Senate, or 
Council of Four Hundred, with the special object of preparing 
all matters for the discussion of the public assembly, of presiding 
at its meetings, and of carrying its resolutions into effect. No 
subject could be introduced before the people, except by a pre- 
vious resolution of the Senate. f The members of the Senate 
were elected by the public assembly, one hundred from each of 
the four ancient tribes, which were left untouched by Solon. 
They held their office for a year, and were accountable at its ex- 
piration to the public assembly for the manner in which they had 
discharged their duties. 

Solon, however, did not deprive the ancient Senate of the Are- 
opagus of any of its functions.^ On the contrary, he enlarged 
its powers, and entrusted it with the general supervision of the 
institutions and laws of the state, and imposed upon it the duty 
of inspecting the lives and occupations of the citizens. 

These are the only political institutions which can be safely 
ascribed to Solon. At a later period it became the fashion among 
the Athenians to regard Solon as the author of all their demo- 
cratical institutions, just as some of the orators referred therii 
even to Theseus. Thus the creation of jury-courts and of the 
periodical revision of the laws by the NomothetsB belongs to a 
later age, although frequently attributed to Solon. This legis- 
lator only laid the foundation of the Athenian democracy by 
giving the poorer classes a vote in the popular assembly, and 
by enlarging the power of the latter ; but he left the govern- 
ment exclusively in the hands of the wealthy. For many years 
after his time the government continued to be an oligarchy, but 

* Called Hcliaca {'ll/uaca) in the time of Solon, but subseqvi«jntly 
JScclesia {kKKATjaia). 

\ Called Frobouleuma {■npoftovXemiccd. ^ See p. 91 



B.C. 594. LEGISLATION OF SOLON. 99 

was exercised with more moderation and justice than formerly. 
The establishment of the Athenian democracy was the work of 
Clisthenes, and not of Solon. 

M5. The laws of Solon were inscribed on wooden rollers and 
triangular tablets,* and were preserved first in the Acropolis, and 
afterwards in the Prytaneum, or Town-hall. They were very 
numerous, and contained regulations on almost all subjects con- 
nected with the public and private life of the citizens. But they 
do not seem to have been arranged in any systematic manner ; 
and such small fragments have come down to us, that it is im- 
possible to give any general view of them. 

The most important of all these laws were those relating to 
debtor and creditor, of which we have already spoken. Several 
of Solon's enactments had for their object the encouragement of 
trade and manufactures. He invited foreigners to settle in 
Athens by the promise of protection and valuable privileges. 
The Council of the Areopagus was, as we have seen, intrusted by 
him with the duty of examining into every man's mode of life, 
and of punishing the idle and profligate. To discourage idleness 
a son was not obliged to support his father in old age, if the lat- 
ter had neglected to teach him some trade or occupation. 

Solon punished theft by compelling the guilty party to restore 
double the value of the property stolen. He forbade speaking 
evil either of the dead or of the living. He either established or 
regulated the public dinners in the Prytaneum, of which the 
archons and a few others partook. 

The rewards which he bestowed upon the victors in the Olym- 
pic and Isthmian games were very large for that age : to the 
former he gave 500 drachmas, and to the latter 100. 

One of the most singular of Solon's regulations was that which 
declared a man dishonoured and disfranchised who, in a civil 
sedition, stood aloof and took part with neither side. The 
object of this celebrated law was to create a public spirit in the 
citizens, and a lively interest in the afiairs of the state. The 
ancient governments, unlike those of modern times, could not 
summon to their assistance any regular police or military force ; 
and unless individual citizens came forward in civil commotions, 
any ambitious man, supported by a powerful party, might easily 
make himself master of the state. 

^ 16. Solon is said to have been aware that he had left many 
imperfections in his laws. He described them not as the best 
laws which he could devise, but as the best Avhich the Athe- 
nians could receive. He bound the government and people 

* Called "A^ovet; and Kv^)ftei(;. 



100 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. X 

of Athens by a solemn oath to observe his institutions for at 
least ten years. But as soon as they came into operation he 
was constantly besieged by a number of applicants, who came 
to aak his advice respecting the meaning of his enactments, or 
to suggest improvements and alterations in them. Seeing that 
if he remained in Athens, he should be obliged to introduce 
changes into his code, he resolved to leave his native city for the 
period of ten years, during which the Athenians were bound to 
maintain his laws inviolate. He first visited Egypt, and then 
proceeded to Cyprus, where he was received with great distinc- 
tion by Philocyprus, king of the small town of ^pia. He per- 
suaded this prince to remove his city from the old site, and found 
a new one on the plain, which Philocyprus called SoH, in honour 
of his illustrious visitor. 

Solon is also related to have remained some time at Sardis, 
the capital of Lydia. His interview with Croesus, the Lydian 
king, is one of the most celebrated events in his life. The Ly- 
dian ra.onarchy was then at the height of its prosperity and glory. 
Croesus, after exhibiting to the Grecian sage all his treasures, 
asked him who was the happiest man he had ever known, 
nothing doubting of the reply. But Solon, without flattering 
his royal guest, named two obscure Greeks ; and when the king 
expressed his surprise and mortification that his visitor took no 
account of his great glory and wealth, Solon replied that he es- 
teemed no man happy till he knew how he ended his life, since 
the highest prosperity was frequently followed by the darkest 
adversity. Croesus at the time treated the admonition of the 
sage with contempt ; but when the Lydian monarchy was after- 
wards overthrown by Cyrus, and Croesus was condemned by his 
savage conqueror to be burnt to death, the warnings of the Greek 
philosopher came to his mind, and he called in a loud voice upon 
the name of Solon. Cyrus inquired the cause of this strange in- 
vocation, and upon hearing it, was struck with the vicissitudes 
of fortune, set the Lydian monarch free, and made him his con- 
fidential friend. 

It is impossible not to regret that the stern laws of chronology 
compel us to reject this beautiful tale. Croesus did not ascend 
the throne till B.C. 560, and Solon had returned to Athens before 
that date. The story has been evidently invented to convey an 
important moral lesson, and to draw a striking contrast between 
Grecian republican simplicity and Oriental splendour and pomp. 

M/'. During the absence of Solon, the old dissensions between 
the Plain, the Shore, and the Mountain had broken out afresh 
with more violence than ever. The first was headed by Lycurgus, 
tlie second by Megacles, the Alcmaeonid, and the grandson of the 



E.G. 560. USURPATION OF PISISTRATUS. 101 

archon who had suppressed the conspiracy of Cylon, and the 
third by Pisistratus, the cousin of Solon. Of these leaders, Pisis- 
tratus was the ablest and the most dangerous. He had gained 
renown in war ; he possessed remarkable fluency of speech ; and 
he had espoused the cause of the Mountain, which was the poor- 
est of the three classes, in order to gain popularity with the great 
mass of the people. Of these advantages he resolved to avail 
himself in order to become master of Athens. 

Solon returned to Athens about b.c. 562, when these dissen- 
sions were rapidly approaching a crisis. He soon detected the 
ambitious designs of his kinsman, and attempted to dissuade 
him from them. Finding his remonstrances iruitless, he next 
denounced his projects in verses addressed to the people. Few, 
however, gave any heed to his warnings ; and Pisistratus, at 
length finding his schemes ripe for action, had recourse to a 
memorable stratagem to secure his object. One day he appeared 
in the market-place in a chariot, his mules and his own person 
bleeding with w^ounds inflicted with his own hands. These he 
exhibited to the people, telling them that he had been nearly 
murdered in consequence of defending their rights. The popu- 
lar indignation was excited ; an assembly was forthwith called, 
and one of his friends proposed that a guard of fifty club-men 
should be granted him for his future security. It was in vain 
that Solon used all his authority to oppose so dangerous a re- 
quest ; his resistance was overborne ; and the guard was voted. 

Pisistratus thus gained the first and most important step. He 
gradually increased the number of his guard, and soon found 
himself strong enough to throw off the mask and seize the Acro- 
polis, B.C. 560. Megacles and the Alcmseonidae left the city. 
Solon alone had the courage to oppose the usurpation, and up- 
braided the people with their cowardice and their treachery. 
" You might," said he, " with ease have crushed the tyrant in 
the bud ; but nothing now remains but to pluck him up by the 
roots." But no one responded to his appeal. He refused to fly; 
and when his friends asked him on what he rehed for protection, 
" On my old age," was his reply. It is creditable to Pisistratus 
that he left his aged relative unmolested, and even asked his 
advice in the administration of the government. 

Solon did not long survive the overthrow of the constitution. 
He died a year or two afterwards at the advanced age of eighty. 
His ashes are said to have been scattered, by his own direction, 
round the island of Salamis, which he had won for the Athenian 
people. 




Ruins of the Temple of the Olympian Jove at Athens. 



CHAPTER XL 

HISTORY OF ATHENS FROM THE USURPATION OF FISISTRATUS TO 
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEMOCRACY BY CLISTHENES. 



§ 1. Despotism of Pisistratus. His first expulsion and restoration. § 2. 
His second expulsion and restoration. § 3. Government of Pisistratus 
after his final restoration to his death, b.o. 52Y. § 4. Government of 
Hippias and Hipparehus. Conspiracy of Harmodius and Aristogiton, 
and assassination of Hipparehus, b.c. 514. § 5. Sole government of 
Hippias. His expulsion by the Alcmajonidae and the Lacedaemonians, 
B.C. 510. § 6. Honours paid to Harmodius and Aristogiton. § 7. Party 
struggles at Athens between Clisthenes and Isagoras. Establishment 
of the Athenian democracy. § 8. Reforms of Clisthenes. Institution 
of ten new tribes and of the demes. § 9. Increase of the number of 
the Senate to Five Hundred. § 10. Enlargement of the functions and 
authority of the Senate and the Ecclesia. § 11. Introduction of the 
judicial "functions of the people. Institution of the Ten Strategi or 
Generals. §12. Ostracism. § 13. First attempt of the Lacedaemonians 
to overthrow the Athenian democracy. Invasion of Attica by Cleo- 



B.C. 560. USURPATION OF PISISTRATUS. 103 

raenes, followed by his expulsion with that of Isagoras. § 14. Second 
attempt of the Lacedieraonians to overthrow the Athenian democracy. 
The Lacedsemonians, Thebaus, and Chalcidians attack Attica. The 
Lacedaemonians deserted by their allies and compelled to retire. Vic- 
tories of the Athenians over the Thebans and Chalcidians, followed 
by the planting of 4000 Athenian colonists on the lands of the Chal- 
cidians. § 15. Third attempt of the Lacedaemonians to overthrow the 
. Athenian democracy, again frustrated by tlie refusal of the allies to 
take part in the enterprise. § 16. Growth of Athenian patriotism, a 
consequence of the reforms of Clisthenes. 

^ 1. PisiSTRATUS became despot of Athens, as already stated, 
in the year 560 b.c. He did not however retain his power long. 
The two leaders of the other factions, Megacles of the Shore, 
and Lycurgus of the Plain, now combined, and Pisistratus was 
driven into exile. But the two rivals afterwards quarrelled, and 
Megacles invited Pisistratus to return to Athens, offering him 
his daughter in marriage, and promising to assist him in regain- 
ing the sovereignty. These conditions being accepted, the follow- 
ing stratagem was devised for carrying the plan into effect. A tall 
stately woman, named Phya, was clothed in the armour and cos- 
tume of Athena (Minerva), and placed in a chariot with Pisistratus 
at her side. In this guise the exiled despot approached the city, 
preceded by heralds, who announced that the goddess was bring- 
ing back Pisistratus to her own acropolis. The people believed 
the announcement, worshipped the woman as their tutelary 
goddess, and quietly submitted to the sway of their former ruler. 
§ 2. Pisistratus married the daughter of Megacles according 
to the compact ; but as he had already grown up children by a 
former marriage, and did not choose to connect his blood with a 
family which was considered accursed on account of Cylon's 
sacrilege, he did not treat her as his wife. Incensed at this 
affront, Megacles again made cornmon cause with Lycurgus, and 
Pisistratus was compelled a second time to quit Athens. He re- 
tired to Eretria in Euboea, where he remained no fewer than ten 
years. He did not however spend his time in inactivity. He pos- 
sessed considerable influence in various parts of Greece, and many 
cities furnished him with large sums of money. He was thus 
able to procure mercenaries from Argos ; and Lygdamis, a pow- 
erful citizen of Naxos, came himself both with money and with 
troops. With these Pisistratus sailed from Eretria, and landed at 
Marathon. Here he was speedily joined by his friends and parti- 
sans, who flocked to his camp in large numbers. His antagonists 
allowed him to remain undisturbed at Marathon ; and it was not 
till he began his march towards the city that they hastily col- 
lected their forces and went out to meet him. But their conduct 
was extremely negligent or corrupt ; for Pisistratus fell suddenly 



104 HISTORY OF GREECK Chat. XL 

upon their forces at noon, when the men were unprepared for 
battle, and put them to flight almost without resistance. Instead 
of following up his victory hy slaughtering the fugitives, he pro- 
claimed a general pardon on condition of their returning quietly 
to their homes. His orders were generally obeyed ; and the 
leaders of the opposite factions, finding them.selves abandoned 
by their partisans, quitted the country. In this manner Pisis- 
tratus became undisputed master of Athens for the third time. 
, § 3. Pisistratus now adopted vigorous measures to secure his 
power and render it permanent. He took into his pay a body 
of Thracian mercenaries, and seized as hostages the children of 
those citizens whom he suspected, placing them in Naxos under 
the care of Lygdamis. But as soon as he was firmly established 
in the government, his administration was marked by mildness 
and equity. An income-tax of five per cent, was all that he 
levied from the people. He maintained the institutions of Solon, 
taking care, however, that the highest offices should always be 
held by some m.embers of his own family. He not only enforced 
strict obedience to the laws, but himself set the example of sub- 
mitting to them. Bemg accused of murder, he disdained to 
take advantage of his authority, and went in person to plead 
his cause before the Areopagus, where his accuser did not ven- 
ture to appear. He courted popularity by largesses to the 
citizens, and by throwing open his gardens to the poor. He 
adorned Athens with many public buildings, thus giving em- 
ployment to the poorer citizens, and at the same time gratifying 
his own taste. He commenced on a stupendous scale a temple 
to the Olympian Jove, which remained unfinished for centuries, 
and was at length completed by the emperor Hadrian. He 
covered with a building the fountain Callirrhoe, which supplied 
the greater part of Athens with water, and conducted the water 
through nine pipes, whence the fountain was called Ennea- 
crunus.* Moreover, Pisistratus was a patron of literature, as 
well as of the arts. He is said to have been the first person in 
Greece who collected a library, which he threw open to the 
public ; and to him posterity is mdebted for the collection of 
the Homeric poems. f On the whole, it cannot be denied that 
he made a wise and noble use of his power ; and it was for this 
reason that Julius Csesar was called the Pisistratus of Rome. 

§ 4. Pisistratus died at an advanced age in 527 B.C., thirty- 
three years after his first usurpation. He transmitted the so- 
vereign power to his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, who con- 
ducted the government on the same principles as their father. 

* ''EvveuKgovvo^ from ^vvm nine, and kqovvo^ a pipe. ■}■ See p. 43. 



B.C. 514. ASSASSINATIOJi^ OF HIPPARCHUs. 106 

Hipparchus inherited his father's hterary tastes. He invited 
several distinguished poets, such as Anaereon and Simonides, to 
his court, and he set up along the highways statues of Hermes 
(Mercury), with moral sentences written upon them. Thucy- 
dides states that the sons of Pisistratus cultivated virtue and wis« 
dom ; the people appear to have been contented with their rule ; 
and it was only an accidental circumstance which led to their 
overthrow and to a change in the government. 
' Their fall was occasioned by the memorable conspiracy cf 
Harmodius and Aristogiton. These citizens belonged to an 
ancient family of Athens, and w^ere attached to each other by a 
most intimate friendship. Harmodius having given ofience to 
Hippias, the despot revenged himself by putting a public ahront 
upon his sister. This indignity excited the resentment of the 
two friends, and they now resolved to slay the despots, or perish 
in the attempt. They communicated the plot to a few asso- 
ciates, and determined to carry it into execution on the festival 
of the Great Panathensea, when all the citizens w^ere required to 
attend in arms, and to march in procession from the Ceramicus, 
a suburb of the city, to the temple of Athena (Minerva) on the 
Acropolis. When the appointed time arrived, the conspirators 
appeared armed like the rest of the citizens, but carrying con- 
cealed daggers besides. Harmodius and Aristogiton had planned 
to kill Hippias first, as he was arranging the order of the proces- 
sion in the Ceramicus ; but upon approaching the spot where he 
was standing, they were thunderstruck at beholding one of the 
conspirators in close conversation with the despot. Believing 
that they were betrayed, and resolving before they died to wreak 
their vengeance upon Hipparchus, they rushed back into the 
city with their daggers hid in the myrtle boughs which they 
were to have carried in the procession. They ibmid him near 
the chapel called Leocorium, and killed him on the spot. Har- 
modius was immediately cut down by the guards. Aristogiton 
escaped for the time, but w^as afterwards taken, and died under 
the tortures to which he was subjected in order to compel him 
to disclose his accomphces. The news of his brother's death 
reached Hippias before it became generally known. With ex- 
traordinary presence of mind he called upon the citizens to drop 
their arms, and meet him in an adjoining ground. They obeyed 
without suspicion. He then apprehended those on whose per- 
sons daggers were discovered, and all besides whom he had any 
reason to suspect. 

^ 5. Hipparchus was assassinated in B.C. 514, the fourteenth 
year after the death of Pisistratus. From this time the char- 
acter of the government became entirely changed. His bro- 



106 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XL 

ther's murder converted Hippias into a cruel and suspicious 
tyrant. He put to death numbers of the citizens, and raised 
large sums of money by extraordinary taxes. Feeling himself 
unsafe at home, he began to look abroad for som.e place of re- 
treat, in case he should be expelled from Athens. With this 
view, he gave his daughter in marriage to ^antides, son of Hip- 
poclus, despot of Lampsacus, because the latter was in great 
favour with Darius, king of Persia. 

Meantime the growing unpopularity of Hippias raised the 
hopes of the powerful family of the Alcmseonidee, who had lived 
in exile ever since the third and final restoration of Pisistratus 
to Athens. Believing the favourable moment to be come, they 
even ventured to invade Attica, and established themselves in a 
fortified town upon the frontier. They were, however, defeated 
by Hippias with loss, and compelled to quit the country. Un- 
able to effect their restoration by force, they now had recourse 
to a manoeuvre which proved successful. 

The Alcmseonidee had taken the contract for rebuilding the 
temple at Delphi, which had been accidentally destroyed by fire 
many years previously. They not only executed the work in 
the best possible manner, but even exceeded what had been 
required of them, employing Parian marble for the front of the 
temple, instead of the coarse stone specified in the contract. 
This liberality gained for them the favour of the Delphians ; and 
Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, w^ho was now the head of the 
family, secured the oracle still further by pecuniary presents to 
the Pythia, or priestess. Henceforth, whenever the Spartans came 
to consult the oracle, the answer of the priestess was always the 
same, — " Athens must be liberated." This order was so often 
repeated, that the Spartans at last resolved to obey, although 
they had hitherto maintained a friendly connexion with the 
family of Pisistratus. Their first attempt failed ; the force which 
they sent into Attica was defeated by Hippias, and its leader 
slain. A second effort succeeded. Cleomenes, king of Sparta, 
defeated the Thessalian allies of Hippias ; and the latter, unable 
to meet his enemies in the field, took refuge in the Acropolis. 
Here he might have maintained himself in safety, had not his 
children been made prisoners as they were being secretly carried 
out of the country. To procure their restoration, he consented 
to quit Attica in the space of five days. He sailed to Asia, and 
took up his residence at Sigeum in the Troad, which his father 
had wrested from the Mytilenseans in war. 

§ 6. Hippias was expelled in b.c. 510, four years after the 
assassination of Hipparchus. These four years had been a time 
of suffering and oppression for the Athenians, and had effaced 



i 



B.C. 610. EXPULSION OF HIPPIAS. 107 

from their minds all recollection of the former mild ruk of 
Pisistratus and his sons. Hence the expulsion of the family- 
was hailed with delight, and their names were handed down 
to posterity, with execration and hatred. For the same reason 
the memory of Harmodius and Aristogiton was cherished with 
the fondest reverence ; and the Athenians of subsequent genera- 
tions, overlooking the four years which elapsed from their death 
to the overthrow of the despotism, represented them as the libe- 
rators of their country and the first martyrs for its liberty. Their 
statues were erected in the market-place scon after the expulsion 
of Hippias ; their descendants enjoyed immunity from all taxes 
and public burdens ; and their deed of vengeance formed the 
favourite subject of drinking songs. Of these the most famous 
and popular has come down to us, and may be thus translated : 

" I'll wreath my sword in myrtle bough, 
The sword that laid the tyrant low, 
"VVlien patriots, burning to be free. 
To Athens gave equality. 

" Harmodius, hail! though reft of breath, 
Thou ne'er shalt feel the stroke of death ! 
The heroes' happy isles shall be 
The bright abode allotted thee. 

" I'll wreath my sword in myrtle bough, 
The sword that laid Hipparchus low, 
"When at Athena's adverse fane 
He knelt, and never rose again. 

" While Freedom's name is understood, 
You shall delight the wise and good ; 
You dared to set your country free, 
And gave her laws equality."* 

^ 7. The Lacedaemonians quitted Athens soon after Hippias 
had sailed away, leaving the Athenians to settle their own affairs. 
The Solonian constitution, which had continued to exist nomi- 
nally under the administration of the family of Pisistratus, was 
now revived in its full force and vigour. Clisthenes, to whom 
Athens was mainly indebted for its liberation from the despotism, 
aspired to be the political leader of the state, but was opposed 
by Isagoras, who was supported by the great body of the nobles. 
By the Solonian constitution, the whole political power was 
vested in the hands of the latter ; and Clisthenes soon found that 
it was hopeless to contend against his rival under the existing 
order of things. For this reason he resolved to introduce an 

* Wellesley's Anthologia Polyglotta, p. 445. 



108 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XL 

important change in the constitution, and to give to the people 
an equal share in the government. This is the account of He- 
rodotus, who says that " he took the people into partnership, 
who had been before excluded from everything." It is probable 
however that these reforms were not suggested simply by a love 
of selfish aggrandizement ; but that he had seen the necessity of 
placing the constitution on a more popular basis, and of giving a 
larger number of citizens a personal interest in the welfare and 
preservation of the state. However this may be, the reforms of 
Clisthenes gave birth to the Athenian democracy, which can 
hardly be said to have existed before this time. 

§ 8. The first and most important reform of Clisthenes, and 
that on which all the rest depended, was a redistribution of 
the whole population of Attica into ten new tribes. Up to this 
time the Athenian citizenship had been confined to the members 
of the four Ionic tribes, into which no one could gain admission 
except through means of the close corporations called gentes 
and phratriae.^ But there was a large body of residents in At- 
tica who did not belong to these corporations, and who conse- 
quently had no share in the political franchise. Clisthenes 
accordingly abolished these four tribes, and established ten new 
ones in their stead, in which he enrolled all the free inhabitants 
of Attica, including both resident aliens and even emancipated 
slaves. These ten tribes were purely local, and were divided 
into a certain number of cantons or townships, called demes.f 
At a later time we find 174 of these demes ; but it is not 
known whether this was the original number instituted by 
Clisthenes. 

There is one point connected with the arrangement of the 
demes which deserves mention, since it indicates singular fore- 
sight and sagacity on the part of Clisthenes. The demes which 
he assigned to each tribe were never all of them contiguous to 
each other, but were scattered over different parts of Attica. 
Ths object of this arrangement was evidently to prevent any 
tribe from acquiring a local interest independent of the entire 
community, and to remove the temptation of forming itself into 
a political faction from the proximity of its members to each 
other. This was the more necessary when we recollect that the 
parties of the Plain, the Shore, and the Mountain had all arisen 
from local feuds. 

Every Athenian citizen was obliged to be enrolled in a deme, 
and in all public documents was designated by the name of the 
one to which he belonged. Each deme, like a parish in Eng- 
land, administered its own affairs. It had its public meetings, it 

* See p. 9a t SrifJLoi. 



B.C. 510. REFORMS OF CLISTHENES. 109 

lavied taxes, and was under the superintendence of an officer 
called Demarchus.* 

§ 9. The establishment of the ten new tribes led to a change 
in the number of the Senate. It had previously consisted of 400 
members, taken in equal proportions from each of the four old 
tribes. It was now enlarged to 500, 50 being selected from each 
of the ten new tribes. At the same time its duties and functions 
were greatly increased. By the constitution of Solon its prin- 
cipal busmess was to prepare matters for discussion in the Ec- 
clesia ; but Chsthenes gave it a great share in the administration 
of the state. Its sittings became constant, and the year was di- 
vided mto ten portions, called Prijtamcs,^ corresponding to a 
similar division in the senate. The fifty senators of each tribe 
took by turns the duty of presiding in the senate and in the ec- 
clesia during one Pr)i;any, and received during that time the 
title of Fryta7ies.X The ordinary Attic year consisted of 12 
limar months, or 354 days, so that six of the Prytanies lasted 35 
days, and four of them 36 days. But for the more convenient 
despatch of business, every fifty members were divided into five 
bodies of ten each, who presided for seven days, and were hence 
called Proedri.k Moreover, out of these proedri a chairman, 
called Epistates,\\ was chosen by lot every day to preside both in 
the senate and in the ecclesia, when necessar}', and to him were 
entrusted during his day of office the keys of the Acropohs and 
the treasur}% and the public seal. 

§ 10. The Ecclesia, or formal assembly of the citizens, was 
accustomed at a later period to meet regularly four times in every 
Pr}^tany. It is not stated that this number was fixed by Chs- 
thenes, and it is more probable that he did not institute such 
frequent meetings ; but it cannot be doubted that it was a part 
of his system to summon the Ecclesia at certain fixed periods. 
By the constitution of Solon the government of the state seems to 
have been chiefly vested in the archons ; and it was one of the 
principal reforms of Chsthenes to transfer the political power 
from their hands to the senate and the ecclesia. He accustomed 
the people to the discussion and management of their 0A^^l af- 
fairs, and thus prepared them for the still more democratical 
reforms of Aristides and Pericles. At a later time we find that 
all citizens were eligible to the office of archon, and that these 
magistrates were chosen by lot, and not elected by the body of 
citizens. They were deprived, moreover, of most of their judi- 
cial duties by the extension of the powers of the popular courts 
of justice. 

§ ligoedgou \ ''E.TnaTuTi]^, 



110 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XI 

These reforms, however, were not introduced by CUsthenes. 
He continued to exclude the fourth of those classes into which 
Solon had divided the citizens, from the post of archon and from 
all other offices of state ; he made no change in the manner of 
appointing the archons, and left them in the exercise of im- 
portant judicial duties. Hence the constitution of Clisthenes, 
notwithstanding the increase of power which it gave to the 
people, came to be regarded as aristocratical in the times of. 
Pericles and Demosthenes. 

§ 11. Of the other reforms of Clisthenes we are imperfectly 
informed. He increased the judicial as well as the political 
power of the people. It is in fact doubtful whether Solon gave 
the people any judicial functions at all ; and it was probably 
CUsthenes who enacted that all public crimes should be tried by 
the whole body of citizens above thirty years of age, specially con- 
voked and sworn for the purpose. The assembly thus convened 
was called HelicKa, and its members Heliasts.^ With the in- 
crease of the judicial functions of the people, it became necessary 
to divide the Helisea into ten distinct courts ; and this change 
was probably introduced soon after the time of Clisthenes. 

The new constitution of the tribes introduced a change in the 
military arrangements of the state. The citizens, who were re- 
quired to serve, were now marshalled according to tribes, each 
of which was subject to a Strategus,\ or general of its own. 
These ten generals were elected annually by the whole body of 
citizens, and became at a later time the most important officers 
in the state, since they possessed the direction not only of naval 
and military affairs, but also of the relations of the city with 
foreign states. Dowti to the time of Clisthenes, the command of 
the military force had been vested exclusively in the third ar- 
chon, or Polemarch ; and even after the institution of the Stra- 
tegi by Clisthenes, the Polemarch still continued to possess a 
joint right of command along with them, as will be seen when 
we come to relate the battle of Marathon. 

M2. There was another remarkable institution expressly 
ascribed to Clisthenes — the Ostracism ; the real object of which 
has been explained for the first time by Mr. Grote. By the Os- 
tracism, a citizen was banished without special accusation, trial, 
or defence for ten years, which term was subsequently reduced 
to five : he was not deprived of his property ; and at the end of 
his period of exile was allowed to return to Athens, and to resume 
all the political rights and privileges which he had previously 
enjoyed. It must be recollected that the force which a Greek 



I 



B.C. 510. REFORMS OF CLISTIIENES. Ill 

government had at its disposal was very small ; and tliat it was 
comparatively easy for an ambitious citizen, supported by a nu- 
merous body of partisans, to overthroAV the constitution and make 
himself despot. The past history of the Athenians had shoM^n 
the dangers to which they were exposed from this cause ; and 
the Ostracism was the means devised by Chsthenes for removing 
quietly from, the state a powerful party leader before he could 
carr\' into execution any violent schemes for the subversion of 
the government. Every precaution was taken to guard this in- 
stitution from abuse. The senate and the ecclesia had first to 
determine by a special vote whether the safety of the state re- 
quired such a step to be taken. If they decided in the affirma- 
tive, a day was fixed for voting, and each citizen \\Tote upon 
a tile or oyster shell=^ the name of the person wlicm he wished 
to banish. The votes were then collected, and if it was fomid 
that 6000 had been recorded against any one person, he was 
obliged to withdraw from the city within ten days ; if the num- 
ber of votes did not amount to GOOO, nothing was done. The 
large number of votes required for the ostracism of a person 
(one-fourth of the entire citizen population) was a sulficient 
guarantee that a very large proportion of the citizens considered 
him dangerous to the state. It is a proof of the utility of this 
institution that from the time of its establishment no further 
attempt was made by any Athenian citizen to overthrow the 
democracy by force. 

H3. The reforms of Clisthenes were received with such popu- 
lar favor, and so greatly increased the influence of their author, 
that Isagoras saw no hope for him and his part}- except by calling 
in the interlerence of Cleomenes and the Lacedsemonians. Tins 
was readily promised, and heralds were sent from Sparta to 
Athens, demanding the expulsion of Clisthenes and the rest of 
the Alcmaeonidse, as the accursed family on whom rested the 
pollution of Cylon's murder. Chsthenes, not daring to disobey 
the Lacedaemonian govenmient, retired voluntarily ; and thus 
Cleomenes, arriving at Athens shortly afterwards with a smali 
force, found himself undisputed master of the city. He first 
expelled 700 families pointed out by Isagoras, and then at- 
tempted to dissolve the Senate of Five Hundred, and place the 
goveriunent in the hands of three hundred of his friends and 
partisans. This proceeding excited general indignation ; the 
people rose in arms ; and Cleomenes and Isagoras took refuge 
in the Acropolis. At the end of two days their provisions were 
exhausted, and they were obliged to capitulate. Cleomenes and 

* Ostracon {ocTQaKov), wliencc the name of OstraHsin {uariiaKca^o^). 



112 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chat. XI 

the Lacedsemonian troops, as well as Isagoras, were allowed to 
retire in safety ; but all their adherents who were captured 
with them were put to death by the Athenian people. Clis- 
thenes and the 700 exiled families were immediately recalled, 
and the new constitution was materially strengthened by the 
failure of this attempt to overthrow it. 

§ 14. The Athenians had now openly broken with Sparta. 
Fearing the vengeance of this formidable state, Clisthenes sent 
envoys to Artaphernes, the Persian satrap at Sardis, to solicit 
the Persian alliance, which was offered on condition of the 
Athenians' sending earth and water to the King of Persia as a 
token of their submission. The envoys promised compliance ; 
but on their return to Athens, their countrymen repudiated 
their proceeding wdth indignation. Meantime, Cleomenes was 
preparing to take vengeance upon the Athenians, and to establish 
Isagoras as a despot over them. He summ.oned the Peloponne- 
sian allies to the field, but without informing them of the object 
of the expedition; and at the same time he concerted measures 
with the Thebans and the Chalcidians of Euboea for a simulta- 
neous attack upon Attica. The Peloponnesian army, commanded 
by the two kings, Cleomenes and Demaratus, entered Attica, and 
advanced as far as Eleusis ; but when the allies became aware of 
the object for which they had been sununoned, they refused to 
march farther. The power of Athens was not yet sufficiently 
great to inspire jealousy among the other Greek states ; and the 
Corinthians, who still smarted under the recollection of the suf- 
ferings inflicted upon them by their own despots, took the lead 
in denouncing the attempt of Cleomenes to crush the liberties 
of Athens. Their remonstrances were seconded by Demaratus, 
the other Spartan king ; so that Cleomenes found it necessary 
to abandon the expedition and return home. The dissension of 
the two kings on this occasion is said to have led to the enact- 
ment of the law at Sparta, that both kings should never have 
the command of the army at the same time. 

The unexpected retreat of the Peloponnesian army delivered 
the Athenians from their most formidable enemy, and they lost 
no time in turning their arms against their other foes. March- 
ing into Boeotia, they defeated the Thebans, and then crossed over 
into Euboea, where they gained a decisive victory over the Chal- 
cidians, In order to secure their dominion in Euboea, and at the 
same time to provide for their poorer citizens, the Athenians 
distributed the estates of the wealthy Chalcidian landowners 
among 4000 of their citizens, who settled in the countr}^ under 
the name of Cleruchi.^ 

* 'K7.i]QQvxoL, that is, "lot-holders." 



B.C. 608. 



SUCCESSES OF THE ATHENIANS. 



113 



§15. The successes of Athens had excited the jealousy of the 
Spartans, and they now resolved to make a third attempt to over- 
throw the Athenian democracy. They had meantime discovered 
the deception which had been practised upon them by the 
Delphic oracle ; and they invited Hippias to come from Sigeum 
to Sparta, in order to restore him to Athens. The experience of 
the last campaign had taught them that they could not calculate 
upon the co-operation of their allies without first obtaining their 
approval of the project; and they therefore summoned deputies 
from all their allies to meet at Sparta, in order to determine re- 
specting the restoration of Hippias. The despot was present at 
the congress ; and the Spartans urged the necessity of crushing 
the growing insolence of the Athenians by placing over them 
their former master. But their proposal was received with uni- 
versal repugnance ; and the Corinthians again expressed the 
general indignation at the design. " Surely heaven and earth 
are about to change places, when you Spartans propose to set 
up in the cities that wicked and bloody thing called a Despot. 
First try what it is for yourselves at Sparta, and then force it 
upon others. If you persist in a scheme so wicked, know that 
the Corinthians will not second you." These vehement remon- 
strances were received with such approbation by the other 
allies, that the Spartans found it necessary to abandon their 
project. Hippias returned to Sigeum, and afterwards proceeded 
to the court of Darius. 

§ 16. Athens had now entered upon her glorious career. The 
institutions of Clisthenes had given her citizens a personal in- 
terest in the welfare and the grandeur of their country. A spirit 
of the warmest patriotism rapidly sprang up among them ; and 
the histoiy of the Persian wars, which followed almost imme- 
diately, exhibits a striking proof of the heroic sacrifices which 
they were prepared to make for the liberty and independence of 
their state. 




Coin of Athens. 




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Ancient Sculptures from Selinus. 



CHAPTER XII. 

HISTORY OF THE GREEK COLONIES. 

1. Connexion of the subject with the general history of Greece. § 2. 
Origin of the Greek colonies and their relation to the mother-coun- 
try. § 3. Characteristics common to most of the Greek colonies. 
§ 4. The iEolic, Ionic, and Doric colonies in Asia. Miletus the most 
important, and the parent of numerous colonies. Ephesus. Phocaea. 
§ 5. Colonies in the south of Italy and Sicily. History of Cuma?. 
§ 6. Colonies in Sicily. Syracuse and Agrigentum the most impor- 
tant. Phalaris, despot of Agrigentum. § 7. Colonies in Magna Grse- 
cia (the south of Italy). Sybaris and Croton. War between these 
cities, and destruction of Sybaris. § 8. Epizephyrian Locri: its law- 
giver, Zaleucus. Khegium. § 9. Tarentum. Decline of the cities 
in Magna Grsscia. § 10. Colonies in Gaul and Spain. Massalia. 
§ 11. Colonies in Africa. Cyrene. § 12. Colonies in Epirus, Mace- 
donia, and Thrace. § 13. Importance of a knowledge of the history^ 
of the Greek colonies. 



§ 1. An account of the Greek colonies forms an important part 
of the History of G-reece. It has been already observed that 
Hellas did not indicate a country marked by certain geographical 
limits, but included the whole body of Hellenes, in whatever 
part of the world they might be settled. Thus, the inhabitants 
of Trapezus on the farthest shores of the Black Sea, of Cyrene 
in Africa, and of Massalia in the south of Gaul, were as essential- 
ly members of Hellas as the citizens of Athens and Sparta. They 
all gloried in the name of Hellenes ; they all boasted of their 
descent from the common ancestor Hell en ; and they all pes- 



Chap. XIL THE GREEK COLONIES. 115 

sessed and frequently exercised the right of contending in the 
Olympic games, and the other national festivals of Grreece. 

The vast number of Greek Colonies, their wide-spread diffusion 
over all parts of the Mediterranean, M^liich thus became a kind 
of Grecian lake, their rapid growth in wealth, power, and intel- 
ligence afford the most striking proofs of the greatness of this 
wonderful people. It would carry us too far to give an account 
of the origin of all these colonies, or to narrate their history at any 
length. We must content ourselves with briefly mentioning the 
more important of them, after stating the causes to which they 
owed their origin, the relation in which they stood to the 
mother country, and certain characteristics which were common 
to them all. 

^ 2. Civil dissensions and a redundant population were the 
two chief causes of the origin of most of the Greek colonies.* 
They were usually undertaken with the approbation of the cities 
from which they issued, and under the management of leaders 
appointed by them. In most cases the Delphic oracle had pre- 
viously given its divine sanction to the enterprise, which was 
also undertaken under the encouragement of the gods of the mo- 
ther-city. But a Greek colony was always considered politically 
independent of the latter and emancipated from its control. The 
only connexion between them was one of filial affection and of 
common religious ties. The colonists worshipped in their new 
settlement the deities whom they had been accustomed to ho- 
nour in their native country ; and the sacred fire, which was con- 
stantly kept burning on their public hearth, w^as taken by them 
from the Prytaneum of the city from which they sprung. They 
usually cherished a feeling of reverential respect for the mother- 
city, which they displayed by sending deputations to the prin- 
cipal festivals of the latter, and also by bestowing places of 
honour and other marks of respect upon the ambassadors and 
other members of the mother-city, when they visited the colony. 
In the same spirit, they paid divine worship to the founder of 
the colony after his death, as the representative of the mother- 
city ; and when the colony in its turn became a parent, it usually 
sought a leader from the state from which it had itself sprung. 
It was accordingly considered a violation of sacred ties for a 
mother-country and a colony to make war upon one another. 
These bonds, however, were often insufficient to maintain a 
lasting union ; and the memorable quarrel between Corinth and 
her colony Corcyra will show how easily they might be severed 
by the ambition or the interest of either state. 

* A colony was called uTrocKLa ; a colonist, uTrotKog ; the mother city, 
fiTjTQOTro^ig, and the leader of a colony oIklottj^. 



116 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIL 

§ 3. The Grreek colonies, unlike most which have been founded 
"in modern times, did not consist of a few straggling bands of ad- 
venturers, scattered over the country in which they settled, and 
only coalescing into a city at a later period. On the contiar}', 
the Greek colonists formed from the beginning an organized po- 
litical body. Their first care upon settling in their adopted 
country was to found a city, and to erect in it those public 
buildings which were essential to the religious and social life of 
a Greek. Hence it was quickly adorned with temples for the 
worship of the gods, with an agora or place of public meeting for 
the citizens, with a gymnasium for the exercise of the youth, 
and at a later time with a theatre for dramatic representations. 
Almost every colonial Greek city was built upon the sea-coast, 
and the site usually selected contained a hill sufficiently lofty 
to form an acropolis. The spot chosen for the purpose was 
for the most part seized by force from the original inhabitants 
of the country. The relation in which the colonists stood to the 
latter naturally varied in different localities. In some places 
they were reduced to slavery or expelled from the district ; in 
others they became the subjects of the conquerors, or were ad- 
mitted to a share of their political rights. In many cases inter- 
marriages took place between the colonists and the native popu- 
lation, and thus a foreign element was introduced among them 
— a circumstance which must not be lost sight of, especially in 
tracing the history of the Ionic colonies. 

It has frequently been observed that colonies are favourable to 
the development of democracy. Ancient customs and usages 
cannot be preserved in a colony as at home. Men are of neces- 
sity placed on a greater equality, since they have to share the 
same hardships, to overcome the same difficulties, and to face 
the same dangers. Hence it is difficult for a single man or for 
a class to maintain peculiar privileges, or to exercise a permanent 
authority over the other colonists. Accordingly, we find that a 
democratic al form of government was established in most of the 
Greek colonies at an earlier period than in the mother-country, 
and that an aristocracy could rarely maintain its ground for any 
length of time. Owing to the freedom of their institutions, and 
to their favourable position for commercial enterprise, many of 
the Greek colonies became the most flourishing cities in the 
Hellenic world ; and in the earlier period of Grecian history 
several of them, such as Miletus and Ephesus in Asia, Syracuse 
and Agrigentum in Sicily, and Croton and Sybaris in Italy, sur- 
passed all the cities of the mother-country in power, population, 
and wealth. 

The Grecian colonies may be arranged in four groups : 1 . Those 



CiiAP. XII. COLONIKS IN ASIA MINOR. 117 

founded iii Asia Minor and the adjoining islands ; 2. Those in 
the western parts of the Mediterranean, in Italy, Sicily, Gaul, and 
Spain ; 3. Those in Africa ; 4. Those in Epirus, Macedonia, and 
Thrace. 

^ 4. The earliest Greek colonies were those founded on the west- 
ern shores of Asia Minor. They were divided into three great 
masses, each hearing the name of that section of the Greek race 
with which they claimed affinity. The ^Eolic cities covered the 
northern part of this coast ; the lonians occupied the centre, 
and the Dorians the southern portion. The origin of these 
colonies is lost in the mythic u,i age ; and the legends of the 
Greeks respecting them have been given in a previous part of the 
present work.*' Their political history will claim our attention 
when we come to relate the rise and progress of the Persian em- 
pire ; and their successful cultivation of literature and the arts 
will form the chief subject of our next chapter. It is sufficient 
to state on the present occasion that the Ionic cities were early 
distinguished by a spirit of commercial enterprise, and soon rose 
superior in wealth and in power to their iEolian and Dorian 
neighbors. Among the Ionic cities themselves Miletus was the 
most flourishmg, and during the eighth and seventh centuries 
before Christ was the first commercial city in Hellas. In search, 
of gain its adventurous mariners penetrated to the farthest parts 
of the Mediterranean and its adjacent seas ; and for the sake of 
protecting and enlarging its commerce, it planted numerous co- 
lonies, which are said to have been no fewer than eighty. Most 
of them were founded on the Propontis and the Euxine ; and of 
these, Cyzicus on the former, and Sinope on the latter sea, be- 
came the most celebrated. Sinope was the emporium of the 
Milesian commerce in the Euxine, and became in its turn the 
parent of many prosperous colonies. 

Ephesus, which became at a later time the first of the Ionic 
cities, was at this period inferior to Miletus in population and in 
wealth. It was never distinguished for its enterprise at sea, and 
it planted few maritime colonies ; it owed its greatness to its 
trade with the interior, and to its large territory, which it gra- 
dually obtained at the expense of the Lydians. Other Ionic 
cities of less importance than Ephesus possessed a more power- 
ful navy ; and the adventurous voyages of the Phocseans deserve 
to be particularly mentioned, in which they not only visited the 
coasts of Gaul and Spain, but even planted in those countries 
several colonies, of which Massalia became the most prosperous 
and celebrated. 

\ 5. The colonies of whose origin we have an historical ac- 
* See p. 35. 



118 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XII 

count began to be founded soon after the first Olympiad. Those 
estabhshed in Sicily and the south of Italy claim our first atten- 
tion, as well on account of their importance as of the priority of 
their foundation. Like the Asiatic colonies, they were of various 
origin ; and the inhabitants of Chalcis in Euboea, of Corinth, 
Megara and Sparta, and the Acheeans and Locrians were all con- 
cerned in them. 

One of the Grecian settlements in Italy lays claim to a much 
earlier date than any other in the country. This is the Campanian 
Cnmse, situated near Cape Misenum, on the Tyrrhenian sea. It 
is said to have been a joint colony from the ^Eolic Cj^me in Asia, 
and from Chalcis in EuboBa, and to have been founded, according 
to common chronolog}^ in B.C. 1050. This date is of course 
uncertain : but there is no doubt that it was the most ancient 
Grecian establishment in Italy, and that a long period elapsed 
before any other Greek colonists were bold enough to follow in 
the same track. Cumse was for a long time the most flourishing 
city in Campania : and it was not till its dechne in the fifth cen- 
tury before the Christian era that Capua rose into importance. 

^ 6. The earliest Grecian settlement in Sicily was founded in 
B.C. 735. The greater part of Sicily was then inhabited by the 
rude tribes of Sicels and Sicanians. The Carthaginian settle- 
ments mostly lay on tho western side of the island ; but the 
eastern and the southern coasts were occupied only by the Sicels 
and Sicanians, who were easily driven by the Greeks into the 
interior of the country. The extraordinary fertility of the land, 
united with the facility of its acquisition, soon attracted nume- 
rous colonists from various parts of Greece ; and there arose on 
the coasts of Sicily a succession of flourishing cities, of which a 
list is given below.* Of these, S)Tacuse and Agrigentum, both 
Dorian colonies, became the most powerful. The former was 
founded by the Corinthians in b.c. 734, and at the time of its 
greatest prosperity contained a population of 500,000 souls, and 
Avas surrounded by walls twenty-two miles in circuit. Its great- 
ness, however, belongs to a later period of Grecian history ; and 

* 1. Xaxos, the earliest, founded by the Chalcidians, b.c. '735. 2. Syra- 
cuse, founded by the Corinthians, b.c. iSi. 3. Leontini and Catanu, 
founded by Xaxos in Sicily, b.c. 730. 4. Hybleean Megara, founded by 
Megara, b.c. 728. 5. Gela, founded by the Lindians in Rhodes, and by 
the Cretans, b.c. 690. 6. Zancle, afterwards called Messana, founded 
by the Cumaeans and Chalcidians: its date is uncertain. 7. Acra}, 
founded by Syracuse, b.c. 664. 8. Casmenfe, founded, by Syracuse^ 
B.C. 644. 9. Selinus, founded by Hybla?an ]\Iefi:ara, B.C. 630. 10. 
Camarina, founded by Syracuse, B.C. 599. 11. Acragas, better known 
by the Roman name of Agrigentum, founded by Gela, B.C. 682. 12. 
llimera, founded by Zancle : its date is uncertain. 



B.C. 735. 



COLONIES IN SICILY 



119 



we know scarcely anything of its affairs till the usurpation of 
Gelon in b.c. 485. Agrigentum was of later origin, for it was 
not founded till b.c. 582, by the Dorians of Gela, which had itself 
been colonized by Rhodians and Cretans. But its growth was 
most rapid, and it soon rose to an extraordinary degree of pros- 
perity and power. It was celebrated in the ancient world for 
the magnificence of its public buildings, and within a century after 
its foundation was called by Pindar " the fairest of mortal cities." 
Its early history only claims our attention on account of the 
despotism of Phalaris, who has obtained a proverbial celebrity 
as a cruel and inhuman tyrant His exact date is uncertain ; 
but he was a contemporary of Pisistratus and CroBsus ; and the 
commencement of his reign may perhaps be placed in b.c. 570. 
He is said to have burnt alive the victims of his cruelty in a 
brazen bull ; and this celebrated instrument of torture is not 
only noticed by Pindar, but was in existence at Agrigentum in 
later times. He was engaged in frequent wars with his neigh- 
bours, and extended his power and dominion on all sides ; but 
his cruelties rendered him so abhorred by the people, that they 
suddenly rose against him, and put him to death. =^ 



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Map of the chief Greek Colonies in Sicily 

* Tkere are extant certain Greek letters attributed to Phalaris, cele- 
brated on account of the literary controversy to which they gave rise 
in modern times. Their genuineness M-as maintained bv Bo\le and the 
contemporary scholars of Oxford ; but Bentley, in his masterly " Dis- 
sertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris," in reply to Boyle, proved be- 
yond question that they were the production of a sophist of a later age. 



120 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XU 

The prosperity of the Greek cities in Sicily afterwards re- 
ceived a severe check from the hostihties of the Cartliaginiaiis ; 
but for tM^o centuries and a half after the first Greek settlement 
in the island they did not come into contact with the latter 
people, and were thus left at liberty to develop their resources 
without any opposition from a foreign power. 

§ 7. The Grecian colonies in Italy began to be planted at 
nearly the same time as in Sicily. They eventually hned the 
whole southern coast as far as Cumse on the one sea, and Ta- 
rentum on the other. They even surpassed those in Sicily in 
number and importance ; and so numerous and flourishing did 
they become, that the south of Italy received the name of Magna 
Grsecia. Of these, two of the earliest and most prosperous were 
Sybaris and Croton, both situated upon the gulf of Tarentum, 
and both of Achaean origin. Sybaris was planted in B.C. 720, 
and Croton in b.c. 710. For two centuries they seem to have 
lived in harmony, and we know scarcely anything of their history 
till their fatal contest in b.c. 510, which ended in the ruin of 
Sybaris. During the whole of this period they were tM^o of the 
most flourishing cities in all Hellas. The walls of Sybaris em- 
braced a circuit of six miles, and those of Croton were not less 
than twelve miles in circumference ; but the former, though, 
smaller, was the more powerful, since it possessed a larger extent 
of territory and a greater number of colonies, among which was 
the distant town of Posidonia (PsBstum), M^hose magnificent ruins 
still attest its former greatness. Several native tribes became 
the subjects of Sybaris and Croton, and their dominions extended 
across the Calabrian peninsula from sea to sea. 

Sybaris in particular attained to an extraordinary degree of 
wealth ; and its inhabitants were so notorious for their luxury, 
efieminacy , and debauchery, that their name has become proverbial 
for a voluptuary in ancient and in modern times. Many of the 
anecdotes recorded of them bear on their face the exaggerations 
of a later age ; but their great wealth is attested by the lact, that 
5000 horsemen, clothed in magnificent attire, foimed a part of 
the procession in certain festivals of the city, whereas Athens in 
her best days could not number more than 1200 knights. 

Croton was distinguished for the excellence of its physicians 
or surgeons, and for the number of its citizens who gained prizes 
at the Olympic games. Its government was an aristocracy, and 
was in the hands of a senate of One Thousand persons. It was 
in this city that Pythagoras settled, and founded a fraternity, of 
which an account is given in the following chapter. 

The war between these two powerful cities is the most im- 
portant event recorded in the history of Magna Grajcia. It arose 



B.a 664. COLONIES IN ITALY. 121 

from the civil dissensions of Sybaris. The oHgarchical govern- 
ment was overthroA\Ti by a popular insurrection, headed by a 
citizen of the name of Telys, who succeeded in making himself 
despot of the city. The leading members of the oligarchical 
party, 500 in number, were driven into exile ; and when they 
took refuge at Croton, their surrender was demanded by Telys, 
and war threatened in case of refusal. This demand excited 
the greatest alarm at Croton, since the military strength of Sy- 
baris Avas decidedly superior ; and it was only owing to the 
urgent persuasions of Pythagoras that the Crotoniates resolved 
to brave the vengeance of their neighbours rather than incur 
the disgrace of betraying suppliants. In the war which fol- 
lowed, Sybaris is said to have taken the field with 300,000 men, 
and Croton with 100,000 — numbers which seem to have been 
grossly exaggerated. The Crotoniates were commanded by 
Milo, a disciple of Pj^thagoras, and the most celebrated athlete 
of his time, and they were further reinforced by a body of 
Spartans under the command of Dorieus, younger brother of 
king Cleomenes, who was sailing along the gulf of Tarentum, in 
order to found a settlement in Sicily. The two armies met on 
the banks of the river Trseis or Trionto, and a bloody battle 
was fought, in which the Sybarites were defeated with prodi- 
gious slaughter. The Crotoniates followed up their victory by 
the capture of the city of Sybaris, which they razed to the 
ground ; and in order to obliterate all traces of it, they turned 
the course of the river Crathis through its ruins (b.c. 510). The 
destruction of this wealthy and powerful city excited strong 
sympathy through the Hellenic world ; and the Milesians, with 
whom the Sybarites had always maintained the most friendly 
connexions, shaved their heads in token of mourning.^ 

^ 8. Of the numerous other Greek settlements in the south 
of Italy, those of Locri, Rhegium, and Tarentum were the most 
important. 

Locri, called Epizephyrian, from the neighbourhood of Cape 
Zephyrium, was founded by a body of Locrian freebooters from 
the mother country, in b.c. 683. Their early history- is memo- 
rable on account of their being the first Hellenic people who 
possessed a body of written laws. They are said to have sufler- 
cd so greatly from lawlessness and disorder as to apply to the 
Delphic oracle for advice, and were thus led to accept the ordi- 
nances of Zaleucus, who is represented to have been originally 
a shepherd. His laws were promulgated in b. c. 664, forty years 
earlier than those of Draco at Athens. They resembled the 
latter in the severity of their punishments ; but they were ob- 
* lu u. c. 443 llio Athcniaus founded Thurii, near the site of Sybarib, 

ii 



122 



HISTORY OF GREECK 



Chap. XII. 



served for a long period by the Locrians, who were so averse to 
any change in them, that whoever proposed a new law had to 
appear in the public assembly with a rope round his neck, which 
was imrnediately tightened, if he failed to convince his fellow- 
citizens of the necessity of his propositions. Two anecdotes are 
related of Zaleucus, which deserve mention, though their au- 
thenticity cannot be guaranteed. His son had been guilty of an 
offence, the penalty of which was the loss of both eyes : the 
father, in order to maintain the law, and yet save his son from 
total blindness, submitted to the loss of one of his own eyes. 
Another ordinance of Zaleucus forbade any citizen to enter the 
senate-house in arms under penalty of death. On a war suddenly 
breaking out, Zaleucus transgressed his own law ; and whtn 
his attention was called to it by one present, he replied that 1 e 
would vindicate the law, and straightway fell upon his sword. 




Map of the chief Greek Colonies in Southern Italy. 



15.0. 600. COLOJNIES IN GAUL AKD SPAIN. 123 

Rhegiura, situated on the straits cf Messina, opposite Sicily, 
was colonized by the Chalcidians, hut received a large number 
of Messenians, who settled here at the close both of the first and 
second Messenian w^ars. Anaxilas, who made himself despot cf 
the city about b.c. 500, was of Messenian descent ; and it was 
he who changed the name of the Sicilian Zancle into Messana, 
when he seized the latter city in b. c. 494. 

^ 9. Tarentum, situated at the head of the gulf wdiich bears its 
name, w'as a colony from Sparta, and w^as founded about b. c. 708. 
During the long absence of the Spartans in the first Messenian 
war, an illegitimate race of citizens had been born, to w^hom the 
name of Partheniee (sons of maidens) w^as given. Being not only 
treated with contempt by the other Spartans, but excluded from 
the citizenship, they formed a conspiracy under Phalanthus, one 
of their number, against the government ; and when their plot 
was detected, they w^ere allowed to quit the country and plant a 
colony under his guidance. It was to these circumstances that 
Tarentum owed its origin. It was admirably situated ibr com- 
merce, and was fhe only towai in the gulf which possessed a per- 
fectly safe harbour. After the destruction of Sybaris, it became 
the most powerful and flourishing city in Magna Grsecia, and 
continued to enjoy great prosperity till its subjugation by the 
Romans. Although of Spartan origin, it did not maintain Spar- 
tan habits ; and its citizens were noted at a later time for their 
love of luxury and pleasure. 

The cities of Magna Graecia rapidly declined in power after 
the commencement of the fifth century before the Christian era. 
This was mainly owing to two causes. First, the destruction of 
Sybaris deprived the Greeks of one of their most powerful cities, 
and of a territory and an influence over the native population, 
to which no other Greek town could succeed ; and, secondly, 
they were now for the first time brought into contact with the 
warlike Samnites and Lucanians, who began to spread from 
Middle Italy towards the south. Cumse was taken by the Sam- 
nites, and Posidonia (Psestum) by the Lucanians ; and the latter 
people in course of time deprived the Greek cities of the whole 
of their inland territory. 

k 10. The Grecian settlements in the distant countries of Gaul 
and Spain were not numerous. The most celebrated was Mas- 
salia, the modern Marseilles, founded by the Ionic Phcca^ans 
in B.C. 600. It planted five colonies along the eastern coast of 
Spain, and was the chief Grecian city in the sea west of Italy. 
The commerce of the Massaliots was extensive, and their navy 
sufficiently powerful to repel the aggressions of Carthage. They 
possessed considerable influence over the Celtic tribes in Iheu* 



124 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XIL 

neighbourhood, among whom they diffused the arts of civihzed 
hfe, and a knowledge of the Greek alphabet and literature. 

Ml. The northern coast of Africa between the territories of 
Carthage and Egypt was also occupied by Greek colonists. 
About the year 650 b.c. the Greeks were for the first time 
allowed to settle in Egypt and to cany on commerce with the 
country. This privilege they owed to Psammetichus, who had 
raised himself to the throne of Egypt by the aid of Ionian and 
Carian mercenaries. The Greek traders were not slow in avail- 
ing themselves of the opening of this new and important market, 
and thus became acquainted with the neighbouring coast of 
Africa. Here they founded the city of Cyrene about B.C. 630. 
It was a colony from the Island of Thera in the ^Egean, which 
was itself a colony from Sparta. The situation of Cyrene was 
well chosen. It stood on the edge of a range of hills, at the 
distance of ten miles from the Mediterranean, of which it com- 
manded a fine view. These hills descended by a succession of 
terraces to the port of the town, called ApoUonia. The climate 
was most salubrious, and the soil was distinguished by extraor- 
dinary fertility. With these advantages Cyrene rapidly grew in 
wealth and power ; and its greatness is attested by the immense 
remains \vhich still mark its desolate site. Unlike most Grecian 
colonies, Cyrene was governed by kings for eight generations. 
Battus, the founder of the colony, was the first king ; and his 
successors bore alternately the names of Arcesilaiis and Battus. 
On the death of Arcesilaiis lY., which must have happened 
after b. c. 460, royalty was abolished and a democratical form of 
government established. 

Cyrene planted several colonies in the adjoining district, of 
which Barca, founded about b.c. 560, was the most important. 

§ 12. The Grecian settlements in Epirus, Macedonia, and 
Thrace claim a few words. 

There were several Grecian colonies situated on the eastern 
side of the Ionian sea in Epirus and its immediate neighboiu'- 
hood. Of these the island of Corcyra, now called Corfu, was the 
most wealthy and powerful. It was founded by the Corinthians, 
about B.C. 700 ; and in consequence of its commercial activity 
it soon became a formidable rival to the mother-city. Hence 
a war broke out between these two states at an early period ; 
and the most ancient naval battle on record was the one fought 
between their fleets in b.c. 664. The dissensions between the 
mother-city and her colony are frequently mentioned in Grecian 
history, and were one of the immediate causes of the Pelopon- 
nesian war. Notwithstanding their quarrels, they joined in 
planting four Grecian colonies upon the same line of coast — i 



B.C.667. COLONIES IN MACEDONIA AND THRACE. 125 

Leucas, Anactorium, ApoUonia, and Epidamnus : in the settle- 
ment of the two former the Corinthians were the principals, and 
in that of the two latter the Corcyraeans took the leading part. 

The colonies in Macedonia and Thrace were very numerous, 
and extended all along the coast of the ^Egean, of the Hellespont, 
of the Propontis, and of the Euxine, from the borders of Thes- 
saly to the mouth of the Danube. Of these we can only glance 
at the most important. The colonies on the coast of Macedonia 
were chiefly founded by Chalcis and Eretria in Euboea ; and the 
peninsula of Chalcidice, with its three projecting headlands, was 
covered with their settlements, and derived its name from the 
former city. The Corinthians likewise planted a few colonies on 
this coast, of which Potidsea, on the narrow isthmus of Pallene, 
most deserves mention. 

Of the colonies in Thrace, the most flourishing were Selymbria 
and Byzantium,=^ both founded by the Megarians, who appear as 
an enterprising maritime people at an early period. The far- 
thest Grecian settlement on the western shores of the Euxine 
was the Milesian colony of Istria, near the southern mouth of 
the Danube. 

§ 13. The preceding survey of the Grecian colonies shows the 
wide diffusion of the Hellenic race in the sixth century before 
the Christian era. Their history has come down to us in such 
a fragmentary and unconnected state, that it has been impos- 
sible to render it interesting to the reader ; but it could not be 
passed over entirely, since some knowledge of the origin and 
progress of the more important of these cities is absolutely 
necessary, in order to understand aright many subsequent events 
in Grecian history. 

* The foundation of Byzantium is placed in b.c. 65Y. 




Coin of Cyrene, representing on the reverse the Silphium, which was the chief article 
in the export trade of the city. 




Aicffius and Sappho. From a Painting on a Vase. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 



§ 1. Perfection of the Greeks in literature. § 2. Greek epic poetry di- 
vided into two classes, Homeric and Hesiodic. § 3. Poems of Hesiod. 
§ 4. Origin of Greek lyric poetry. § 5. Archilochus. § 6. Simonides 
of Amorgos. § 7. Tyrtseus and Alcman. § 8. Arion and Stesichorus. 
§ 9. Alcseus and Sappho. § 10. Anacreon. § 11. The Seven Sages of 
Greece. § 12. The Ionic school of philosophy. Thales, Anaximan- 
der, and Anaximenes. § 13. The Eleatic school of philosophy, Xeno- 
phanes. § 14. The Pythagorean school of philosophy. Life of 
Pythagoras. Foundation and suppression of his society in the cities 
of Magna Grsecia. 

^ 1. The perfection which the Greeks attained in hterature and 
art is one of the most striking features in the history of the 
people. Their intellectual activity and their keen appreciation 
of the beautiful constantly gave birth to new forms of creative 
genius. There was an uninterrupted progress in the develop- 
ment of the Grecian mind from the earliest dawn of the history 
of the people to the downfall of their political independence ; 
and each succeeding age saw the production of some of those 
master works of genius which have been the models and the 
admiration of all subsequent time. It is one of the objects of 
the present work to trace the different phases of this intellectual 
growth. During the two centuries and a half comprised in this 
book many species of composition, in which the Greeks after* 



CflAP. XIII. EPIC POETRY. H^IOD. 121 

wards became pre-eminent, were either unknown or little prac- 
tised. The drama was still in its infancy, and prose writing, as 
a branch of popular literature, was only beginning to be culti- 
vated ; but epic poetry had reached its culminating point at the 
commencement of this epoch, and throughout the whole period 
the lyric muse shone with undiminished lustre. It is therefore 
to these two species of composition that our attention will be 
more particularly directed on the present occasion. 

^ 2. There were in antiquity two large collections of epic 
poetry. The one comprised poems relating to the great events 
and enterprises of the Jleroic age, and characterised by a certain 
poetical unity ; the other included works tamer in character 
and more desultory in their mode of treatment, containing the 
genealogies of men and gods, narratives of the exploits of sepa- 
rate heroes, and descriptions of the ordinary pursuits of life. 
The poems of the former class passed under the name of Homer ; 
while those of the latter were in the same general way ascribed 
to Hesiod. The former were the productions of the Ionic and 
iEolic minstrels in Asia Minor, among whom Homer stood pre- 
eminent and eclipsed the brightness of the rest : the latter were 
the compositions of a school of bards in the neighbourhood of 
Mount Hehcon in Boeotia, among whom in like mamier Hesiod 
enjoyed the greatest celebrity. The poems of both schools were 
composed in the hexameter metre and in a siraiilar dialect ; but 
they differed widely in almost every other feature. Of the 
Homeric poems, and of the celebrated controversy to which they 
have given rise in modern times, we have already spoken at 
length : ^ it therefore only remams to say a few words Upon 
those ascribed to Hesiod. 

^ 3. Three works have come down to us bearing the name of 
Hesiod — the " Works and Days," the " Theogony," and a descrip- 
tion of the " Shield of Hercules." The first two were generally 
considered in antiquity as the genuine productions of Hesiod ; 
but the " Shield of Hercules" and the other Hesiodic poems 
were admitted to be the compositions of other poets of his 
school. Many ancient critics indeed believed the " Works and 
Days" to be the only genuine work of Hesiod, and their opinion 
has been adopted by most modern scholars. Of Hesiod himself 
there are various legends related by later writers ; but we 
learn from his own poem that he was a native of Ascra, a 
village at the foot of Mount Helicon, to which his father had 
migrated from the jEolian Cyme in Asia Minor. He further tells 
us that he gained the prize at Chalcis in a poetical contest ; and 
that he was robbed of a fair share of his heritage by the un- 
* See Chap. V. 



128 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIII 

rigliteous decision of judges who had been bribed by his brother 
Perses. The latter became afterwards reduced in circumstances, 
and applied to his brother for relief; and it is to him that 
Hesiod addresses his didactic poem of the " Works and Days," in 
which he lays down various moral and social maxims for the 
regulation of his conduct and his life. It contains an interesting 
representation of the feelings, habits, and superstitions of the 
rural population of Greece in the earher ages, and hence enjoyed 
at all periods great popularity among this class. At Sparta, on 
the contrary, where war was deemed the only occupation worthy 
of a freeman, the poems of Hesiod were held in contempt. 
Cleomenes called him the bard of the Helots, in contrast with 
Homer, the delight of the warrior. Respecting the date of Hesiod 
nothing certain can be affirmed. Most ancient authorities make 
him a contemporary of Homer ; but modern writers usually sup- 
pose him to have flourished two or three generations later than 
the poet of the Iliad and the Odyssey. 

§ 4. The commencement of Greek lyric poetry as a cultivated 
species of composition dates from the middle of the seventh 
century before the Christian era. In the Ionic and jEolic colo- 
nies of Asia Minor, and in the Doric cities of Pelopoimesus, an 
advancing civilization and an enlarged experience had called into 
existence new thoughts and feehngs, and supplied new subjects 
for the muse. At the same time epic poetry, after reaching its 
climax of excellence in the Iliad and in the Odyssey, had fallen 
into the hands of inferior bards. The national genius, however, 
was still in all the bloom and vigour of its youth ; and the decay 
of epic minstrelsy only stimulated it more vigorously to present 
in a new style of poetry the new circiimstances and feelings of 
the age. The same desire of change, and of adapting the sub- 
jects of poetry to the altered condition of society, was of itself 
sufficient to induce poets to vary the metre ; but the more im- 
mediate cause of this alteration was the improvement of the art 
of music by the Lesbian Terpander and others in the beginning 
of the seventh century b. c. The lyric poems of the Greeks were 
composed, not for a solitary reader in his chamber, but to be 
sung on festive occasions, either pubhc or private, with the 
accompaniment of a musical instrument. Hence there was a 
necessary connexion between the arts of music and of poetry ; 
and an improvement in the one led to a corresponding improve- 
ment in the other. 

It would be impossible to pass under review the numerous 
varieties of Grecian lyric song, and to point out all the occasions 
which called into requisition the aid of the poet. It is sufficient 
to state in general that no important event either in the public 



B.C. 700. ARCHILOCHUS. 129 

or private life of a Greek could dispense with this accompani- 
ment ; and that the song was equally needed to solemnize the 
worship of the gods, to cheer the march to battle, or to enliven 
the festive board. The lyric poetry belonging to the brilliant 
period of Greek literature treated in this book has almost en- 
tirely perished, and all that we possess of it consists of a few 
songs and isolated fragments. Sufficient, however, remains to 
enable us to form an opinion of its surpassing excellence, and 
to regret the more bitterly the irreparable loss we have sus- 
tained. It is only necessary in this work to call attention to 
the most distinguished masters of lyric song, and to illustrate 
their genius by a iew specimens of their remains. 

^ 5. The great satirist Archilochus was one of the earliest and 
most celebrated of all the lyric poets. He flourished about the 
year 700 B.C. His extraordinary poetical genius is attested by 
the unanimous voice of antiquity, which placed him on a level 
with Homer. He was the first Greek poet who composed Iambic 
verses according to fixed rules ; the invention of the elegy is 
ascribed to him. as well as to Callinus ; and he also struck out 
many other new paths in poetry. His fame, however, rests 
chiefly on his terrible satires, composed in the Iambic metre, ^ 
in which he gave vent to the bitterness of a disappointed man. 
He was poor, the son of a slave-mother, and therefore held in 
contempt in his native land. He had been suitor to Neobule, 
one of the daughters of Lycambes, who first promised and after- 
Wards refused to give his daughter to the poet. Enraged at this 
treatment he held up the family to public scorn, in an iambic 
poem, accusing Lycambes of perjury and his daughters of the 
most abandoned profligacy. His lampoons produced such an 
effect that the daughters of Lycambes are said to have hanged 
themselves through shame. Discontented at home, the poet 
accompanied a colony to Thasos ; but he, was not more happy 
in his adopted country, which he frequently attacks in his satires. 
He passed a great part of his life in wandering in other countries, 
and at length fell in a battle between the Parians and Naxians. 
The following lines of Archilochus, addressed to his own soul, 
exhibit at the same time the higher attributes of his style, and 
his own morbid philosophy : — 

"My soul, my soul, care-worn, bereft of rest, 
Arise ! and front the foe with dauntless breast ; 
Take thy firm stand amidst his fierce alarms; 
Secure, with inborn valour meet his arms. 



" Archilochura proprio rabies armavit iambo." — IIor. Ars Poet. 79i 



18<? HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIIL 

Nor, conquering, mount vain-glory's glittering steep ; 
Nor, conquer' d, jaeld, fall down at home, and weep. 
Await the turns of life with duteous awe ; 
Know, Revolution is great Nature's law."* 

§ 6. Sirnonides of Amorgos, who must not be confounded with 
his more celebrated namesake of Ceos, was a contemporary of 
Archilochus, with whom he shares the honour of inventing the 
iambic metre. He was born in Samos, but led a colony to the 
neighbouring island of Amorgos, where he spent the greater part 
of his life. He is the earhest of the gnomic poets, or moralists 
in verse. The most important of his extant works is a satirical 
poem " On Women," in which he describes their various cha- 
racters. In order to give a livelier image of the female cha- 
racter, he derives their different qualities from the variety of 
their origin ; the cunning woman being formed from the fox, 
the talkative woman from the dog, the uncleanly woman from 
the swine, and so on. The following is a specimen of th^ 
poem : — 

" Next in the lot a gallant dame we see, 
Sprung from a mare of noble pedigree. 
No servile work her spirit proud can brook ; 
Her hands were never taught to bake or cook; 
The vapour of the oven makes her ill ; 
She scorns to empty slops or turn the mill. 
No household washings her fair skin deface. 
Her own ablutions are her chief solace. 
Three baths a day, with balms and perfumes rare, 
Refresh her tender limbs: her long rich hair 
Each time she combs, and decks with blooming flowers. 
No spouse more fit than she the idle hours 
Of wealthy lords or kings to recreate, 
And grace the splendour of their courtly state. 
For men of humbler sort, no better guide 
Heaven^in its wrath, to ruin can provide."f 

§ 7. Tyrtseus and Alcman were the two great lyric poets of 
Sparta, though neither of them was a native of LacedsBmon. 
The personal history of Tyrtaeus, and his warlike songs, which 
roused the fainting courage of the Spartans during the second 
Messenian war, have already occupied our attention. | Alcman 
was originally a Lydian slave in a Spartan family, and was eman- 
cipated by his master. He lived from about b.c. 670 to 611 ; 
and most of his poems were composed in the period which fol- 
lowed the conclusion of the second Messenian war. They par- 

* Translated by the Marquis Wellesley. 

f Translated by Colonel Mure. :f See above, p. '76. 



B.C. 625. SIMONIDES. ALCAIAIS^. ARION. ]31 

take of the character of this period, which was one of repose 
and enjoyment after the fatigues and perils of war. Many of his 
songs celebrate the pleasures of good eating and drinking ; but 
the more important were intended to be sung by a chorus at the 
public festivals of Sparta. His description of Night is one of the 
most striking remains of his genius : — 

" Now o'er the drowsy earth still Night prevails. 
Calm sleep the mountain tops and shady vales. 
The rugged cliffs and hollow glens; 
The witd beasts slumber in their dens ; 
The cattle on the hill. Deep in the sea 
The countless finny race and monster brood 
Tranquil repose. Even the busy bee 
Forgets her daily toil. The silent wood 
No more with noisy hum of insect rings ; 
And all the feather'd tribes, by gentle sleep subdued, 
Roost in the glade, and hang their drooping wings." * 

§ 8. Although choral poetry was successfully cultivated by 
Alcman, it received its chief improvements from Arion and 
Stesichorus. Both of these poets composed for a trained body 
of men ; while the poems of Alcman were sung by the popular 
chorus. 

Arion was a native of Methymna in Lesbos, and spent a great 
part of his life at the court of Periander, tyrant of Corinth, who 
began to reign B.C. 625. Nothing is known of his life beyond 
the beautiful story of his escape from the sailors with whom he 
sailed from Sicily to Corinth. On one occasion, thus runs the 
story, Arion went to Sicily to take part in a musical contest. 
He won the prize, and, laden with presents, he embarked in a 
Corinthian ship to return to his friend Periander. The rude 
sailors coveted his treasures, and meditated his murder. After 
imploring them in vain to spare his life, he obtamed permission 
to play for the last time on his beloved lyre. In festal attire he 
placed himself on the prow of the vessel, invoked the gods in 
inspired strains, and then threw himself into the sea. But many 
song-loving dolphins had assembled round the vessel, and one 
of them now took the bard on its back, and carried him to 
Tsenarum, from whence he returned to Corinth in safety, and 
related his adventure to Periander. Upon the arrival of the 
Corinthian vessel, Periander inquired of the sailors after Arion, 
who replied that he had remained behind at Tarentum ; but 
when Arion, at the bidding of Periander, came forward, the 
sailors owned their guilt, and were punished according to theif 

* Translated by Colonel Mure. 



132 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciiap. XIIL 

desert. In later times there existed at Tsenarum a bronze monu- 
ment representing Arion riding on a dolphin. The great im- 
provement in lyric poetry ascribed to Arion is the invention of 
the Dithyramb. This was a choral song and dance in honour 
of the god Dionysus, and existed in a rude form even at an 
earlier time. Arion, however, converted it into an elaborate, 
composition, sung and danced by a chorus of fifty persons spe- 
cially trained for the purpose. The Dithyramb is of great in- 
terest in the history of poetry, since it was the germ from which 
sprung at a later time the magnificent productions of the tragic 
Muse at Athens. 

Stesichoruo was a native of Himera in Sicily. He is said to 
have been born in e.g. 632, to have flourished about B.C. 608, 
and to have died in e.g. 560. He travelled in many parts of 
Greece, and was buried in Catana, where his grave was shown 
near a gate of the city in later times. He introduced such great 
improvements into the Greek chorus, that he is frequently de- 
scribed as the inventor of choral poetry. He was the first to 
break the m,onotony of the choral song, which had consisted pre- 
viously of nothing more than one uniform stanza, by dividing it 
into the Strophe, the Antistrophe, and the Epodus — the turn, 
the return, and the rest. 

§ 9. Alcseus and Sappho were both natives of Mytilene, in the 
island of Lesbos, and flourished about e.g. 610 — 580. Their 
songs were composed for a single voice, and not for the chorus, 
and they were each the inventor of a new metre, which bears 
their name, and is familiar to us by the well known odes of Ho- 
race. Their poetry was the warm outpouring of the writers' 
inmost feelings, and presents the lyric poetry of the ^Eolians at 
its highest point. 

Of the life of AIcsbus we have several interesting particulars. He 
fought in the war between the Athenians and Mytilenseans for 
the possession of Sigeum (e.g. 606), and incurred the disgrace 
of leaving his arms behind him on the field of battle. He en- 
joyed, notwithstanding, the reputation of a brave and skilful 
warrior, and his house is described by himself as furnished with 
the weapons of war rather than with the instruments of his art. He 
took an active part in the civil dissensions of his native state, 
and warmly espoused the cause of the aristocratical party, to 
which he belonged by birth. When the nobles were driven into 
exile, he endeavoured to cheer their spirits by a number of most 
animated odes, full of invectives against the popular party and 
its leaders. In order to oppose the attempts of the exiled nobles, 
Pittacus was unanimously chosen by the people as iEsymnetes 
or Dictator. He held his office for ten years (e.g. 589 — 579), 



B.C. 600. STESICHORUS. ALGOUS. SAPPHO. 13S 

and during that time he defeated all the efforts of the exiles, 
and established the constitution on a popular basis. When 
Alcseus perceived that all hope of restoration to his native 
country wsls gone, he traveled into Egypt and other lands. 
The fragments of his poems which remain, and the excellent 
imitations of Horace, enable us to understand something of 
their character. Those which have received the highest praise 
are his warlike odes,* of which we have a specimen in the fol- 
lowing description of his palace halls : — 

" From floor to roof the spacious palace halls 

Glitter with war's array ; 
With burnish' (1 metal clad, the lofty walls 

Beam like the bright noon day. 
There white-plumed helmets hang from many a nail. 

Above in threatening row ; 
Steel-garnish' d tunics, and broad coats of mail, 

Spread o'er the space below. 
Chalcidian blades enow, and belts are here, 

Greaves and emblazon'd shields ; 
"Well-tried protectors from the hostile spear 

On other battle-fields. 
"With these good helps our work of war's begun ; 
"With these our victory must be won." f 

In some of his poems Alcseus described the hardships of exile, 
and the perils he encountered in his wanderings by land and by 
sea ; | while in others he sang of the pleasures of love and of 
wine. 

Sappho, the contemporary of Alcseus, whom he addresses as 
•' the dark-haired, spotless, sweetly smiling Sappho," was the 
greatest of all the Greek poetesses. The ancient writers agree in 
expressing the most unbounded admiration for her poetry ; Plato 
in an extant epigram calls her the tenth Muse ; and it is related 
of Solon, that, on hearing for the first time the recital of one of 
her poems, he prayed that he might not see death until he had 
committed it to memory. Of the events of her life we have 
scarcely any information ; and the common story that", being in 
love with Phaon and finding her love unrequited, she leaped 
down from the Leucadian rock, seems to have been an invention 
of later times. At Mytilene Sappho was the centre of a female 
literary society, the members of which were her pupils in poe- 

* "Alcffii minaces Camenae." — ^Hor. Carm. iv. 9, 1. 
+ Translated by Colonel Mure. 
4: " Et te sctnantcm plenius aureo, 
Alcaee, plectro dura navis, 

Dura fuga3 mala, dura belli." — IIou. Cann. ii. 1 3, 2ft. 



134 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. Xlll. 

try, fashion, and gallantry. Modern writers have indeed at- 
tempted to prove that the moral character of Sappho was free 
from all reproach, and that her tenderness was as pure as it 
was glowing ; but it is impossible to read the extant fragments 
of her poetry without being forced to come to the conclusion 
that a female who could virite such verses could not be the 
pure and virtuous woman which her modern apologists pretend. 
Her poems were chiefly amatory,^ and the most important of 
the fragments which have been preserved is a magnificent ode. 
to the G-oddess of Love. In several of Sappho's fragments we 
perceive the exquisite taste wdth which she employed images 
drawn from nature, of wliich we have an example in the beau- 
tiful line imitated by Byron — 

" O Hesperus! thou bringest all things." 

§ 10. Anacreon is the last Lyric jpoet of this period who claims 
our attention. He was a native of the Ionian city of Teos. He 
spent part of his life at Samos, under the patronage of Poly- 
crates, in whose praise he wrote many songs. After the death 
of this despot (b.c. 522), he went to Athens, at the invitation of 
Hipparchus, who sent a galley of fifty oars to fetch him. He 
remained at Athens till the assassination of Hipparchus (b.c. 
514), when he is supposed to have returned to Teos. The uni- 
versal tradition of antiquity represents Anacreon as a consum- 
mate voluj)tuary ; and his poems prove the truth of the tradition. 
He sings of love and wine with hearty good will, and we see in 
him the luxury of the Ionian inflamed by the fervour of the poet. 
His death was worthy of his life, if we may believe the account 
that he was choked by a grape-stone. Only a few genuine frag- 
ments of his poems have come down to us, for the odes ascribed 
to him are now universally admitted to be spurious. 

^11. Down to the end of the sevench century before Christ 
literary celebrity in Greece was exclusively confined to the poets ; 
but at the commencement of the following century there sprang 
up in diflerent parts of Greece a number of men who, under the 
name of the Seven Sages, became distinguished for their practi- 
cal sagacity and wise sayings or maxims. Their names are 
differently given in the various popular catalogues ; but those 
most generally admitted to the honour are Solon, Thales, Pitta- 
cus, Periander, Cleobulus, Chile, and Bias. Most of these per- 
sonages were actively engaged in the affairs of pubhc life, and 

* "spiral adhuc amor 

Vivuntque commissi calores 

Oolite fidibus puellse." — Hor. Carm. iv. 9, 10. 



B.C. 600. THE SEAT:N SAGES. 135 

exercised great influence upon their contemporaries. They were 
the authors of the celebrated mottoes inscribed in later days in 
the Delphian temple — " Know thyself," — " Nothing too much," 
— " Know thy opportunity," — " Suretyship is the precursor of 
ruin." 

Of Solon, the legislator of Athens, and of Periander, the 
despot of Corinth, we have already spoken at length ; and 
Thales will presently claim our notice as the founder of Grecian 
philosophy. 

Pittacus has been mentioned in connection with the life of 
Alcseus, as the wise and virtuous ruler of Mitylene, who re- 
signed the sovereign power which his lellow-citizens had volun- 
tarily conferred upon him, after establishing political order in 
the state. The maxims attributed to him illustrate the amiable 
features of his character. He pronounced " the greatest bless- 
ing w^hich a man can enjoy to be the power of doing good;" 
that " the most sagacious man was he who foresaw the aj.proach 
of misfortune ;" " the bravest man he who knew how to bear 
it ;" that " victory should never be stained by blood ;" and that 
" pardon was often a more cflectual check on crime than pun- 
ishment." 

Cleobulus was despot of Lindus, in the island of Rhodes, and 
is only known by his pithy sayings. He taught that " a man 
should never leave his dwelling without considering well what 
he was about to do, or re-enter it without reflecting on what he 
had done ;" and that " it was folly in a husband either to fondle 
or reprove his wife in company." 

Chile, of Sparta, had filled the office of Ephor in his native 
city, and his daughter was married to the Spartan king Dcmara- 
tus. When a-sked what were the three most difficult things in 
a man's life, he replied : "To keep a secret, to forgive injuries, 
and to make a profitable use of leisure time." 

' Bias, of Prienc in Ionia, appears to have been the latest of the 
Seven Sages, since he was alive at the Persian conquest of the 
Ionian cities. The following are specimens of his maxims : he 
declared " the most unfortunate of all men to be the man who 
knows not how to bear misfortune ;" that " a man should be 
slow in making up his mind, but swift in executing his de- 
cisions ;" that " a man should temper his love for his Iriends by 
the reflection that they might some day become his enemies, and 
moderate his hatred of his enemies by the reflection that they 
might some day become his friends." When overtaken by a 
storm on a voyage with a dissolute crew, and hearing them o(ibr 
up prayers for their safety, he advised them rather " to be silent, 
lest the gods should discover that they were at sea." 



136 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIIL 

§ 12. The history of Greek philosophy begins with Thales 
of Miletus, who was born about B.C. 640, and died in 550, at 
the age of 90. He was the founder of the Ionic school of phi- 
losophy, and to him were traced the first beginnings of geometry 
and astronomy. The main doctrine of his philosophical sys- 
tem was, that water, or fluid substance, was the single original 
element from which every thing came and into which every 
thing returned 

Anaximander, the successor of Thales in the Ionic school, 
lived from B.C. 610 to 547. He was distinguished for his know- 
ledge of astronomy and geography, and is said to have been the 
first to introduce the use of the sun-dial into Greece. He was also 
one of the earliest Greek writers in prose, in which he composed 
a geographical treatise. He is further said to have constructed 
a chart or map to accompany this work ; and to this account 
we may give the more credence, since in the century after his 
death, at the time of the Ionic revolt, the Ionian Aristagoras 
showed to the Spartan Cleomenes " a tablet of copper, upon 
which was inscribed every known part of the habitable world, 
the seas, and the rivers." 

Anaximenes, the third in the series of the Ionian philosophers, 
lived a little later than Anaximander. He endeavoured, like 
Thales, to derive the origin of all material things from a single 
element ; and, according to his theory, air was the source of life. 
In like manner, Heraclitus of Ephesus, who flourished about 
B.C. 513, regarded fire or heat as the primary form of all mat- 
ter ; and theories of a similar nature were held by other phi- 
losophers of this school. 

A new path was struck out by Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, the 
most illustrious of the Ionic philosophers. Anaxagoras was born 
in B.C. 499, and consequently his life, strictly speaking, belongs 
to the next period of Grecian history, but we mention him here 
in order to complete our account of the Ionic School. He came 
to Athens in 480 b.c, being then only in his twentieth year. 
Though he inherited a considerable property from his father, 
he resigned it all to his relatives, in order to devote himself 
entirely to philosophy. He continued to teach at Athens for 
thirty years, and numbered among his hearers Pericles, Socrates, 
and Euripides. He abandoned the system of his predecessors, 
and, instead of regarding some elementary form of matter as the 
origin of all things, he conceived a supreme mind or intelligence,''^ 
distinct from the visible world, to have imparted form and order 
to the chaos of nature. These innovations afforded the Athe- 
nians a pretext for indicting Anaxagoras of impiety, though it is 

* NoCf. 



B.C. 600. SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOniY. 137 

probable that his connexion with Pericles was the real cause of 
that proceeding. It was only through the influence and elo- 
quence of Pericles that he was not put to death ; but he was sen- 
tenced to pay a fine of five talents and quit Athens. The phi- 
losopher retired to Lampsacus, where he died at the age of 72. 

s^ 13. The second school of G-reek philosophy was the Eleatic, 
which derived its name from Elea or Velia, a Greek colony on 
the western coast of Southern Italy. It was founded by Xeno- 
phanes of Colophon, Avho fled to Elea on the conquest of his 
native land by the Persians. He conceived the whole of nature 
to be God, and did not hesitate to denounce as abominable the 
Homeric descriptions of the gods. His philosophical system 
was developed in the succeeding century by his successors, Par- 
menides and Zeno, who exercised great influence upon Greek 
speculation by the acuteness of their dialectics. 

§ 14. The third school of philosophy was founded by Pytha- 
goras. The history of this celebrated man has been obscured by 
the legends of later writers ; but there are a few important facts 
respecting him which are sufficiently well ascertained. He was 
a native of Samos, and was born about B.C. 580. His father was 
an opulent merchant, and Pythagoras himself travelled exten- 
sively in the East. His travels were greatly magnified by the 
credulity of a later age, but there can be no reasonable doubt 
that he visited Egypt, and perhaps also Phoenicia and Babylon. 
He is said to have received instruction from Thales, Anaxi- 
mander, and other of the early Greek philosophers. Of his own 
philosophical views our knowledge is very limited ; since he left 
nothing behind him in writing, and the later doctrines of the 
Pythagoreans were naturally attributed to the founder of the 
school. It is certain, however, that he believed in the transmi- 
gration of souls ; and his contemporary Xenophanes related 
that Pythagoras seeing a dog beaten interceded in its behalf, 
saying — " It is the soul of a friend of mine, whom I recognizo 
by its voice." Later writers added that Pythagoras asserted 
that his own soul had formerly dwelt in the body of the Trojan 
Euphorbus, the son of Panthous, who was slain by Menelaus, 
and that in proof of his assertion he took down, at first sight, 
the shield of Euphorbus from the temple of Hera (Juno) at 
Argos, where it had been dedicated by Menelaus.^ Pythagoras 

* "habentque 

Tartara Pantlioiden, iterum Oreo 
Demissum, quanivis clipeo Trojana refixo 

Tempoi-a testatus, nihil ultra 
Nervos atque cutem morti concesserat atra." 

IIoR. Carm. i. 28. 10. 



138 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIII 

was distinguished by his knowledge of geometry and arithmetic ; 
and it was probably from his teaching that the Pythagoreans 
were led to regard numbers in some mysterious manner as the 
basis and essence of all things. "We shall, however, form an er- 
roneous opinion of the character of Pythagoras, if we regard him 
simply as a philosopher, attaching to the word the same mean- 
ing which it bore among the Athenians of a later age. He was in 
fact more of the religious teacher than of the philosopher ; and he 
looked upon himself as a being destined by the gods to reveal to 
his disciples a new and a purer mode of life. The religious 
element in his character made a profound impression upon his 
contemporaries, and they believed him to stand in a close con- 
nexion with the gods. 

Pythagoras is said to have returned to Samos about the age of 
forty, with a mind deeply impressed with his divine mission. 
Finding the condition of his native country, which was then 
under the despotism of Polycrates, unfavourable to the dis- 
semination of his doctrines, he migrated to Croton in Italy. 
Here he met with the most wonderful success. His public 
exhortations induced numbers to enrol themselves as mem- 
bers of the new society which he sought to establish. This 
society was a kind of religious brotherhood, the members of 
which were bound together by peculiar rites and observances. 
There were various gradations among the members, and no can- 
didates were admitted without passing through a period of pro- 
bation, in which their intellectual faculties and general character 
were tested. Everything done and taught in the fraternity was 
kept a profound secret from all without its pale. It appears 
that the members had some private signs, like Freemasons, by 
which they could recognize each other, even if they had never 
met before. From the secrecy in which their proceedings were 
enveloped, we do not know the nature of their religious rites, 
nor the peculiar diet to which they are said to have been sub- 
jected. Some writers represent Pythagoras as forbidding all 
animal food ; but all the members carmot have been subjected to 
this prohibition, since we know that the celebrated athlete Milo 
was a Pythagorean, and it would not have been possible for him 
to have dispensed with animal food. But temperance was strictly 
enjoined ; and their whole training tended to produce great sell- 
possession and mastery over the passions. Most of the converts 
of Pythagoras belonged to the noble and wealthy classes. Three 
hundred of them, most attached to their teacher, formed the 
nucleus of the society, and were closely united to Pythagoras 
and each other by a sacred vow. His doctrines spread rapidly 
over Magna Grsecia, and clubs of a similar character were 



B.C. 530. PYTHAGORAS. 139 

established at Sybaris, Metapontum, Tarentum, and other 
cities. 

It does not appear that Pythagoras had originally any political 
designs in the foundation of the brotherhood ; but it was only 
natural that a club like that of the Three Hundred at Croton 
should speedily acquire great influence in the conduct of public 
affairs, which it uniformly exerted in favor of the oligarchical 
party. Pythagoras himself also obtained great political power. 
He did not, it is true, hold any public office, either at Croton 
or elsewhere ; but he was the general of a powerful and well- 
disciplined order, which appears to have paid implicit obedience 
to his commands, and which bore in many respects a striking 
resemblance to the one founded in modern times by Ignatius 
Loyola. The influence, however, exercised by the brotherhood 
upon pubhc aflairs proved its ruin. The support which it lent 
to the oligarchical party in the various cities, the secrecy of its 
proceedings, and the exclusiveness of its spirit produced agamst 
the whole system a wide-spread feeling of hatred. 

The conquest of Sybaris by Croton (b. c. 510), of which an 
account has been already given, seems to have elated the Pytha- 
goreans beyond measure. The war had been undertaken 
through the advice of Pythagoras himself; and the forces of 
Croton had been commanded by Milo, a member of the brother- 
hood. Accordingly, on the termination of the w^ar, the Pytha- 
goreans opposed more actively than ever the attempts of the 
popular party to obtain a share in the government of Croton, 
and refused to divide among the people the territory of the 
conquered city. A revolution was the consequence. A dcmo- 
cratical form of government w^as established at Croton ; and the 
people now took revenge upon their powerful opponents. In an 
outbreak of popular fury an attack was made upon the house in 
which the leading Pythagoreans were assembled ; the house was 
set on fire ; and many of the members perished. Similar riots 
took place in the other cities of Magna Grajcia, in which Pytha- 
gorean clubs had been formed ; and civil dissensions ensued 
which, after lasting many years, were at length pacified by the 
friendly mediation of the Achseans of the mother-country. The 
Pythagorean order, as an active and organised brotherhood, was 
thus suppressed ; but the Pythagoreans continued to exist as a 
philosophical sect, and after some interval were again admitted 
into the cities from which they had been expelled. There were 
different accounts of the fate of Pythagoras himself; but he is 
generally stated to have died at Metapontum, where his tomb 
was shown in the time of Cicero. 




Temple of iEgina, restored. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



HISTORY OF ART. 



§1. Perfection of Grecian art. §2. Origin of architecture. §3. Cyclopean 
walls. Treasury of Atreus. § 4. Architecture of temples. § 5. Three 
orders of architecture, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. § 6. Temples 
of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus, of Hera (Juno) at Samos, of Apollo at 
Delphi, and of Jove at Athens. Remains of temples at Posidonia (Pa^s- 
tum), Selinus, and vEgina. § 1. Origin of Sculpture. Wooden images 
of the gods. Sculptured figures on architectural monuments. Lions 
over the gate at Mycenae. § 8. Improvements in sculpture in the sixth 
and fifth centuries b.c. § 9. Extant specimens of Grecian sculpture. 
The Selinuntine, JEginetan, and Lycian marbles. § 10. History of 
painting. 

§ 1. The perfection of Greek art is still more wonderful than 
the perfection of Greek literature. In poetry, histoiy, and 
oratory, other languages have produced works which may stand 
comparison with the master-pieces of Greek literature ; but in 
architecture and sculpture the pre-eminence of the Hellenic race 
is acknowledged by the whole civilized world, and the most suc- 
cessful artist of modern times only hopes to approach, and 
dreams not of surpassing the glorious creations of Grecian art. 
The art of a people is not only a most interesting branch of its 
antiquities, but also an important part of its history. It forma 



Chap. XIV. ARCHITECTURE. 141 

one of the most durable evidences of a nation's growth in civi- 
lization and social progress. The remains of the Parthenon 
alone would have home the most unerring testimony to the in- 
tellectual and social greatness of Athens, if the histcry of Greece 
had been a blank, and the names of Pericles and Phidias un- 
Imown. 

^ 2. Architecture first claims our attention in tracing the his- 
tory of Grecian art, since it attained a high degree of excellence 
at a much earlier period than either sculpture or painting. 
Architecture has its origin in nature and in religion. The neces- 
sity of a habitation for man, d.A the attempt to erect habita- 
tions suitable for the gods, are the tAvo causes from which the 
art derives its existence. In Greece, however, as in most other 
countries, architecture was chiefly indebted to religion for its 
development ; and hence its histor}'', as a fine art, is closely con- 
nected with that of the temple. But before speaking of the 
Grecian temples, it is necessary to say a few w^ords respecting 
the earlier buildings of the Greeks. 

§ 3. The oldest works erected by Grecian hands are those 
gigantic walls which are still found at Tiryns and Mycenae, and 
other cities of Greece. They consist of enormous blocks of stone 
put together wdthout cement of any kind, though they differ 
from one another in the mode of their construction. In the most 
ancient specimens, the stones are of irregular polygonal shapes, 
and no attempt is made to fit them into one another, the gaps 
being filled up with smaller stones : of this we have an example 
in the walls of the citadel of Tiryns. 




Wall at Tiryns. 

In other cases the stones, though they are still of irregular 
polygonal shapes, are skilfully hewn and fitted to one another, 
and their faces are cut so as to give the whole wall a smooth 



142 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XIV. 

appearance. A specimen of this kind is seen in the walls of 
Larissa, the citadel of Argos. In the third species the stones 




Wall of the Citadel of Argos. 

are more or less regular, and are laid in horizontal courses. 
The -walls of Mycence present one of the best examples of this 
structure. (See drav.ing on p. 25.) These gigantic walls are 
generally known by the name of Cyclopean, because posterity 
could not believe them to be the works of man. Modern 
WTiters assign them to the Pelasgians ; but we know nothing 
of their origin, though we may safely beheve them to belong 
to the earliest periods of Greek history. In the Homeric 
poems we find the cities of Greece surrounded with massive 
walls ; and the poet speaks of the chief cities of the Argive 
kingdom as " the walled Tiryns," and " Mycense, the well-built 
city." 

The only other remains which can be regarded as con- 
temporary mth these massive walls are those subterraneous 
dome-shaped edifices usually supposed to have been the trea- 
suries of the heroic kings. This, however, seems doubtful, and 
many modern writers maintain them to have been the family- 
vaults of the ancient heroes by whom they were erected. The 
best preserved monument of this kind is the one at MycensB, 
where we find so many remains of the earhest Grecian art. This 
building, generally called the Treasur}^ of Atreus, is entirely under 
ground. It contains two chambers, the one upon entrance be- 
ing a large vault about fifty feet in width, and forty in height, 
giving access to a small chamber excavated in the solid rock. 
The building is constructed of horizontal courses of masonry, 
which gradually approach and unite in the top in a closing stone. 
Its principle is that of a wall resisting a superincumbent weight, 
and deriving strength and coherence from the weight itself, 
which is in reahty the principle of the arch. The doorway of 
the monument was formerly adorned with pilasters and other 
ornaments in marble of different colours. It appears to have 
been lined in the interior with bronze plates, the holes for the 
nails of which are still visible in horizontal rows. 



Chap. XIV. 



TEMPLES. 



143 



^ 4. The temples of the gods were originally email in size and 
mean in appearance. The most ancient were nothing but hollow 
trees, in which the images of the gods were placed, since the 
temple in early times was simply the habitation of the deity, and 
not a place for the worshippers. As the nation grew in know- 
ledge and in civilisation, the desire naturally arose of improving 
and embellishing the habitations of their deities. The tree was 
first exchanged for a wooden house. The form of the temple 
was undoubtedly borrowed from the common dwellings of men. 
Among the Greeks of Asia Minor, we still find an exact con- 
formity of style and arrangement between the wooden huts now 
jDCCupied by the peasantry, and the splendid temples of antiquity. 







Wooden hut in Asia Minor. 

The wooden habitation of the god gave way in turn to a templd 
of stone. In the erection of these sacred edifices, architecture 
made great and rapid progress ; and even as early as the sixth 
century there were many magnificent temples erected in va- 
rious parts of Hellas. Most of the larger temples received their 
light from an opening in the centre of the building, and were 
for this reason called hypozthral,^ or under the sky. They usually 
consisted of three parts, the pronaos,f or vestibule ; the naos.t or 
cclla, which contained the statue of the deity, and the ojnstho- 
domus,k or back-building, in which the treasures of the temple 
were frequently kept. The form of the temples was very simple, 
being either oblong or round ; and their grandeur w^as owing to 
the beautiful combination of columns which adorned the interior 
as well as the outside. These columns either surrounded the 
building entirely, or were arranged in porticoes on one or more 
of its fronts ; and according to their number and distribution 
temples have been classified both by ancient and modern writers 
on architecture. Columns were originally used simply to sup- 
port the roof of the building ; and, amidst all the elaborations of 
* VTratOgog. f Trpovaof . :j: vaof , also called ai]Ko(;. § dniododufio^. 



144 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



Chap. XIV. 



a later age, this object was always kept in view. Hence we find 
the column supporting a horizontal mass, technically called the 




Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian Columns. 



entablature. Both the column and the entablature are again 
divided into three distinct parts. The former consists of the 
base, the shaft, and the capital ; the latter of the architrave, the 
frieze, and the cornice. The architrave is the chief beam,*" rest- 
ing on the summit of the row of columns ; the frieze rises above 
the architrave, and is frequently adorned by figures in relief, 
whence its Greek name ;t and above the frieze projects the cor- 
nice,$ forming a handsome finish to the entablature. According 
to certain differences in the proportions and embellishments of 
the columns and entablature Grecian architecture was divided 
into three orders, called respectively the Doric, Ionic, and Corin- 
thian. 

^ 5. The Doric order is the most ancient, and is marked by 
the characteristics of the people from whom it derives its name. 
It is simple, massive, and majestic. The column is characterised 
by the absence of a base, by the thickness and rapid diminution 
of the shaft, and by the simplicity and massiveness of the 
capital. In the entablature, the architrave is in one surface and 
quite plain. The frieze is ornamented by triglyphs, so called 
from the three flat bands into which they are divided by the 
intervening chaimels ; while the metopes, or the vacant spaces 
between the triglyphs, are also adorned with sculptures in high 

* Called by the Greeks '^ttlgtvIlov cpistyliuin. \ Zu(p6poc, zophorus. 
\ Koguvi^f Goronis. 



Chap. XIV. 



TEMPLES. 



145 



relief. The cornice projects far, and on its under side are cut 
several sets of drops, called mutules. 

The Ionic order is distinguished by simple gracefulness, and 
by a much richer style of ornament than the Doric. The shaft 
of the column is much more slender, and rests upon a base ; 
while the capital is adorned by spiral volutes. The architrave 
is in three faces, the one slightly projecting beyond the other ; 
there is a small cornice between the architrave and the frieze, 
and all three members of the entablature are more or less orna- 
mented with mouldings. 




Doric Architecture. 
From Temple at Phigalia. 



Ionic Architecture. 
From the Erechtheum. 



The Corinthian order is only a later form of the Ionic, and be- 
longs to a period subsequent to the one treated in the present 
booii. It is especially characterized by its beautiful capital, which 
is said to have been suggested to the mind of the celebrated sculp- 
tor Callimachus by the sight of a basket, covered by a tile, and 
overgrown by the leaves of an acanthus, on which it had accident- 
ally been placed. The earliest known example of its use through- 

H 



146 



HISTORY OF GREECK 



Chat. XIY. 



out a building is in the monument of Lysicrates, commonly called 
the Lantern of Demosthenes, which was built in B.C. 335. 




Corinthian Architecture. From Monument of Lysicrates. 



^ 6. Passing over the earlier Greek temples, we find at the be- 
ginning of the sixth century b.c. several magnificent buildings 
of this kind mentioned by the ancient writers. Of these two of 
the most celebrated were the temple of Artemis (Diana) at 
Ephesus, and the temple of Hera (Juno) at Samos. The fornier 
was erected on a gigantic scale, and from its size and magni- 
ficence was regarded as one of the wonders of the world. It 
was commenced about b.c. 600, under the superintendence of 
the architects Chersiphron and his son Metagenes, of Cnossus 
in Crete, but it occupied many years in building. The material 
employed was white marble, and the order of architecture 
adopted was the Ionic. Its length was 425 feet, its breadth 



CHAP. XIV. TEMPLES. 147 

220 feet ; the columns were 60 feet in height, and 127 iii 
number ; and the blocks of marble composing the architrave 
were 30 feet in length. This wonder of the world was burnt 
down by Herostratus, in order to immortalise himself, on the 
same night that Alexander the Grreat Avas born (b.c. 356) ; but 
it was afterwards rebuilt with still greater magnificence by the 
contributions of all the states of Asia Minor. 

The temple of Hera (Juno) at Samos was begun about the 
same time as the one at Ephesus ; but it appears to have been 
finished much earlier, since it was the largest temple with which 
Herodotus was acquainted. It was 346 feet in length, and 189 
in breadth, and was originally built in the Doric style, but the 
existing remains belong to the Ionic order. The architects were 
RhoBcus, and his son Theodorus, both natives of Samos. 

In the latter half of the same centur}^ the temple of Delphi 
was rebuilt after its destruction by fire in b.c. 548. The sum 
required for the erection of this temple was 300 talents, or about 
115,000/., which had to be collected from the various cities in 
the Hellenic world. The contract for the building was taken 
by the Alcmseonidse, and the magnificent manner in which they 
executed the work has been already mentioned. It was in the 
Doric style, and the front was cased with Parian marble. 

About the same time Pisistratus and his sons commenced the 
temple of the Olympian Jove at Athens. It was a colossal fabric in 
the Doric style, 359 feet in length by 173 in breadth, and was only 
completed by the emperor Hadrian, 650 years after its foundation. 

The temples mentioned above have entirely disappeared, with 
the exception of a few columns ; but others erected in the sixth 
and fifth centuries b.c. have withstood more successfully the 
ravages of time. Of these the most perfect and the most striking 
are the two temples at Posidonia, or Paestum, the colony of Sy- 
baris in southern Italy, the remains of which still fill the beholder 
with admiration and astonishment. The larger of the two, which 
is the more ancient, is characterised by the massive simplicity 
of the ancient Doric style. It is 195 feet long by 75 feet wide. 
There are likewise considerable remains of three ancient temples 
at Selinus in Sicily, built in the Doric style. The temple of Jove 
Panhellenius, in the island of ^gina, of which many columns 
are Btill standing, was probably erected in the sixth century 
B.C., and not after the Persian wars, as is stated by many 
modem "w-riters. It stands in a sequestered and lonely spot in 
the north-east corner of the island, overlooking the sea and com- 
manding a view of the opposite coast of Attica. It is in the 
Doric style ; and the front elevation, as restored, is exhibited in 
the engraving at the head of this chapter. 



.48 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIV. 

^ 7. Sculpture, or to use a more correct expression, Statuary, 
owed its origin, like architecture, to religion. The only statues 
in Greece were for a long time those of the gods ; and it was not 
till about B.C. 550 that statues began to be erected in honour of 
men. The most ancient representations of the gods did not even 
pretend to be images, but were only symbolical signs of their 
presence, and were often nothing more than unhewn blocks of 
stone or simple pieces of wood. Sometimes there was a real statue 
of the god, carved in wood, of which material the most ancient 
statues were exclusively made,=^ The art of carving in wood was 
confined to certain families, and was handed down from father 
to son. Such families are represented in Attica by the mythical 
name of Daedalus, and in ^gina by the equally mythical name 
of Smilis, from both of whom many artists of a later age traced 
their descent. The hereditary cultivation of the art tended to 
repress its improvem.ent and development ; and the carvers long 
continued to copy from generation to generation the exact type 
of each particular god. These wooden figures were frequently 
painted and clothed, and were decorated with diadems, ear-rings, 
and necklaces, and in course of time were partly covered with 
gold or ivory. Statues in marble or metal did not begin to be 
made till the sixth century b.c. 

Though statuary proper, or the construction of a round 
figure standing by itself, continued in a rude stace lor a long 
time in Greece, yet sculptured figures on architectural monu- 
ments were executed at an early period in a superior style of art. 
One of the earliest specimens of sculpture still extant is the 
work in relief above the ancient gate at Mycence, representing 
two lions standing on their hind legs with a kind of pillar be- 
tween them. They are figured on p, 25. 

§ 8. About the beginning of the sixth century B.C. a fresh 
impulse was given to statuary, as well as to the other arts, by 
the discovery of certain mechanical processes in the use and 
application of the metals. Glaucus of Chios is mentioned as 
the inventor of the art of soldering metal ;t and RhcBcus and 
Theodorus of Samos, who have been already spoken of as archi- 
tects, invented the art of casting figures of bronze in a mould. 
The magnificent temples,which began to be built about the same 
period, called into exercise the art of the sculptor, since the 
friezes and pediments were usually adorned with figures in rehef 
Dipcenus and Scyllis of Crete, who practised their art at Sicyon 
about B.c, 580, were the first sculptors who obtained renown for 
their statues in marble. They founded a school of art in Sicyon, 

* A wooden statue was called ^oavov, from ^eu, "polish" or " carve." 
jf oiStjqov K67i2.7]Oig, Herod, i. 25. 



CuAP. XIV. STATUARY. 149 

which long enjoyed great celebrity. The other most distin- 
guished schools of art were at Samos, Chios, jEgina, and Argos. 
The practice of erecting statues of the victors in the great public 
games, which commenced about B.C. 550, was likewise of great 
service in the development of the art. In forming these statues 
the sculptor was not tied down by a fixed type, as in the case 
of the images of the gods, and consequently gave greater play to 
his inventive powers. The improvement thus produced in the 
statues of men was gradually extended to the images of the 
gods ; and the artist was emboldened to depart from the ancient 
models, and to represent the gods under new forms of beauty 
and grandeur. Nevertheless even the sculptures which belong 
to the close of the present period still bear traces of the religious 
restraints of an earlier age, and form a transition from the 
hardness and stiffness of the archaic style to that ideal beauty 
which was shortly afterwards developed in the sublime works 
of Phidias ^ 

^ 9. Among the remams of the sculpture of this period still 
extant, those most worthy of notice are the reliefs in the 
metopes of the temple of Selinus, the statues on the pediments 
of the temple of ^gina, and the reliefs on the great monument 
recently discovered at Xanthus in Lycia. The two reliefs given 
on p. 114 are taken from the metopes of two temples at Selinus. 
The first, belonging to the more ancient of the temples, which 
was probably built about B.C. 600, represents Perseus cutting ofi' 
the head of Medusa, with the assistance of Pallas. The work is 
very rude and very inferior, both in style and execution, to the 
lions over the gate at My cense. The second, belonging to the 
more recent of the temples, probably erected in the latter half 
of the fifth century, exhibits a marked improvement. It repre- 
sents Actseon metamorphosed into a stag by Artemis (Diana), 
and torn to pieces by his own dogs. 

Two of the statues on one of the pediments of the temple at 
iEgina are represented on pp. 16, 17. These statues were dis- 
covered in 1812, and are at present in the collection at Munich. 
They have been restored by Thorwaldsen. The subject is Athena 
(Minerva) leading the JE acids or ^Eginetan heroes in the war 
against the Trojans. There are traces of colour on the clothes, 
arms, eye-balls, and lips, but not on the flesh ; and it appears, 
from the many small holes found in the marble, that bronze 
armour was fixed to the statues by means of nails. There is 
great animation in the figures, but their gestures are too violent 
and abrupt ; and one may still perceive evident traces of the 
archaic style. The close imitation of nature is ver)' striking. 

The reliefs on the monument at Xanthus in Lycia were evi- 



150 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIV. 

dently executed by Greek artists, and probably about the same 
time as the iEginetan statues. The monument consists of a 
quadrangular tower of limestone on a base, and was surrounded 
on ibur sides by marble friezes at the height of 20 feet from the 
ground. On these friezes, which are now in the British Museum, 
there are sculptures representing various mythological subjects ; 
and, from the ends of the narrower sides containing four beau- 
tiful Harpies carrying off maidens, the building is frequently 
called the Harpy Monument. The general character of these 
sculptures is an antique simplicity of style, united with grace 
and elegance of execution. 

§ 10. Painting is not mentioned as an imitative art in the 
earliest records pf Grecian literature. Homer does not speak 
of any kind of painting, although he frequently describes gar- 
ments inwoven with figures. The fine arts in all countries 
appear to have been indebted to religion for their development ; 
and since painting was not connected in early times with the 
worship of the gods, it long remained behind the sister arts of 
architecture and sculpture. For a considerable period all paint- 
ing consisted in coloring statues and architectural monuments, 
of which v/e find traces in the ruins of the temples already 
described. The first improvements in painting were made in 
the schools of Corinth and Sicyon ; and the most ancient speci- 
mens of the art which have come down to us are found on the 
oldest Corinthian vases, which may be assigned to the beginning 
of the sixth century B.C. About the same time painting began 
to be cultivated in Asia Minor, along with architecture and 
sculpture. The paintings of the town of Phoceea are mentioned 
on the capture of that city by Harpagus in B.C. 544 ; and a few 
years afterwards (b.c. 508) Mandrocles, who constructed for 
Darius the bridge of boats across the Bosporus, had a picture 
painted representing the passage of the army and the king him- 
self seated on a throne reviewing the troops as they passed. 
The only great painter, however, of this period, whose name has 
been preserved, is Cimon of Cleonae, whose date is uncertain, 
but who probably must not be placed later than the time of 
Pisistratus and his sons (b.c. 560—510). He introduced great 
improvements into the art, and thus prepared the way for the 
perfection in which it appears at the beginning of the following 
period. His works probably held the same place in the history 
of painting which the ^ginetan marbles occupy in the history 
of sculpture, forming a transition from the archaic stifihess of 
the old school to the ideal beauty of the paintings of Polygnotua 
of Thasos. 




Cyrus, from a bas-relief at Pasargadae . 

BOOK III. 

THE PERSIAN WARS. 

B.C. 500—478. 



CHAPTER XV. 



THE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

1. Introduction. § 2. The Assyrian Empire. § 3. The Median Empire. 
§ 4. The Babylonian Empire. § 5. The Lydian Monarchy, and its in- 
fluence upon the Asiatic Greeks. § 6. Conquest of the Asiatic Greeks 
by Croesus, king of Lydia. § 7. Foundation of the Persian Empire by 
Cyrus, and overthrow of the Median Empire by the latter. § 8. Con- 
quest of the Lydian Monarchy by Cyrus. § 9. Conquest of the Asiatic 
Greeks by Harpagus, the general of Cyrus. Death of Cyrus. § 10. 
Reigns of Cambyses and of the false Smerdis. § 11. History of Poly- 
crates, despot of Samos. § 12. Accession of Darius, son of Hystaspes. 



J 52 HISTOKY OF GREECE. CiiAr. XY. 

His organization of the Persian Empire. § 13. Invasion of Scytliia 
by Darius. § 14. Subjection of Thrace and Macedonia to the Per- 
sian Empire. 

^ 1. The period upon which we are now entering is the most 
brilhant in the history of Greece. The subject has hitherto been 
confined to the history of separate and isolated cities, which 
were but httle affected by each other's prosperity or adversity. 
But the Persian invasion produced an important change in the 
relations of the Greek cities. A common danger drew them 
closer together and compelled them to act in concert. Thus 
Grecian history obtains a degree of unity, and consequently of 
interest. The rise and progress of the Persian empire, which 
produced such important results upon the Grecian states, there- 
fore claim our attention ; but in order to understand the subject 
aright, it is necessaiy to go a little further back, and to glance 
at the history of those monarchies which were overthrown by 
the Persians. 

§ 2. From the first dawn of history to the present day the 
East has been the seat of vast and mighty empires. Of these 
the earliest and the most extensive was founded by the Assyrian 
kings, who resided at the city of Nineveh on the Tigris. At the 
time of its greatest prosperity this empire appears to have ex- 
tended over the south of Asia, from the Indus on the east to 
the Mediterranean sea on the west. Of its history we have 
hardly any particulars ; but its greatness is attested by the una- 
nimous voice of sacred and profane writers ; and the wonder- 
ful discoveries which have been made within the last few years 
in the earthen mounds which entomb the ancient Nineveh 
afibrd unerring testimony of the progress which the Assyrians 
had made in architecture, sculpture, and the arts of civilized life. 
At the beginning of the eighth century before the Christian era 
the power of this vast empire was broken by the revolt of the 
Medes and Babylonians, who had hitherto been its subjects. 
The city of Nineveh still continued to exist as the seat of an 
independent kingdom, but the greater part of its dominions was 
divided between the Medes and Babylonians, 

§ 3. The Medes belonged to that branch of the Indo-Germanic 
family inhabiting the vast space of country known by the general 
name of Iran or Aria, which extends south of the Caspian and 
the Oxus, from the Indus on the east to Mount Zagros on the 
west — a range of mountains running parallel to the Tigris and 
eastward of that river. The north-western part of this country 
was occupied by the Medes, and their capital Ecbatana was 
situated in a mountainous and healthy district, which was cele- 
brated for the freshness and coolness of its climate in the sum- 



Chap. XV. THE ASSYRIAN AND MEDIAN EMPIRES. 153 

mer heats. Their language was a dialect of the Zend ; and their 
religion was the one which had been founded by Zoroaster. 
They worshipped fire as the symbol of the Deity, and their 
priests were the Magi, who formed a distinct class or caste, pos- 
sessing great influence and power in the state. The people w^ere 
brave and warlike, and under their successive monarchs they 
gradually extended their dominion from the Indus on the east 
to the river Halys in the centre of Asia Minor on the west, 
Their most celebrated conquest was the capture of Nineveh, 
which they rased to the ground in B.C. 606.* 

^ 4. The Babylonians were a Semitic people. Their territory 
comprised the fertile district between the Tigris and the Eu- 
phrates,, and their capital, Babylon, situated on the latter river, 
was one of the greatest cities in the ancient world. Herodotus, 
who visited it in its decline, describes its size and grandeur in 
terms which would exceed belief, if the truthfulness of the his- 
torian was not above all suspicion. It was built in the form of a 
square, of which each side was 1 5 miles in length, and it was 
surrounded by walls of prodigious size, 300 feet high and 75 feet 
thick. Under Nebuchadnezzar the Babylonian empire reached 
its height. This monarch extended his dominions as far as the 
confines of Egypt. He took Jerusalem, and carried away its in- 
habitants into captivity, and he annexed to his dominions both 
Judea and Phoenicia. On his death, in B.C. 562, he bequeathed 
to his son Labynetus (the Belshazzar of Scripture) a kingdom 
which extended from the Tigris to the frontiers of Egypt and the 
south of Phoenicia. 

§ 5. The Median and Babylonian empires did not include any 
countries inhabited by the Greeks, and exercised only a remote 
influence upon Grecian civihzation. There was, however, a third 
power, which rose upon the ruins of the Assyrian empire, with 
which the Greeks were brought into immediate contact. This 
was the Lydian monarchy, whose territory was originally confined 
to the fertile district eastward of Ionia, watered by the Cayster 
and the Hermus. The capital of the monarchy was Sardis, which 
was situated on a precipitous rock belonging to the ridge of 
Mount Tmolus. Here three dynasties of Lydian kings are said 
to have reigned. Of the two first we have no account, and it is 
probable that, down to the commencement of the third of these 
dynasties, Lydia formed a province of the Assyrian empire. 
However this may be, the history of Lydia begins only with the 
accession of Gyges, the founder of the third dynasty ; and it 

* According to Herodotus, there were four Median kings: — 1. Deioces, 
the founder of the empire, who reigned n.c. 'ZIO-GSY ; 2. Phraortes, b.c 
657-635 ; 3. Cyaxares, r.c. 635-595 ; 4. Astyages, u.c. 595-559. 

H* 



164 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. Xv^. 

cannot be a mere accident that the beginning of his reign- is 
nearly coincident with the dechne of the Assyrian empire and 
the foundation of the independent monarchies of the Babylonians 
and Medes.* 

Under Gryges and his successors Sardis became the centre of a . 
powerful and civilized monarchy ; and the existence of such a 
state in close proximity to the Greek cities in Ionia exercised an 
important influence upon the latter. The Lydians were a wealthy 
and industrious people, carrying on an extensive commerce, prac- 
tising manufactures and acquainted with various arts. The 
Lydians are said to have been the first people to coin money of 
gold and silver : and of the former metal they obtained large 
quantities in the sands of the river Pactolus, which flowed down 
from Mount Tmolus towards the Hermus. From them the Ionic 
Greeks derived various improvements in the useful and the 
ornamental arts, especially in the weaving and dyeing of fine 
fabrics, in the processes of metallurgy, and in the style of their 
music. The growth of the Lydian monarchy in wealth and 
civilization was attended with another advantage to the Grecian 
cities on the coast. As the territory of the Lydians did not 
originally extend to the sea, the whole of their commerce with 
the Mediterranean passed through the Grecian cities, and was 
carried on in Grecian ships. This contributed greatly to the 
prosperity and wealth of Miletus, Phocsea, and the other Ionian 
cities. 

§ 6. But while the Asiatic Greeks were indebted for so much 
of their grandeur and opulence to the Lydian monarchy, the 
increasing power of the latter eventually deprived them of their 
political independence. Even Gyges had endeavoured to reduce 
them to subjection, and the attempt was renewed at various 
times by his successors ; but it was not till the reign of CroBsus, 
the last king of Lydia, who succeeded to the throne in b.c. 560, 
that the Asiatic Greeks became the subjects of a barbarian 
power. This monarch succeeded in the enterprise in which his 
predecessors had failed. He began by attacking Ephesus, and 
reduced in succession all the other Grecian cities on the coast. 
His rule, however, was not oppressive ; he appears to have been 
content with the payment of a moderate tribute, and to have 
permitted the cities to regulate their own afiairs. He next 
turned his arms towards the east, and subdued all the nations 
in Asia Minor west of the river Halys, with the exception of the 
Lycians and Cilicians. The fame of CrcEsus and of his countless 

* According to Herodotus, there were five Lydian kings : — 1. Gyges, 
who reigned b.c. 11G-&18; 2. Ardys, b.c, 678-629; 3. t^adyattes, b.c. 
629-617; 4. Alyattes, b.c. 617-560; 5. Crcesus, b.c. 560-546. 



CiiAP. XV. THE BABYLONIAN AND LYDIAN EMPIRES. 155 

treasures now resounded through Greece. He spoke the Greek 
language, welcomed Greek guests, and reverenced the Greek 
oracles, which he enriched with the most munificent ofTcriiigs. 
The wise men of Greece were attracted to Sardis by the fame 
of his power and of his wealth. Among his other visitors he is 
said to have entertained Solon ; but the celebrated story of the 
interview between the Athenian sage and the Lydian monarch, 
which the stern laws of chronology compel us to reject, has 
already been narrated in a previous part of this work.* 

Croesus deemed himself secure from the reach of calamities, 
and his kingdom appeared to be placed upon a firm and last- 
ing foundation. His own subjects were submissive and obe- 
dient ; and he was closely cormected with the powerful mouarchs 
of Media, Babylon, and Egypt. Astyages, the king of Media, 
whose territories adjoined his own, was his brother-in-law ; and 
he had formed an alliance and friendship with Labynetus, king 
of Babylon, and Amasis, king of Egypt. The four kings seemed 
to have nothing to fear either from internal commotions or ex- 
ternal foes. Yet within the space of a few years their dynasties 
were overthrown, and their territories absorbed in a vast empire, 
founded by an adventurer till then unknown by name. 

^ 7. The rise and fall of the great Asiatic monarchies have been 
characterized by the same features in ancient and modern times. 
A brave and hardy race, led by its native chief, issues either 
from the mountains or from the steppes of Asia, overruns 
the more fertile and cultivated parts of the continent, con- 
quers the effeminate subjects of the existing monarchies, and 
places its leader upon the throne of Asia. But the descendants 
of the new monarch and of the conquering race give way to 
sensuality and sloth, and fall victims in their turn to the same 
bravery in another people, which had given the sovereignty to 
their ancestors. The history of Cyrus, the great founder of the 
Persian empire, is an illustration of these remarks. It is true 
that the earlier portion of his life is buried under a heap of 
fables, and that it is impossible to determine whether he wag 
the grandson of the Median king, Astyages, as is commonly 
stated ; but it does not admit of doubt, that he led the warlike 
Persians from their mountainous homes to a series of conquests, 
which secured him an empire extending from the Mgeam to the 
Indus, and from the Caspian and the Oxus, to the Persian Gulf 
and the Indian Ocean. 

The Persians were of the same race as the Medes, spoke a 
dialect of the same language, and were adherents of the same 
religion. They inhabited the mountainous region south of Media, 
* Page 100. 



166 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chav. XV. 

which abounds in several well-watered valleys, and slopes gra- 
dually down to the low grounds on the coast of the Persian gulf. 
While the Medes became enervated by the corrupting influences 
to which they were exposed, the Persians preserved in their 
native mountains their simple and warlike habits. They were 
divided into several tribes, partly agricultural and partly no- 
madic ; but they were all brave, rude, and hardy, clothed in 
skins, drinking only water, and ignorant of the commonest lux- 
uries of life. Cyrus led these fierce warriors from their moun- 
tain fastnesses, defeated the Medes in battle, took Astyages 
prisoner, and deprived him of the throne. The other nations, 
included in the Median empire, submitted to the conqueror ; 
and the sovereignty of Upper Asia thus passed from the Medes 
to the Persians. The accession of Cyrus to the empire is placed 
in B.C. 559. 

^ 8. This important revolution excited alike the anger, the 
fears and the hopes of Croesus. Anxious to avenge his brother- 
in-law, to arrest the alarnning growth of the Persian power, and 
to enlarge his own dommions, he resolved to attack the new 
monarch. But before em.barking upon so perilous an enterprize 
he consulted the oracles of Amphiaraus, and of Apollo at Delphi, 
in whose veracity he placed the most unbounded confidence. 
The reply of both oracles was, that " if he should make war upon 
the Persians, he would destroy a mighty monarchy," and they 
both advised him to make allies of the most powerful among the 
Greeks. Understanding the response to refer to the Persian 
empire, and not, as the priests explained it after the event, to 
his own, he had no longer any hesitation in commencing the 
war. In obedience to the oracles he first sent to the Spartans 
to solicit their alliance, which was readily granted, but no troops 
were sent to his immediate assistance. He then crossed the 
Halys at the head of a large army, laid waste the country of the 
Syrians of Cappadocia, and took several of their towns, Cyrus 
lost no time in coming to the help of his distant subjects. The 
two armies met near the Pterian plain in Cappadocia, where a 
bloody, but indecisive battle was fought. As the forces of Croe- 
sus were inferior in number to those of the Persian king, he 
thought it more prudent to return to Sardis, and collect a large 
army for the next campaign. Accordingly he despatched en- 
voys to Labynetus, Amasis, and the Lacedajmonians, requesting 
them to send auxiliaries to Sardis in the course of the next five 
months ; and meantime he disbanded the mercenary troops who 
had followed him into Cappadocia. 

Cyrus anticipated his enemy's plan ; he waited till the Lydian 
king had re-entered his capital and dismissed his troops; and 



B.C. 559. CYRUS. 157 

he then marched upon Sardis with such celerity that he ap- 
peared under the walls of the city hefore any one could give 
notice of his approach. Croesus was thus compelled to fight 
without his allies ; but he did not despair of success ; for the 
Lydian cavalry was distinguished for its efficiency, and the 
open plain before Sardis was favourable for its evolutions. To 
render this force useless, Cyrus placed in front of his line the 
baggage camels, which the Lydian horses could not endure either 
to see or to smell. The Lydians, however, did not on this ac- 
count decline the contest ; they dismounted from their horses, 
and fought bravely on foot ; and it was not till after a fierce 
combat that they were obliged to take refuge within the city. 
Here they considered themselves secure, till their allies should 
come to their aid ; for the fortifications of Sardis were deemed 
impregnable to assault. There was, however, one side of the 
city which had been left unfortified, because it stood upon a 
rock so lofty and precipitous, as to appear quite inaccessible. 
But on the fourteenth day of the siege a Persian soldier, having 
seen one of the garrison descend this rock to pick up his helmet 
which had rolled down, climbed up the same way, followed by 
several of his comrades. Sardis was thus taken, and CrcEsus 
with all his treasures fell into the hands of Cyrus (b.c. 54G). 
The Lydian king was condemned to be burnt alive ; but his life 
was afterwards spared by the conqueror; and he became the 
confidential adviser both of Cyrus and his son Cambyses. 

§ 9. The fall of CrcEsus was followed by the subjection of the 
Greek cities m Asia to the Persian yoke. As soon as Sardis had 
been taken, the lonians and iEolians sent envoys to Cyrus, ofier- 
ing to submit to him on the same terms as they had obtained 
from Croesus. But the Persian conqueror, who had in vain at- 
tempted to induce them to revolt from the Lydian king at the 
commencement of the war, sternly refused their request, except 
in the case of Miletus. The other Greeks now began to prepare 
for defence, and sent deputies to Sparta to solicit assistance. 
This was refused by the Spartans ; but they despatched some of 
their citizens to Ionia to investigate the state of aflairs. One of 
their number, exceeding the bounds of their commission, re- 
paired to Cyrus at Sardis, and warned him " not to injure any 
city in Hellas, for the Lacedaemonians would not permit it." 
Astonished at such a message from a people of whom he had 
never heard, the conqueror inquired of the Greeks who stcx)d 
near him, " Who are these Lacedaemonians, and how many are 
they in number that they venture to send me such a notice?" 
Having received an answer to his question, lie said to the Spar- 
tan, " I was never yet afraid of men, who have a place set apart 



158 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XV 

in the middle of their city, where they meet to cheat one another 
and forswear themselves. If I live, they shall have troubles of 
their own to talk about apart from the lonians." This taunt 
of Cyrus was levelled at G-recian habits generally ; for to the 
rude barbarian, buying and selhng seemed contemptible and dis- 
graceful. 

Cyrus soon afterwards quitted Sardis to prosecute his con- 
quests in the East, and left the reduction of the Greek cities, 
and of the other districts in Asia Minor, to his lieutenants. The 
G-reek cities offered a brave, but ineffectual resistance, and 
were taken one after the other by Harpagus, the Persian general. 
The inhabitants of Phocsea and Teos preferred expatriation to 
slavery ; they abandoned their homes to the conqueror ; and 
sailed away in search of new settlements. The Phocaeans, after 
experiencing many vicissitudes of fortune, at length settled in 
the south of Italy, where they founded Elea. The Teians took 
refuge on the coast of Thrace, where they built the city of Ab- 
dera. All the other Asiatic Greeks on the mainland were en- 
rolled among the vassals of Cyrus : and even the inhabitants of 
the islands of Lesbos and Chios sent in their submission to Har- 
pagus, although the Persians then possessed no fleet to force 
them to obedience. Samos, on the other hand, maintained its 
independence, and appears soon afterwards as one of the most 
powerful of the Grecian states. After the reduction of the 
Asiatic Greeks, Harpagus marched against the other districts of 
Asia Minor, which still refused to own the authority of Cyrus. 
They were all conquered without any serious resistance, with the 
exception of the Lycians, who, finding it impossible to maintain 
their freedom, set fire to their chief town, Xanthus ; and while 
the women and children perished in the flames, the men sallied 
forth against the enemy and died sword in hand. 

While Harpagus was thus employed, Cyrus was making still 
more extensive conquests in Upper Asia and Assyria. The most 
important of these was the capture of the wealthy and populous 
city of Babylon, which he took by diverting the course of the 
Euphrates, and then marching into the city by the bed of the 
river (b. c. 538). Subsequently he marched against the nomad 
tribes in Central Asia, but was slain in battle, while fighting 
against the Massagetee, a people dwelling beyond the Araxes. 
He perished in b. c. 529, after a reign of thirty years, leaving 
his vast empire to his son, Cambyses. 

MO. The love of conquest and of aggrandizement, which had 
been fed by the repeated victories of Cyrus, still fired the Per- 
sians. Of the four great monarchies, which Cyrus had found in 
all their glory, when he descended with his shepherds from the 



B.C. 529. CAMBYSES. 159 

Persian mountains, there yet remained one which had not been 
destroyed by his arms. Amasis continued to occupy the throne 
of Egypt in peace and prosperity, while the monarchs of Media, 
Lydia, and Babylon had either lost their lives, or become the 
vassals of the Persian king. Accordmgly, Cambyses resolved to 
iead his victorious Persians to the conquest of Egj^pt. While 
making his preparations for the invasion, Amasis died after a 
long reign, and was succeeded by his son, Psammenitus, who in- 
herited neither the abihties nor the good fortune of his father. 
The defeat of the Eg^^tians in a single battle, followed by the 
capture of Memphis with the person of Psammenitus, decided 
the fate of the countr}^. Cambyses resided some time in Egypt, 
which he ruled with a rod of iron. His temper was naturally 
violent and capricious ; and the possession of unlimited power 
had created in him a state of mind bordering upon Irenzy. The 
idolatry of the Egyptians and their adoration of animals excited 
the indignation of the worshipper of fire ; and he gave vent to 
his passions by wanton and sacrilegious acts against the most 
cherished objects and rites of the national rehgion. Even the 
Persians experienced the effects of his madness ; and his brother 
Smerdis was put to death by his orders. This act was followed 
by important consequences. Among the few persons privy to 
the murder was a Magian, who had a brother bearing the same 
name as the deceased prince, and strongly resembling him in 
person. Taking advantage of these circumstances, and of the 
alarm excited among the leading Persians by the frantic tyramiy 
of Cambyses, he proclaimed his brother as king, representmg 
him as the younger son of C}tu3. Cambyses heard of the revolt 
whilst in Sp'ia ; but as he was mounting his horse to march 
against the usurper, an accidental womid from his sword put an 
end to his life, b.c. 522. 

As the younger son of Cyrus was generally beUeved to be alive, 
the false Smerdis was acknowledged as king by the Persians, and 
reigned without opposition for seven months. But the leading 
Persian nobles had never been quite free from suspicion, and 
they at length discovered the imposition which had been prac- 
tised upon them. Seven of them now formed a conspiracy to 
get rid of the usurper. They succeeded in forcing their way 
into the palace, and in slaying the Magian and his brother in 
the eighth month of their reign. One of their number, Darius, 
the son of Hystaspes, ascended the vacant throne, B.C. 521. 

Ml. During the reign of Cambyses, the Greek cities of Asia 
remained obedient to their Persian governors. The subjection 
of the other cities had increased the power and influence of 
Saraos, which, as we have already seen, had maintained its inde- 



160 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XV. 

pendence, when the neighbouring islands of Lesbos and Chios 
had submitted to the lieutenant of Cyrus. At the beginning of 
the reign of Cambyses, Samos had reached under its despot, 
Polycrates, an extraordinary degree of prosperity, and had be- 
come the most important naval power in the world. The 
ambition and good fortune of this enterprizing despot were alike 
remarkable. He possessed a hundred ships of war, with which 
he conquered several of the islands, and even some places on the 
mainland ; and he aspired to nothing less than the dominion of 
Ionia, as well as of the islands in the ^Egean. The Lacedaemo- 
nians, who had invaded the island at the invitation of the Sa- 
mian exiles for the purpose of overthrowing his government, 
were obliged to retire after besieging his city in vain for forty 
days. Every thing which he undertook seemed to prosper ; but 
his uninterrupted good fortune at length excited the alarm of 
his ally Amasis. According to the tale related by Herodotus, 
the Egyptian king, convinced that such amazing good fortune 
would sooner or later incur the envy of the gods, wrote to Poly- 
crates, advising him to throw away one of his most valuable pos- 
sessions, and thus inflict some injury upon himself. Thinking 
the advice to be good, Polycrates threw into the sea a favourite 
ring of matchless price and beauty ; but unfortunately it was found 
a few days afterwards in the belly of a fine fish, which a fisher- 
man had sent him as a present. Amasis now foresaw that the 
rain of Polycrates was inevitable, and sent a herald to Samos to 
renounce his alliance. The gloomy anticipations of the Egyp- 
tian monarch proved well founded. In the midst of all his 
prosperity, Polycrates fell by a most ignominious fate. OrcEtes, 
the satrap of Sardis, had for some unknown cause conceived a 
deadly hatred against the Samian despot. By a cunning stra- 
tagem, the satrap allured him to the mainland, where he was 
immediately arrested and hanged upon a cross (b.c. 522). Like 
many other Grecian despots, Polycrates had been a patron of 
literature and the arts, and the poets Ibycus and Anacreon found 
a welcome at his court. Many of the great works of Samos — the 
vast temple of Hera (Juno), the mole to protect the harbour, and 
the aqueduct for supplying the city with water, carried thi-ough 
a mountain seven furlongs long — were probably executed by him. 
M2. The long reign of Darius forms an important epoch in 
the Persian annals. After putting down the revolts of the Ly- 
dian satrap OrcEtes, of the Medes, and of the Babylonians, he set 
himself to work to organize the vast mass of countries which 
had been conquered by Cyrus and Cambyses. The difierence of 
his reign from those of his two predecessoiB was described by 
the Persians, in calling Cyrus the father, Cambyses the master, 



B.C. 522. DARIUS. 161 

and Darius the retail-trader, — an epithet implying that he 
was the first to introduce some order into the administration 
and finances of the empire. He divided his vast dominions into 
tvi^enty provinces, and appointed the tribute which each was to 
pay to the royal treasury. These provinces were called satrapies, 
from the satrap or governor, to whom the administration of each 
was entrusted. Darius was also the first Persian king who coined 
money ; and the principal gold and silver coin of the Persian 
mint was called after him the Daric He also connected Susa 
and Ecbatana with the most distant parts of the empire by a 
series of high roads, along which were placed, at suitable inter- 
vals, buildings for the accommodation of all who travelled in the 
king's name, and relays of couriers to convey royal messages. 

sW3. Although Darius devoted his chief attention to the con- 
solidation and organization of his empire, he was impelled by his 
own ambition, or by the aggressive spirit of the Persians, to seek 
to enlarge still further his vast dominions. For that purpose 
he resolved to attack Scythia, or the great plain between the 
Danube and the Don, which was then inhabited by numerous 
nomad and savage tribes. His army was collected from all parts 
of the empire; his fleet of 600 ships was furnished exclusively 
by the Asiatic Greeks. To the latter he gave orders to sail up the 
Danube, and throw a bridge of boats across the river, near the 
point where the channel begins to divide. With his land forces 
the king himself marched through Thrace, crossed the Danube by 
the bridge, which he found finished, and then ordered the Greeks 
to break it down and follow him into Scythia. His plan seems 
to have been to have marched back into Asia round the north- 
ern shore of the Black Sea, and across the Caucasus. But being 
reminded by one of the Grecian generals that he was embarking 
upon a perilous enterprise, and might possibly be compelled to 
retreat, he thought it more prudent to leave the bridge standing 
under the care of the Greeks who had constructed it, but told 
them that if he did not return within sixty days, they might 
break down the bridge, and sail home. The king then left them, 
and penetrated into the Scythian territory. The sixty days had 
already passed away, and there was yet no sign of the Persian 
army. But shortly afterwards the lonians, who still continued 
to guard the bridge, were astonished by the appearance of a 
body of Scythians, who informed them that Darius was in full 
retreat, pursued by the whole Scythian nation, and that his only 
hope of safety depended upon that bridge. They urged the 
Greeks to seize this opportunity of destroying the whole Persian 
army, and of recovering their own liberty by breaking down the 
bridge. Their exhortations were warmly seconded by the Athe- 



162 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XV. 

nian Miltiades, the despot of the Thracian Chersonesus, and the 
future conqueror of Marathon. The other rulers of the Ionian 
cities were at first disposed to follow his suggestion ; hut as soon 
as HistisBus of Miletus reminded them that their sovereignty 
depended upon the support of the Persian kmg, and that his 
ruin would involve their own, they changed their minds and 
resolved to preserve the bridge. After enduring great priva- 
tions and sufferings, Darius and his army at length reached the 
Danube, and crossed the bridge in safety. Thus the selfishness 
of these Grecian despots threw away the most favourable oppor- 
tunity that ever presented itself, of dehvering their native cities 
from the Persian yoke 

§ 14. Notwithstanding the failure of his expedition against 
the Scythians, Darius did not abandon his plans of conquest. 
Returning himself to Sardis, he left Megabazus with an army of 
80,000 men to complete the subjugation of Thrace, and of the 
Greek cities upon the Hellespont. He gave to Histiseus the 
town of Myrcinus, near the Strymon, which the Ionian prince 
had asked as a reward for his important service in the Scythian 
campaign. Megabazus experienced little difficulty in executing 
the orders of his mastei:. He not only subdued the Thracian 
tribes, but crossed the Strjinon, conquered the Pseonians, and 
penetrated as far as the frontiers of Macedonia. He then sent 
heralds into the latter country to demand earth and water, as 
the customary symbols of submission. These were immediately 
granted by Amyntas, the reigning mionarch, B.C. 510 ; and thus 
the Persian dominions were extended to the borders of Thessaly. 

While Megabazus was engaged in the conquest of the Pseo- 
nians, he had noticed that Histiseus was collecting the elements 
of a power, which might hereafter prove formidable to the Per- 
sian sovereignty. Myrcinus commanded the navigation of the 
Strymon, and consequently the commerce with the interior of 
Thrace ; and the importance of this site is shown by the rapid 
growth of the town of Amphipolis, which the Athenians founded 
at a later time in the same locality. On his return to Sardis, 
Megabazus communicated his suspicions to Darius. The Persian 
king, perceiving that the apprehensions of his general were not 
without foundation, summoned Histiaeus to his presence, and, 
under the pretext that he could not bear to be deprived of the 
company of his friend, proposed that he should accompany him 
to Susa. HistiaBus had no alternative but compliance, and with 
unwilling steps followed the monarch to his capital. This appa- 
rently trivial circumstance was attended with important conse- 
quences, as we shall presently see, to the Persian empire, and to 
the whole Hellenic race. 




t^AC/ 



r\. 



Behistun rock on v/hich are inscribed the exploits of Darius. 

CHAPTER XVL 

THE IONIC REVOLT. 

§ 1. Introdtiction. § 2. Naxian exiles apply for aid to Aristagoras. 
§ 3. Expedition of Aristagoras and the Persians against Naxos, Its 
failure. § 4. Revolt of Miletus and tlie other Greek cities of Asia. 
§ 5. Aristagoras solicits assistance from Sparta and Athens, which is 
granted by the latter. § 6. Burning of Sardis by the Athenians and 
lonians. § 1. Death of Aristagoras and Histi»us. § 8. Defeat of the 
Ionian fleet at Lade. § 9. Capture of Miletus and termination of the 
revolt. 

§ 1. Before setting out for Susa, Darius had appointed his 
brother Artaphernes satrap of the western provinces of Asia 
Minor, of which Sardis continued to be the capital, as in the time 
of the Lydian monarchy. The Grecian cities on the coast were 
nominally allowed to manage their own affairs ; but they were 
governed for the most part by despots, who were in reality the 
instruments of the Persian satrap, and were maintained in their 
power by his authority. Miletus, which was now the most flourish- 
ing city of Ionia, was ruled by Aristagoras, the son-in-law of His- 
tiseus, since Darius had allowed the latter to entrust the sovereign- 
ity to his son-in-law during his absence. For a few years after 
the return of the king to Upper Asia, the Persian empire enjoyed 
the profound calm which often precedes a storm. It was the 
civil dissensions of one of the islands of the ^Egean which first 
disturbed this universal repose, and lighted up a conflagration 
which soon enveloped both Greece and Asia. 



164 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XYI. 

^ 2. About the year B.C. 502, the ohgarchical party in Naxos, 
one of the largest and most flourishing of the Cyclades, were 
driven out of the island by a rising of the people. The exiles 
applied for aid to Aristagoras, who lent a ready ear to their re- 
quest ; knowing that if they were restored by his means, he should 
become master of the island. But his own forces were not equal 
to the conquest of the Naxians, since they possessed a large navy, 
and could bring 8000 heavy-armed infantry into the field. Ac- 
cordingly, he went to Sardis to secure the co-operation of Arta- 
phernes, holding out to the satrap the prospect of annexing not 
only Naxos and the rest of the Cyclades, but even the large and 
valuable island of Euboea, to the dominions of the G-reat King. 
He represented the enterprize as one certain of success, if a hun- 
dred ships were granted to him, and offered at the same time to 
defray the expense of the armament. Artaphernes gave his cor- 
dial approval to the scheme ; and as soon as the king's consent 
was obtained, a fleet of 200 ships was equipped and placed at 
the disposal of Aristagoras. The forces were under the command 
of Megabates, a Persian noble of high rank. 

§ S.Taking the Naxian exiles on board, Aristagoras sailed from 
Miletus towards the Hellespont (b.c. 501). To divert the suspi- 
cions of the Naxians, a report was spread that the armament 
was destined for a difl^erent quarter ; but upon reaching Chios, 
Megabates cast anchor off' the western coast, waiting for a fair 
wind to carry them straight across to Naxos. Being anxious tha.t 
the ships should be in readiness to depart, as soon as the order 
was given, Megabates made a personal inspection of the fleet, 
and discovered one of the vessels left without a single man on 
board. Incensed at this neglect, he summoned the captain of the 
ship, and ordered him to be put in chains with his head project- 
ing through one of the port-holes of his own vessel. It happened 
that this man was a friend and guest of Aristagoras, who not 
only set the authority of Megabates at defiance by releasing the 
prisoner, but insisted that the Persian admiral held a subordinate 
command to himself. The pride of Megabates could not brook 
such an insult. As soon as it was night he sent a message to the 
Naxians to warn them of their danger. Hitherto the Naxians 
had had no suspicion of the object of the expedition ; but they 
lost no time in carrying their property into the city and making 
every preparation to sustain a long siege. Accordingly, when the 
Persian fleet reached Naxos, they experienced a vigorous resist- 
ance ; and at the end of four months they had made such little 
way in the reduction of the city, that they were compelled to 
abandon the enterprize and return to Miletus. 

^ 4. Aristagoras was now threatened with utter ruin. Hav- 



B.C. 500. THE 10^' IC REVOLT. 1G5 

ing deceived Artaphemes, and incurred the enmity of Mega- 
bates, he could expect no favour from the Persian government, 
and might be called upon at any moment to defray the expenses 
of the armament. In these difficulties he began to think of 
exciting a revolt of his countrymen ; and while revolving the 
project, he received a message from his father-in-law^, Histiajus, 
urging him to this very step. Afraid of trusting any one with 
so dangerous a message, Histiaius had shaved the head of a 
trusty slave,, branded upon it the necessary words, and, as soon 
as the hair had grown again, sent him off to Miletus. His only 
motive for urging the lonians to revolt was his desire of es- 
caping from captivity Lit Susa, thinking that Darius would set him 
at liberty, in order to put down an insurrection of his country- 
men. The message of Histiaeus fixed the wavering resolution of 
Aristagoras. Ho forthwith called together the leading citizens 
of Miletus, laid before them the project of revolt, and asked 
them for advice. They all approved of the scheme, with the 
exception of Hecateeus, who deserves to be mentioned on account 
of his celebrity as one of the earliest Greek historians. Having 
determined upon revolt, the next step was to induce the other 
Greek cities in Asia to join them in their perilous enterprize. 
As the most effectual means to this end, it was resolved to seize 
the persons of the Grecian despots, many of whom had not yet 
quitted the fleet which had recently returned 1 :om Naxos. Aris- 
tagoras laid down the supreme power in Miletus, and nominally 
resigned to the people the management of their own affairs. 
The despots were seized, and a democratical form of government 
established throughout the Greek cities in Asia and in the neigh- 
bouring islands. This was followed by an open declaration of 
revolt from Persia (b.c. 500). 

{ 5. The insurrection had now assumed a formidable aspect ; 
and before the Persians could collect sufficient forces to cope 
with the revolters, Aristagoras resolved to cross over to Greece, 
in order to solicit assistance from the more powerful states in 
the mother-country. He first went to Sparta, which was now 
admitted to be the most powerful city. in Greece. In an inter- 
view with Cleomenes, king of Sparta, he brought forth a brazea 
tablet, on which were engraved the countries, rivers, and seas of 
the world. After dwelling upon the wealth and fertility of Asia, 
he traced on the map the route from Ephesus to Susa, and de- 
scribed the ease with which the Spartans might march into the 
very heart of the Persian emj)ire, and obtain possession of the 
vast treasures of the Persian capital. Cleomenes demanded throe 
days to consider this proposal ; and when Aristagoras returned 
on the third day, he put to him the simple question, how far it 



106 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XVL 

was from the sea to Susa ? Aristagoras, without considering 
the drift of the question, answered that it was a journey of three 
months. " Milesian stranger," exclaimed Cleomenes, " quit Sparta 
before sunset : you are no friend to the Spartans, if you want 
them to undertake a three months' journey from the sea." Still, 
however, Aristagoras did not despair, but went as a supphant 
to the king's house, to see if he could accomplish by money what 
he had failed to do by eloquence. H© first offered Cleomenes 
ten talents, and then gradually raised the bribe to fifty ; and per- 
haps the king, with the usual cupidity of a Spr.rtan, might have 
yielded, had not his daughter Gorgo, a child of eight years old, 
who happened to be present, cried out, " Fly, father, or this 
stranger will corrupt you." Cleomenes accepted the omen, and 
broke up the interview. Aristagoras quitted Sparta forthwith. 

Disappointed at Sparta, Aristagoras repaired to Athens, then 
the second city in G-ieece. Here he met with a very different 
reception. Athens was the mother-city of the Ionic states ; and 
the Athenians were disposed to sympathize with the lonians 
as their kinsmen and colonists. They were moreover incensed 
against Artaphemes, who had recently commanded them to 
recall Hippias, unless they wished to provoke the hostility of 
Persia. Accordingly they lent a ready ear to the tempting pro- 
mises of Aristagoras, and voted to send a squadron of twenty 
ships to the assistance of the lonians. " These ships," says He- 
rodotus, " were the beginning of mischiefs between the G-reeks 
and barbarians." 

§ 6. In the following year (b.c. 500) the Athenian fleet crossed 
the ^gean. They were joined by five ships from Eretria in 
Euboea, which the Eretrians had sent to discharge a debt of gra- 
titude for assistance which they had received from the Milesians 
in their war with Chalcis. Upon reaching the coast of Asia, 
Aristagoras planned an expedition into the interior. Disem- 
barking at Ephesus, and being reinforced by a strong body of 
lonians, he marched upon Sardis. Artaphemes was taken un- 
prepared ; and not having sufficient troops to man the walls, he 
retired into the citadel, leaving the town a prey to the inva- 
ders. Accordingly, they entered it unopposed ; and, while en- 
gaged in pillage, one of the soldiers set fire to a house. As most 
of the houses were built of wickerwork and thatched with 
straw, the flames rapidly spread, and in a short time the whole 
city was in flames. The inhabitants, driven out of their houses 
by this accident, assembled in the large market-place in the city ; 
and perceiving their immberie to be superior to those of the 
enemy, they resolved to attack them. Meantime reinforcements 
came pouring in from all quarters ; and the lonians and Atho- 



B.C. 500. THE IONIC REVOLT. 167 

nians, seeing that their position was becoming more danger- 
ous every hour, abandoned the city and began to retrace their 
steps. But before they could reach the walls of Ephesus, they 
were overtaken by the Persian forces and defeated with great 
slaughter. The lonians dispersed to their several cities ; and 
the Athenians hastened on board their ships and sailed home. 

The burning of the capital of the ancient monarchy of Lydia 
was attended with important consequences. When Daiius heard 
of it, he burst into a paroxysm of rage. It was against the ob- 
scure strangers who had dared to invade his dominions and bum 
one of his capitals, that his wrulh was chiefly directed. " The 
Athenians," he exclaimed, " who are they?" Upon being in- 
formed, he took liis bow, shot an arrow high into the air, saying, 
" Grant me, Jove, to take vengeance upon the Athenians :" and 
he charged one of his attendants to remind him thrice every day 
at dimier, " Sire, remember the Athenians." His first care, how- 
ever, was to put doAvn the revolt, which had now assumed a 
more formidable aspect than ever. The insurrection spread to 
the Greek cities in Cyprus as w^ell as to those on the Hellespont 
and the Propontis ; and the Carians warmly espoused the cause 
of the lonians. 

^ 7 . A few months after the burning of Sardis the revolt had 
reached its height, and seemed to promise permanent independ- 
ence to the Asiatic Greeks. But they were no match for the 
whole power of the Persian empire, which was soon brought 
against them. A Phoenician fleet conveyed a large Persian force 
to Cyprus, which was soon obliged to submit to its former 
masters ; and the generals of Darius carried on operations with 
vigour against the Carians, and the Greek cities in Asia. Aris- 
tagoras now began to despair, and basely deserted his country- 
men, whom he had led into peril. Collecting a large body of 
Milesians, he set sail for the Thracian coast, where he was slain 
under the walls of a town to which he had laid siege. 

Soon after his departure, his father-in-law, Histijcus, came 
down to Ionia. Darius had at first been inclined to suppose 
that Histiseus had secretly instigated the lonians to revolt ; but 
the artful Greek not only succeeded in removing suspicion from 
himself, but persuaded Darius to send him into Ionia, in order 
to assist the Persian generals in suppressing the rebellion. But 
Artaphernes was not so easily deceived as his master, and plainly 
accused Histiaeus of treachery when the latter arrived at Sardis. 
" I will tell you how the facts stand," said Artaphernes to His- 
tiaeus ; " it was you who made this shoe, and Aristagoras has put 
it on." Fmding himself unsafe at Sardis, he escaped to the 
island of Chios ; but he was regarded with suspicion by all 



168 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XVI. 

parties. The Milesians refused to admit their former despot 
into their town ; and the lonians in general would not leceive 
him as their leader. At length he obtained eight galleys from 
Lesbos, with which he sailed towards Byzantium, and carried on 
piracies as well against the Grecian as the barbarian vessels. 
This unprincipled adventurer met with a traitor's death. Ha^dng 
landed on the coast of Mysia to reap the standing corn round 
Atarneus, he was surprized by a Persian force and made prisoner . 
Being carried to Sardis, Artaphemes at once caused him to be 
ciTicilied, and sent his head to Darius, who ordered it to be ho- 
nourably buried, condemning the ignommious execution of the 
man who had once saved the life of the Great King. 

^ 8. The death of Histiseus happened after the subjection of 
the lonians ; and their fall now claims our attention. In the 
sixth year of the revolt (b.c. 495), when several Grecian cities 
had already been taken by the Persians, Artaphemes resolved to 
besiege Miletus by sea and by land, since the capture of this city 
was sure to be followed by the submission of all the others. 
For this purpose he concentrated near Miletus all his land-forces, 
and ordered the Phoenician fleet to sail towards the city. While 
he was making these preparations, the Pan-Ionic council assem- 
bled to dehberate upon the best means of meeting the threaten- 
ing danger. As they ha J not sufficient strength to meet the 
Persian army in the field, it was resolved to leave Miletus to its 
own defences on the land side, and to embark all their forces on 
board their ships. The fleet was ordered to assemble at Lade, 
then a small island near Miletus, but now joined to the coast 
by the alluvial deposits of the Mseander. It consisted of 353 
ships, while the Phcenician fleet numbered 600 sail. But not- 
withstanding their numerical superiority, the Persian generals 
were afraid to risk an engagement with the combmed fleet of the 
lonians, whose nautical skill was well known to them. They 
therefore ordered the despots, who had been driven out of the 
Grecian cities at the commencement of the revolt, and were now 
serving in the Persian fleet, to endeavour to persuade their coun- 
trymen to desert the common cause. Each of them accordingly 
made secret overtures to his fellow-citizens, promising them 
pardon if they submitted, and threatening them with the severest 
punishment in case of refusal. But these proposals were all una- 
nimously rejected. 

Meantime great want of discipline prevailed in the Ionian 
fleet. There was no general commander of the whole arma- 
ment ; the men, though eager for liberty, were impatient of re- 
straint, and spent the greater part of the day in unprofitable 
talk under the tents they had erected on the shore. In a coimcii 



B.C. 495. SUBJUGATION OF IONIA. 169 

of the commanders, Dionysius of Phocaea, a man of cncr^f^ and 
ability, pointed out the perils Avhich they ran, and promised 
them certain victory if they would place themselves under his 
guidance. Being intrusted with the supreme command, Diony- 
sius ordered the men on board the ships, and kept them con- 
stantly engaged in practising all kinds of nautical mancEuvres. 
For seven days in succession they endured this unwonted work 
beneath the burning heat of a summer's sun ; but on the eighth 
they broke out into open mutiny, and asked, "why they should 
any ivjnger obey a Phocsean braggart, who had brought only three 
ships to the common cause?" Leaving their ships, they again 
dispersed over the island and sought the shade of their pleasant 
tents. There was now less order and discipline than before. 
The Samian leaders became alarmed at the prospect before 
them; and repenting that they had rejected the proposals made 
to them by their exiled despot, they re-opened communications 
with him, and agreed to desert during the battle. 

The Persian commanders, confident of victory, no longer hesi- 
tated to attack the Ionian fleet. The Greeks, not suspecting 
treacher}^ drew up their ships in order of battle ; but just as the 
two fleets were ready to engage, the Samian ships sailed away. 
Their example was foUowed by the Lesbians, and as the panic 
spread, by the greater part of the fleet. There was, however, 
one brilliant exception. The hundred ships of the Chians, though 
left almost alone, refused to fly, and fought with distinguished 
bravery against the enemy, till they were overpowered by su- 
perior numbers. 

^ 9. The defeat of the Ionian fleet at Lade decided the fate 
of the war. The city of Miletus was soon afterwards taken by 
storm, and was treated with signal severity. Most of the males 
were slain ; and the few who escaped the sword were carried 
with the women and children into captivity, and were finally 
settled at Ampe, a town near the mouth of the Tigris. The fall 
of this great Ionic city excited the liveliest sympathy at Athens. 
In the following year the poet Phrynichus, who had made the 
capture of Miletus the subject of a tragedy, and brought it upon 
the stage, was. sentenced by the Athenians to pay a fine of a 
thousand drachmae "for having recalled to them their own mis- 
fortunes." 

The other Greek cities in Asia and the neighbouring islands, 
which had not yet fallen into the hands of the Persians, were 
treated with equal severity. The islands of Chios, Lesbos and 
Tencdos were swept of Iheir inhabitants ; and the Persian fleet 
sailed up to the Hellespont and Propontis, carr)'ing with it 
fire and sword. The inhabitants of Byzantium and Chalcedoii 



170 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



Chap. XVI. 



did not await its arrival, but sailed away to Mesembria ; and the 
Athenian Miltiades only escaped falling into the power of the 
Persians by a rapid flight to Athens. 

The subjugation of Ionia was now complete. This was the 
third time that the Asiatic Greeks had been conquered by a 
foreign power ; first, by the Lydian Croesus ; secondly, by the 
generals of Cyrus ; and lastly, by those of Darius. It was from the 
last that they suffered most ; and they never fully recovered their 
former prosperity. As soon as the Persians had satiated their 
vengeance, Artaphemes introduced various regulations for the 
government of their country. Thus he caused a new survey of 
the country to be made, and fixed the amount of tribute which 
each district was to pay to the Persian government ; and his 
other measures were calculated to heal the wounds which had 
been lately inflicted with such barbarity upon the Greeks. 







Ruins of an Ionic Temple in Lycia. 




The Plain and Tumulus of Marathon. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



THE BATTLE OF MARATHON. 



1. Expedition of Mardonins into Greece. § 2. Preparations of Darius 
for a second invasion of Greece. Heralds sent to the leading Grecian 
states to demand earth and water. § 3. Invasion of Greece by the 
Persians under Datis and Artaphernes. Conquest of the Cyclades and 
Eretria. § 4. Preparations at Athens to resist the Persians. History of 
Miltiades. § 5. Debate among the ten Athenian Generals. Resolution 
to give battle to the Persians. § 6. Battle of Marathon. § 7. Move- 
ments of the Persians after the battle, § 8. Effect of the battle of 
Marathon upon the Athenians. § 9. Glory of Miltiades. § 10. His 
unsuccessful expedition to Paros. § 11. His trial, condemnation, and 
death. § 12. History of JEgina. § 13. War between Athens and 
^gina. § 14. Athens becomes a maritime power. § 15. Rivalry of 
Th'emistocles and Aristides. Ostracism of the latter. 



^ 1. Darius had not forgotten his vow to take vengeance upon 
Athens. Shortly after the suppression of the Ionic revolt, he 
appointed Mardonius to succeed Artaphernes in tho government 
of the Persian provinces bordering ujwn the Mgean. Mardoniu3 
was a Persian noble of high rank, who had lately married the 
king's daughter, and was distinguished by a love of glory. Da- 
rius placed at his command a large armament, with injunctions 
to bring to Susa those Athenians and Eretrians who had in- 
sulted the authority of the Great King. Mardonius lost no time 
in crossing the Hellespont, and commenced his march tlu-ough 
Thrace and Macedonia, subduing, as he went along, the tribes 



172 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XVII. 

which had not yet submitted to the Persian power. Meanwhile 
he ordered the fleet to double the promontory of Mount Athos, 
and join the land forces at the head cf the Gulf of Thenna. But 
one of the hurricanes, which frequently blow oil" this dangerous 
coast, overtook the Persian fleet, destroyed three hundred vessels, 
and drowned or dashed upon the rocks twenty thousand men. 
Mardonius himself was not much more fortunate. In his passage 
through Macedonia, he was attacked at night by the Brygians, 
an independent Thracian tribe, who slaughtered a great portion 
of his army. He remained in the country long enough to reduce 
this people to submission; but his forces were so weakened, that 
he could not proceed farther. He led his army back across the 
Hellespont, and returned to the Persian court, covered with 
shame and grief Thus ended the first expedition of the Per- 
sians against the Grecian states in Europe (b.c. 492). 

§ 2. The failure of this expedition did not shake the resolution 
of Darius. On the contrary, it only made him the more anxious 
for the conquest of Greece ; and Hippias was constantly near 
him to keep alive his resentment against Athens. He began 
to make preparations for another attempt on a still larger scale, 
and meantime sent heralds to most of the Grecian states to de- 
mand from each earth and water as the symbol of submission. 
This he probably did in order to ascertain the amount of resist- 
ance he was likely to experience. Such terror had the Persians 
inspired by their recent conquest of Ionia, that a large number 
of the Grecian cities at once complied with the demand. But 
at Athens and at Sparta the heralds met with a very different 
reception. So indignant were the citizens of these states at the 
insolent demand, that the Athenians cast the herald into a deep 
pit, and the Spartans threw him into a well, bidding him take 
earth and water from thence. 

§ 3. Among the states which had yielded submission to the 
envoy of Darius, was the island of ^gina, then the first n^iaritime 
power in Greece. It was, however, as much hatred of the Athe- 
nians, as fear of the Persian monarch, which had led the ^gi- 
netans, to take this step. They had been at war for some years 
past with the Athenians, and were now ready to avail themselves 
of the Persian power for the purpose of crushing their obnoxious 
rival. The Athenians, on the other hand, sent ambassadors to 
Sparta, accusing the jEginetans of having betrayed the common 
cause of Greece by giving earth and water to the barbarians, 
and calling upon Sparta, as the leading state of Hellas, to punish 
the offenders. This proceeding deserves particular notice. It 
is the first time in Grecian history that the Greeks are re- 
presented as having a common political cause, and recognizing 




B.C. 492. MARDONIUS INVADES (JREECK L73 

the leadership of one state The imminent danger to which 
they were exposed from the Persians brought about this union, 
and led them to recognize the supremacy of Sparta, a position 
which this state continued to enjoy from this time forth till the 
end of the Persian war. 

The complaints of the Athenians met with immediate atten- 
tion at Sparta. Cleomenes, one of the Spartan kings, forthwith 
crossed over to ^gina, and was proceeding to arrest and carry 
away some of the leading citizens, when Demaratus, the other 
king, privately encouraged the JEginetans to defy the authority 
of his colleague. Thus baffled in his object, Cleomenes returned 
to Sparta, vowing vengeance against Demaratus. It appears 
that there had always been some doubts respecting the legiti- 
macy of the latter Of these suspicions Cleomenes now resolved 
to avail himself, and instigated Leotychides, the next heir to the 
crown, to attack publicly the legitimacy of Demaratus. The 
question was referred to the Delphic oracle ; and through the 
influence of Cleomenes, the priestess declared that his colleague 
was illegitimate. Leotychides thus succeeded to the throne, 
and Demaratus descended into a private station. Shortly after- 
wards Demaratus received a gross affront from the new king at 
a public festival ; whereupon he quitted Sparta in wrath, and 
crossed over to Darius, who received him graciously, and loaded 
him with favors and presents. 

Cleomenes now returned to JEgina, accompanied by Leoty- 
chides. The JEginetans did not dare to oppose any resistance 
to their joint demand, and surrendered to them ten of their 
leading citizens, whom Cleomenes deposited as hostages in the 
hands of the Athenians. 

Meanwhile Darius had completed his preparations for the 
invasion of Greece. In the spring of b. c. 490, a vast army was 
assembled in Cilicia, and a tteet of 600 galleys, together with 
many transports for horses, was ready to receive them on board. 
The command was given to Datis, a Median, and Artaphernes, 
son of the satrap of Sardis of that name, and a nephew of Da- 
rius. Their instructions were generally to reduce to subjection 
all the Greek cities, which had not already given earth and 
water ; but more particularly to burn to the ground the cities of 
Athens and Eretria, and to carry away the inhabitants as slaves. 
They were furnished with fetters for binding the Grecian pri- 
soners ; and before the end of the year Darius fully expected to 
see at his feet the men who had dared to burn the city of Sardis. 
The possibility of failure probably never occurred cither to the 
king himself, or to any of the soldiers engaged in the expedition. 

Having taken their men on board, Datis and Artaphernes first 



174 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XYIl 

sailed to Samos ; and, warned by the recent disaster of Mardo- 
nius in doubling tbe promontory of Mount Athos, they resolved 
to sail straight across the ^Egean to Euboea, subduing on their 
way the Cyclades. They first resolved to attack Naxos, which 
ten years before had gallantly repelled a large Persian force com- 
manded by Megabates and Aristagoras of Miletus. But the 
Naxians did not now even venture to wait the arrival of the 
Persians, but fled to the mountains, abandoning their town to 
the invaders, who burnt it to the ground. The other islands of 
the Cyclades yielded a ready submission ; and it was not till 
Datis reached Euboea that he encountered any resistance. Eretria 
defended itself gallantly for six days, and repulsed the Persians 
with loss ; but on the seventh the gates were opened to the be- 
siegers by the treachery of two of its leading citizens. The city 
was razed to the ground, and the inhabitants were put in chains, 
according to the command of the Persian monarch. 

Datis had thus easily accomplished one of the two great ob- 
jects for which he had been sent into Greece. He now pro- 
ceeded to execute his second order. After remaining a few 
days at Eretria, he crossed over to Attica, and landed on the 
ever memorable plain of Marathon, a spot which had been 
pomted out to him by the despot Hippias, who accompanied the 
Persian army, 

§ 4. It is now time to turn to Athens, and see what prepara- 
tions had there been made to meet the threatening danger. 
While the Persian army was on its passage across the ^geaU; 
ten generals had been elected for the year, according to the 
regular custom, one for each tribe. Among these generals were 
three men, v/hose names have acquired immortal fame, — Mil- 
tiades, Themistocles, and Aristides, Of the two latter we shall 
have occasion to speak more fully presently ; but Miltiades 
claims our immediate attention, Miltiades had been the despot 
of the Chersonesus, whither ho had been sent from Athens by 
Hippias about the year 516 B.C., to take possession of the inhe- 
ritance of his uncle, who bore the same name. As ruler of the 
Chersonesus, he had distinguished himself by his bravery and 
decision of character. We have already seen that he accom- 
panied Darius in his invasion of Scythia, and recommended the 
Ionian despots to break down the bridge of boats across the 
Danube and leave Darius to his fate. While the Persian gene- 
rals were engaged in suppressing the Ionic revolt, he took pos- 
session of Lemnos and Imbros, expelled the Persian garrisons and 
Pelasgian inhabitants, and handed over these islands to the Athe- 
nians, He had thus committed two great ofTences agamst the 
Persian monarch ; and accordingly when the Phoenician il^et 



B.C. 490. SECOND PERSIAN INVASION. - 175 

appeared in the Hellespont after the extinction of the Ionic 
revolt, he sought safety in flight, and hastily sailed away to 
Athens with a small squadron of five ships. He was hotly pur- 
sued by the PhcEnicians, who were most eager to secure his 
person as an acceptable ofiering to Darius. They succeeded in 
taking one of his ships, commanded by his son Metiochus, but 
Miltiades himself reached Athens in safety. Soon after his 
arrival, he was brought to trial on account of his despotism in 
the Chersonesus. Not only was he honourably acquitted at the 
time, probably on account of the recent service he had rendered 
to Athens by the conquest of Lemnos and Imbros, but such con- 
fidence did his abilities inspire, that he was elected one of the 
ten generals of the republic on the approach of the Persian fleet. 

^ 5. As soon as the news of the fall of Erctria reached Athens, 
the courier Phidippides was sent to Sparta to solicit assistance. 
Such was his extraordinary speed of foot that he performed this 
journey of 150 miles in 48 hours. The Spartans promised their 
aid ; but their superstition rendered their promise ineflectual, 
since it wanted a few days to the full moon, and it was contrary 
to their religious customs to commence a march during this 
interval. The reason given by the Spartans for their delay 
does not appear to have been a pretext ; and this instance is 
only one among many of that blind attachment to ancient forms 
which characterize this people throughout the whole period of 
their history. 

Meantime, the Athenians had marched to Marathon, and were 
encamped upon the niountains which surrounded the plain. 
Upon learning the ansAver which Phidippides brought from 
Sparta, the ten generals were divided in opinion as to the best 
course to be pursued. Five of them were opposed to an imme- 
diate engagement with the overwhelming number of Persians, 
and urged the importance of waiting for the arrival of the Lace- 
daemonian succours. Miltiades and the remaining four contended, 
on the other hand, that not a moment should be lost in fiffhtinjr 

. . DO 

the Persians, not only in order to avail themselves of the pre- 
sent enthusiasm of the people, but still more to prevent treachery 
from spreading among their ranks, and paralyzing all united 
effort. The momentous decision, upon w^hich the destinies ci^ 
Athens, and indeed of all Greece hung, depended upon the cast- 
ing-vote of Callimachus, the Polemarch ; for down to this time 
tho third Archon was a colleague of the ten generals.* To him 
Miltiades now addressed himself with the utmost earnestness, 
pointing out the danger of delay, and that only a speedy and 
decisive victory could save them from the treacherous attempts 
* See above, p. 01. 



176 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



Chap. XYIL 



of the friends of Hippias within the city. The arguments of 
Miltiades were warmly seconded by Themistocles and Aristides. 
Callimachus felt their force, and gave his vote for the battle. 
The ten generals commanded their army in rotation, each for 
one day ; but they now agreed to surrender to Miltiades their 
days of command, in order to invest the whole power in a single 
person. 

§ 6. While the Athenians were preparing for battle, they re 
ceived unexpected assistance from the little town of Platsea, in 
Boeotia. Grateful to the Athenians for the assistance which they 
had rendered them against the Thebans, the whole force of 
Platsea, amounting to 1000 heavy-armed men, marched to the 
assistance of their allies and joined them at Marathon. Their 
arrival at this crisis of the fortunes of Athens made a deep and 
abiding impression upon the Athenian people, and was recol- 
lected with grateful feelings down to the latest times. The 
Athenian army numbered only 10,000 hoplites, or heavy-armed 
soldiers ; there were no archers or cavalry, and only some slaves 
as light-armed attendants. Of the number of the Persian army 
we have no trustworthy account, but the lowest estimate makes 
it consist of 110,000 men. 

The plain of Marathon lies on the eastern coast of Attica, at 
the distance of twenty-two miles from Athens by the shortest 
road. It is in the form of a crescent, the horns of which consist 
of two promontories running into the sea, and forming a semi- 
circular bay. This plain is about six miles in length, and in its 
widest or central part about two in breadth. Near each of the 
horns at the northern and southern extremities of the plain are 
two marshes. The uninterrupted flatness of the plain is hardly 
relieved by a single tree ; and on every side towards the land 
there rises an amphitheatre of rugged limestone mountains, se- 
parating it from the rest of Attica. 




^=g\ ii^fi-o^ ^! Ar'\. -^ > _-// 



Battle of Marathon. 
A A Athenian army. u b Persian army c c Persian fleet. 




B.C. 490. BATTLE OF MARATHON. 177 

On the day of battle the Persian army was drawn up along 
the plain about a mile from, the sea, and their fleet was ranged 
behind them on the beach. The native Persians and Sacians, 
the best troops in the army, were stationed in the centre, which 
was considered the post of honour. The Athenians occupied 
the rising ground above the plain, and extended from one side 
of the plain to the other. This arrangement was necessary in 
order to protect their flanks by the mountains on each side, 
and to prevent the cavalry from passing round to attack them 
in rear. But so large a breadth of ground could not be occu- 
pied with so small a number of men, without weakening some 
portion of the line. Miltiades, therefore, drew up the troops 
in the centre in shallow files, and resolved to rely for success 
upon the stronger and deeper masses of his wings. The right 
wing, which was the post of honour in a Grecian army, was 
commanded by the Polemarch Callimachus ; the hoplites were 
arranged in the order of their tribes, so that the members of the 
same tribe fought by each other's side ; and at the extreme left 
stood the Plataeans. 

Before the hostile armies jom in conflict, let us try to realize 
to our minds the feelings of the Athenian warriors on this event- 
ful day. The superiority of the Greeks to the Persians in the 
field of battle has become so familiar to our minds by the glo- 
rious victories of the former, that it requires some efibrt of the 
imagination to appreciate in its full extent the heroism of the 
Athenians at Marathon. The Medes and Persians had hitherto 
pursued an almost uninterrupted career of conquest. They had 
rolled over country after country, each successive wave engidph- 
ing some ancient dynasty, some powerful monarchy. The 
Median, Lydian, Babylonian, and Egyptian empires had all 
fallen before them ; and latterly the Asiatic Greeks, many of 
whose cities were as populous and powerful as Athens itself, 
had been taught by a bitter lesson the folly of resistance to 
these invincible foes. Never yet had the Medes and Persians 
met the Greeks in the field and been defeated. " For hitherto," 
says Herodotus, " the very name of Medes had struck terror into 
the hearts of the Greeks ; and the Athenians were the first to 
endure the sight of their armour, and to look them in the face 
on the field of battle." 

It must, therefore, have been with some trepidation that the 
Athenians nerved themselves for the conflict. Miltiades, anx- 
ious to come to close quarters as speedily as possible, ordered his 
soldiers to advance at a running step over the mile of ground 
which separated them from the foe. Raising the war-cry, they 
rushed down upon the Persians, who awaited them with aston- 

1* 



ITS HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XV JI 

ishment and scorn, thinking them to be little short of madmen 
thus to hurry to certain destruction. They were quickly unde- 
ceived ; and the battle soon raged fiercely along the whole line. 
Both the Athenians' wings were successful, and drove the ene- 
my before them towards the shore and the marshes. But the 
Athenian centre was broken by the Persians and iSacians, and 
compelled to take to flight. Miltiades thereupon recalled his 
wings from pursuit, and rallying his centre, charged the Persians 
and Sacians. The latter could not withstand this combined at- 
tack. The battle had already lasted some hours, and the rays 
of the setting sun streamed full in the faces of the enemy. The 
rout now became general along the whole Persian line ; and they 
fled to their ships, pursued by the Athenians. 

"The flying Mede, liis shaftless broken bow; 
The fiery Greek, his red pursuing spear ; 
Mountains above, Earth's, Ocean's plain beloAv, 
Death in the front, destruction in the rear ! 
Such was the scene." 

The Athenians tried to set fire to the Persian vessels on the 
coast, but they succeeded in destroying only seven of them, for 
the enemy here fought with the courage of despair. Thus ended 
the battle of Marathon. 

The Persians losj: 6400 men in this memorable engagement: 
of the Athenians only 192 fell. The aged despot Hippias is 
said to have perished in the battle, and the brave Polemarch 
Callimachus was also one of the slain. Among the Athenian 
combatants were the poet ^schylus and his brother CynsBgirus ; 
the latter of whom, while seizing one of the vessels, had his 
hand cut off' by an axe, and died of the wound; 

§ 7. The Persians had no sooner embarked than they sailed 
towards Cape Sunium. At the same time a bright shield was 
s^en raised aloft upon one of the mountains of Attica. This 
was a signal given by some of the partisans of Hippias to invite 
the Persians to surprise Athens, while the army was still ab- 
sent at Marathon. Miltiades, seeing the direction taken by the 
Persian fleet, suspected the meaning of the signal, and lost no 
time in marching back to Athens. He arrived at the harbour 
of Phalerum only just in time. The Persian fleet was already 
in sight ; a few hours more would have made the victory of 
Marathon of no avail. But when the Persians reached the 
coast, and beheld before them the very soldiers from whom they 
had so recently fled, they did not attempt to land, but safled 
away to Asia, carrying with them their Eretrian prisoners. 

§ 8. The departure of the Persians was hailed at Athens with 
one unanimous burst of heart-felt joy. Whatever traitors there 



B.C. 490. RETREAT OF THE PERSIANS. HO 

may have been in the city, they did not dare to express their 
feehngs amidst the general exultation of the citizens. Marathon 
became a magic word at Athens. The Athenian people in suc- 
ceeding ages always looked back upon this day as the most 
glorious in their annals, and never tired of hearing its praises 
sounded by their orators and poets. And they had reason to be 
proud of it. It was the first time that the Greeks had ever de- 
feated the Persians in the held. It was the exploit of the Athe- 
nians alone. It had saved not only Athens but all Greece. If 
the Persians had conquered at Marathon, Greece must, in aU 
hkelihood, have become a Persian province ; the destinies of the 
world would have been changed ; and oriental despotism might 
still have brooded over the fairest countries of Europe. 

Such a glorious victory had not been gained, so thought the 
Athenians, without the special interposition of the gods. The 
national heroes of Attica were believed to have fouglrt on the 
side of the Athenians ; and even in the time of Pausanias, six 
hundred years afterwards, the plain of Marathon was believed to 
be haunted with spectral warriors, and every night there might 
be heard the shouts of combatants and the snorting of horses. 

The one hundred and ninety-two Athenians who had perished 
in the battle, were buried on the field, and over their remains a 
tumulus or mound was erected, which may still be seen about 
half a mile from the sea. Their names were inscribed on ten 
pillars, one for each tribe, also erected on the spot ; and the 
poet Simonides described them as the champions ol" the common 
independence of Greece : — 

"At Maratlion for Greece the Athenians fought; 
And low the Medians' gilded power they brought."* 

§ 9. Miltiades, the hero of Marathon, was received at Athens 
with expressions of the warmest admiration and gratitude. His 
trophies are said to have robbed Themistocles of his sleep ; and 
the eminent services which he had rendered to his country were 
also acknowledged in subsequent generations. A separate mon- 
ument was erected to him on the field of Marathon ; his figure 
occupied one of the prominent places in the picture of the 
battle of Marathon, which adorned the walls of the Poscile, or 
Painted Porch, of Athens ; and the poet gave expression to the 
general feelings in the hnes : — 

** Miltiades, thy victories 
Must every Persian own ; 
And hallow'd by thy prowess lies 
The field of Maratlion."f 



* Translated by Stoiling. | Wellesu:v'.. Aiithologia, p. 268. 



ISO HISTORY OF GREECK Chat. XVIL 

It would have been fortunate for his glory if he had died on 
the field of Marathon. The remainder of his history is a rapid 
and melancholy descent from the pinnacle of glory to an igno- 
minious death. 

HO. Shortly after the battle, Miltiades requested of the Athe- 
nians a fleet of seventy ships, without telling them the object 
of his expedition, but only promising to enrich the state. Such 
unbounded confidence did the Athenians repose in the hero of 
Marathon, that they at once complied with his demand. This 
confidence Miltiades abused. In order to gratify a private ani- 
mosity against one of the leading citizens of Paros, he sailed to 
this island, and laid siege to the town. Paros was one of the 
most flourishing of the Cyclades, and the town was strongly 
fortified. The citizens repelled all his attacks ; and he had be- 
gun to despair of taking the place, when he received a message 
from a Parian woman, a priestess of the temple of Demeter 
(Ceres), promising that she would put Paros in his power, if 
he would visit by night a temple from which all male persons 
were excluded. Catching at this last hope, he repaired to the 
appointed place. He leaped over the outer fence, and had nearly 
reached the sanctuar)-, when he was seized Avith a panic terror, 
and ran away ; but in getting back over the fence he received a 
dangerous injury on his thigh. He now abandoned all hope of 
success, raised the siege and returned to Athens. 

§11. Loud was the indignation against Miltiades on his re- 
turn. He was accused by Xanthippus, the father of Pericles, 
of having deceived the people, and was brought to trial. His 
wound had already begun to show symptoms of gangrene. He 
was carried into court on a couch, and there lay before the 
assembled judges, while his friends pleaded on his behalf They 
could offer no excuse for his recent conduct, but they reminded 
the Athenians of the inestimable services they had received 
from the accused, and urged them in the strongest terms to 
spare the victor of Marathon. The judges were not insensible 
to this appeal ; and instead of condemning him to death, as the 
accuser had demanded, they commuted the penalty to a fine of 
fifty talents, probably the cost of the armament. He was un- 
able immediately to raise this sum, and died soon afterwards of 
his wound. The fine was subsequently paid by his son Cimon. 
Later writers relate that Miltiades died in prison ; but Herodo- 
tus does not mention his imprisonment, and we may therefore 
hope that the hero of Marathon was spared this further in- 
dignity. 

The melancholy end of Miltiades must not blind us to his 
offence, and ought not to lead us to charge the Athenian people 



B.C. 489. WAR BETWEEiN^ ATHENS AND ^GINA. 181 

with ingratitude and fickleness. The Athenians did not forgot 
his services at Marathon, and it was their gratitude towards hirn 
which alone saved him from death. He had gressly abused the 
public confidence, and deserved his punishment. A state which 
should give impunity to a criminal on account of previous ser- 
vices would soon cease to exist. 

§ 12. Soon after the battle of Marathon, a war broke out be- 
tween Athens and iEgina, which continued down to the invasion 
of Greece by Xerxes. This war is of great importance in 
Grecian history, since to it the Athenians were indebted for 
their navy, which enabled them to save Greece at Salamis as 
they had already done at Marathon. 

The rocky island of ^gina is situated in the Saronic gulf 
about twelve miles from the coast of Attica, and contains only 
about 41 square English miles. But, notwithstanding its small 
extent, it is one of the most celebrated of the Grecian islands. 
In the mythical ages it was the residence of ^acus, king of the 
Myrmidons, from whom Achilles and some of the most illus- 
trious Grecian heroes were descended. In historical times it 
was inhabited by a wealthy and enterprizing Dorian people, who 
carried on an extensive commerce with all parts of the Hellenic 
world. It is said that silver money was first coined in ^gina, 
by Phidon, tyrant of Argos ; ^ and we know that the name of 
-^Iginetan was given to one of the two scales of weights and 
measures current throughout Greece. The wealth, which its 
citizens acquired by conmierce, was partly devoted to the en- 
couragement of art, which was cultivated in this island with 
great success during the half century preceding the Persian war. 
Indeed, during this period ^gina held a prominent rank among 
the Grecian states, and possessed the most powerful navy in all 
Greece. 

§ 13. There had been an ancient feud between Athens and 
jEgina, which first broke out into open hostilities a few years 
after the expulsion of Hippias from Athens. About the year 
506 B.C. the Thebans, who had been defeated by the Athenians,! 
applied for aid to ^gina. This was immediately granted ; and 
the iEginetans inunediately attacked the Athenian territory, 
without making any formal declaration of war. Of the details 
of this contest, we have no information ; and we lose sight of 
iEgina for the next few years. 

In the year before the battle of Marathon ^Egina is mentioned 
among the Grecian states which gave earth and water to the 
envoys of Darius. It was, probably, as much hatred of the 

* Respecting this statement, see p. 59. 
t Seep. 112. 



182 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XYII. 

Athenians as fear of the Persians, which led the JEginetans to 
submit to Darius, hoping to crush their obnoxious rivals with 
the help of the Great King. The Persians, however, were not 
yet in Greece ; and the Athenians lost no time in sending an em- 
bassy to Sparta, accusing the ^ginetans of having betrayed the 
common cause of Hellas, and calling upon the Spartans, as the 
protectors of Grecian liberty, to pmiish the ofienders. This re- 
quest met with prompt attention ; and Cleomenes, one of the 
Spartan kings, forthwith crossed over to -^gina. He was pro- 
ceeding to arrest and carry away some of the leading citizens, 
when Demaratus, the other Spartan king, privately encouraged 
the ^ginetans to defy the authority of his colleague. This 
w^as the second important occasion on which Demaratus had 
thwarted the plans of his colleague ; and Cleomenes returned to 
Sparta, firmly resolved that Demaratus should not have a third 
opportunity. 

It appears that there had always been doubts respecting the 
legitimacy of Demaratus. Cleomenes now persuaded Leoty- 
chides, the next heir to the crown, to lay claim to the royal 
dignity, on the ground that Demaratus was disqualified by his 
birth. The Spartans referred the question to the Delphic oracle ; 
and at the secret instigation of Cleomenes, the priestess de- 
clared that his colleague was illegitimate. Leotychides thus 
ascended the throne, and Demaratus descended into a private 
station. Shortly afterwards, the deposed monarch received a 
gross affront from the new king at a public festival, w^hereupon 
he quitted Sparta in wrath, and repaired to the Persian court, 
where we shall subsequently find him among the counsellors of 
Darius. 

Cleomenes now returned to ^gina, accompanied by Leoty- 
chides. The JEginetans did not dare to resist the joint demand 
of the two Spartan kings, and surrendered to them ten of their 
leading citizens, whom Cleomenes deposited as hostages in the 
hands of the Athenians. 

M4. After the battle of Marathon, the iEginetans endeavoured 
to recover these hostages ; and the refusal of the Athenians to 
give them back led to a renewal of the war, which was pro- 
secuted with great activity on both sides. It was now that 
Themistocles came forward with his celebrated proposition, 
which converted Athens into a maritime power. Hitherto the 
Athenians had not possessed a navy ; and Themistocles clearly 
saw that without a powerful fleet it would be impossible lor his 
countrymen to humble their rival. But his views extended still 
further. He well knew that Persia was preparing for another 
and still more formidable attack upon Greece ; and he had the 



B.C. 485. THEMISTOCLES AND ARISTIDES. 183 

sagacity to perceive that a large and efficient fleet would be the 
best protection against the barbarians. Influenced by these two 
motives, and also impressed with the conviction that the very 
position of Athens fitted it to be a maritime and not a land 
power, he urged the Athenians at once to build and equip a 
numerous and powerful fleet. The Athenians were both able 
and willing to follow his advice. There was at this time a large 
surplus in the public treasury, arising from the produce of the 
valuable silver mines at Laurium. These mines, which belonged 
to the state, were situated in the southern part of Attica, near 
Cape Sunium, in the midst of a mountainous district. It had 
been recently proposed to distribute this surplus among the 
Athenian citizens ; but Themistocles persuaded them to sacrifice 
their private advantage to the public good, and to appropriate 
this money to building a fleet of 200 ships. The immediate 
want of a fleet to cope with the yEginetans probably weighed 
Avlth the Athenian people more powerfully than the prospective 
danger from the Persians. " And thus," as Herodotus says, " the 
iEginetan war saved Greece by compelling the Athenians to 
make themselves a maritime power." Not only were these two 
hundred ships built, but Themistocles also succeeded about the 
same time in persuading the Athenians to pass a decree that 
twenty new ships should be built every year. 

§ 15. Of the internal history of Athens during the ten years 
between the battles of Marathon and Salamis we have little 
information. We only know that the two leading citizens of 
this period were Themistocles and Aristides. These two emi- 
nent men formed a striking contrast to each other. Themis- 
tocles possessed abilities of the most extraordinary kind. In 
intuitive sagacity, in ready invention, and in prompt and daring 
execution, he surpasses almost every statesman whether of an- 
cient or of modern times. With unerring foresight he divined 
the plans of his enemies ; in the midst of difficulties and per- 
plexities, not only was he never at a loss for an expedient, but 
he always adopted the right one ; and he carried out his schemes 
with an energy and a promptness which astonished both friends 
and foes. But these transcendant abilities were marred by a 
want of honesty. In the exercise of power he was accessible to 
bribes, and he did not hesitate to employ dishonest means for 
the aggrandizement both of Athens and of himself He closed 
a glorious career in disgrace and infamy, an exile and a traitor. 

Aristides was inferior to Themistocles in ability, but was in- 
comparably superior, not only to him but to all his contempo- 
raries, in honesty and integrity. In the administration of public 
affairs he acted with a smgle eye to the public good, regardless 



184 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XYIL 

of party ties and of personal friendships. His uprightness and 
justice were so universally acknowledged, that he received the sur- 
name of the Just. But these very virtues procured him enemies. 
Not only did he incur the hatred of those whose currupt prac- 
tices he denounced and exposed, but many of his fellow-citizens be- 
came jealous of a man whose superiority was constantly proclaim- 
ed. We are told that an unlettered countryman gave his vote 
against Aristides at the ostracism, simply on the ground that he 
was tired of hearing him always called the Just. 

Between men of such opposite characters as Themistocles and 
Aristides, there could not be much agreement. In the manage- 
ment of pubhc affairs they frequently came into colhsion ; and 
they opposed each other with such violence and animosity, that 
Aristides is reported to have said, " If the Athenians were wise, 
they would cast both of us into the barathrum." After three or 
four years of bitter rivalry, the two chiefs appealed to the ostra- 
cism, and Aristides was banished. 

Aristides had used all his efforts to prevent the Athenians 
from abandoning their ancient habits, and from converting their 
state from a land into a maritime power. There can be no 
doubt that he viewed such a change as a dangerous innovation, 
and thought that the sailor would not make so good an Athenian 
citizen as the heavy-armed soldier. It was fortunate, however, 
for the liberties of Grreece, that the arguments of his rival pre- 
vailed. Aristides was a far more virtuous citizen than Themis- 
tocles ; but their country could now dispense with the former 
much better than with the latter. 




Bust of Miltiades. 




View of Thermopylae . 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE BATTLES OF TIIER:\I0PYL^ AND ARTEMISIUM. 

§ 1. Death of Darius and accession of Xerxes. § 2. Preparations for the 
invasion of Greece. § 3. Abridge thrown across the nellesj)ont, and a 
canal cut through the Isthmus of Mount Athos. § 4. Xerxes sets out 
fromSardis. Orderoftlie march. § 5. Passage of the Hellespont. §6. 
Xumberingof the army on the plain of Doriscus. § 7. Continuation of 
the march from Doriscus to Mount Olympus. § 8. Preparations of the 
Greeks to resist Xerxes. Congress of the Grecian states at the Isthmus 
of Corinth. § 9. Patriotism of the Athenians. Resolution of the Greeks 
to defend the pass of Tompe, Avhich is afterwards abandoned. § 10. De- 
scription of the pass of Tliermopylffi. § 11. Leonidas sent with 300 
Spartans and a small body of Peloponncsians to defend the pass of 
ThermopylaB. § 12. Attack and repulse of the Persians at ThermopyL'e. 
§ 13. A Persian detacliment cross the mountains by a secret path in 
order to fall upon the Greeks in the rear. § 14. Heroic death of Leoni- 
das and his comrades. § 15. Monuments erected to their honour. § 16- 
Proceedings of the Persian and Grecian fleets. § 17. The Persian 
fleet overtaken by a terrible storm. §18. First battle of Artemisium. 
§ 19. Second storm. § 20. Second battle of Artemisium. Ketrcat 
of the Grecian fleet to Salamis. 

§ 1. The defeat of the Persians at Marathon served only to in- 
crease the resentment of Darins. He now resolved to colleet 
the whole forces of his empire, and to lead them in person 



186 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XVIIl 

against Athens. For three years, busy preparations were made 
throughout his vast dominions. In the fourth year his atten- 
tion was distracted by a revolt of the Eg}'ptians, who had always 
borne the Persian yoke with impatience ; and before he could 
reduce them to subjection he was surprized by death, after a 
reign of thirty-seven years (b.c. 485). 

The death of Darius was a fortunate event for Greece. It 
deprived the Persians of an able ruler, who possessed an ex- 
tensive knowledge of men and of affairs, and it gave the Athe- 
nians time to form the na\^', which proved the salvation of 
Greece, Xerxes, the son and successor of Darius, was a man of 
little ability and less experience. Being the favourite son of 
Atossa, the daughter of the great Cyrus, he had received the 
education of an eastern despot, and been surrounded with slaves 
from his cradle. In person he was the tallest and handsomest 
man amidst the vast hosts which he led against Greece ; but 
there was nothing in his mind to correspond to this fair exterior. 
His character was marked by faint-hearted timidity and childish 
vanity. Such was the monarch upon whom now devolved the 
execution of the schemes of Darius. 

Xerxes had not mherited his father's animosity against Greece, 
and at first appeared ready to abandon the enterprize. But he 
was surrounded by men who urged him to prosecute his father's 
plans. Foremost among these was Mardonius, who was eager 
to retrieve his reputation, and to obtain the conquered country 
as a satrapy for himself The powerful family of the Thessalian 
Aieuadse and the exiled Pisistratids from Athens warmly se- 
conded the views of Mardonius, exaggerating the fertility and 
beauty of Greece, and promising the monarch an easy and a glo- 
rious victory. They also inflamed his ambition with the prospect 
of emulating the military glory of his father Darius, and of his 
grandfather Cyrus, and of extending his dominions to the farthest 
limits of the world. The only one of his counsellors, who urged 
him. to adopt a contrary course, was his uncle Artabanus ; but 
his advice was rejected, and Xerxes finally determined upon the 
invasion of Greece. 

§ 2. The subjugation of the Egyptians, however, claimed his 
immediate attention. This was eflected without much difficulty 
in the second year of his reign (e.g. 484) ; and he was now at 
liberty to march against Greece. Darius had nearly completed 
his preparations for the invasion of Greece at the time of his 
death ; and the forces which he had collected were considered b) 
this prudent monarch sulhcient for the purpose. The new king 
was anxious to make a still more imposing display of his power. 
He was not satisfied with collecting a military poAver sufficient for 



B.C. 485. ACCESSION OF XERXES. 187 

the conquest of Europe ; he also resolved to gratify his vanity 
and love of ostentation, by gathering together the most numerous 
armament which the w^orld had ever seen. Accordingly, for four 
years more the din of preparation sounded throughout Asia. 
Troops w^ere collected from every quarter of the Persian empire, 
and were ordered to assemble at Critalla, in Cappadocia. As 
many as forty-six different nations composed the land-force, of 
various complexions, languages, dresses, and arms. Among them 
m.ight be seen many strange and barbarous tribes, — nomad hordes 
of Asiatics, armed with a dagger and a lasso, with which they 
entangled their enemy, — Libyans, whose only arms were wooden 
staves, with the end hardened in the fire, — and Ethiopians, from 
the Upper Nile, with their bodies painted half white and half 
red, clothed with the skins of lions and panthers, and armed 
with arrows tipped with a point of sharp stone instead of iron. 
Tlie fleet was furnished by the Phcenicians and lonians, and 
other maritime nations subject to the Persian monarch. Im- 
mense stores of provisions were at the same time collected from 
every part of the empire, and deposited at suitable stations along 
the line of march as far as the confines of Greece. 

§ 3. While these vast preparations were going on, two great 
works were also undertaken, which would at the same time both 
render the expedition easier, and bear witness to the grandeur and 
might of the Persian king. These were the construction of a bridge 
across the Hellespont, and the cutting of a canal through the 
isthmus of Mount Athos. The first of these works was entrusted 
to Phoenician and Egyptian engineers. The bridge extended from 
the neighbourhood of Abydos, on the Asiatic coast, to a spot 
between Sestus and Madytus on the European side, where the 
strait is about an English mile in breadth. After it had been 
completed, it was destroyed by a violent storm, at which Xerxes 
was so enraged, that he not only caused the heads of the chief 
engineers to be struck off, but in his daring impiety commanded 
the " divine" Hellespont to be scourged, and a set of fetters 
cast into it. Thus having given vent to his resentment, he 
ordered two bridges to be built in place of the former, one for 
the army to pass over, and the other for the baggage and beasts 
of burthen. The new work consisted of two broad causeways 
alongside of one another, each resting upon a row of ships, 
which were moored by anchors, and by cables fastened to the 
sides of the channel. 

The voyage round the rocky promontory of Mount Athos had 
become an object of dread to the Persians, from the terrible 
shipwreck which the fleet of Mardonius had suliered on this dan- 
gerous coast. It was to avoid the necessity of doubling this 



188 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XVIII. 

cape that Xei-xes ordered a canal to be cut through the isthmus 
which connects the peninsula of Mount Athos with the mainland. 
This work employed a number of men for three years. It was 
about a mile and a half long, and sufficiently broad and deep for 
two triremes to sail abreast. The traces of this canal, which are 
still distinctly visible, sufficiently disprove the assertion of many 
writers, both ancient and modem, that the cutting through of 
Mount Athos is a mere fiction.^ 

^ 4. At the end of the year 481 B.C., all the preparations were 
completed for the invasion of Greece. Xerxes spent the winter 
at Sardis ; and early in the spring of the following year (480) he 
set out from the Lydian capital in all the pomp and splendour of 
a royal progress. The vast host was divided into two bodies of 
nearly equal size, between which ample space was left for the 
Great King and his Persian guards. The baggage led the way, and 
was followed by one half of the army, without any distinction of 
nations. Then after an interval came the retinue of the King. 
First of all marched a thousand Persian horsemen, followed by an 
equal number of Persian spearmen, the latter carrying spears with 
the points downwards, and ornamented at the other end with 
golden poraiegranates. Behind them walked ten sacred horses, 
gorgeously caparisoned, bred on the Nissean plain of Media; 
next the sacred car of Jove, drawn by eight white horses ; and 
then Xerxes himself in a chariot, drawn by Nissean horses. He 
was followed by a thousand spearmen and a thousand horsemen, 
corresponding to the two detachments which immediately pre- 
ceded him. They were succeeded by ten thousand Persian in- 
fantry, call the " Immortals," because their number was always 
maintained. Nine thousand of them had their spears orna- 
mented with pomegranates of silver at the reverse extremity ; 
while the remaining thousand, who occupied the outer ranksj 
carried spears similarly adorned with pomegranates of gold. 
After the " Immortals" came ten thousand Persian cavalry, who 
formed the rear of the royal retinue. Then, after an interval of 
two furlongs the other half of the army followed. 

^ 5. In this order the multitudinous host marched from Sardis 
to Abydos, on the Hellespont. Here a marble throne was erected 
for the monarch upon an eminence, from which he surveyed all 
the earth covered with his troops, and all the sea crowded with 
his vessels. His heart swelled within him at the sight of such a 

* Juvenal speaks of it as a specimen of Greek mendacity : — 

" creditur dim 
Velificatiis Athos, et qxiidquid Grrecia mendax 
Audet in liistoria." 



B.C. 480. MAECH OF XERXES. 189 

vast assemblage of human beings ; but his feelings of pride and 
pleasure soon gave way to sadness, and he burst into tears at the 
reflection, that in a hundred years not one of them would be alive. 
At the first rays of the rising sun the army commenced the 
passage of the Hellespont. The bridges were perfumed with 
frankincense and strewed with myrtle, wliile Xerxes himself 
poured libations into the sea from a golden cengcr, and turning 
his face towards the east, offered prayers to the Sun, that he 
might carry his victorious arms to the farthest extremities of 
Europe. Then throwing the censer into the sea, together with 
a golden bowl and a Persian scimitar, he ordered the Immortals 
to lead the way. The army crossed by one bridge, and the 
baggage by the other ; but so vast were their numbers that they 
were seven days and seven nights in passing over, without a mo- 
ment of intermission. The speed of the troops was quickened 
by the lash, which was constantly employed by the Persians to 
urge on the troops in the battle as well as during the march. =^ 
^ 6. Upon reaching Europe, Xerxes continued his march along 
the coast of Thrace. Upon arriving at the spacious plain of 
Doriscus, which is traversed by the river Hebrus, he resolved to 
number both his land and naval forces. The mode employed for 
numbering the foot-soldiers was remarkable. Ten thousand 
men were first numbered, and packed together as closely as they 
could stand ; a line was dra-wai, and a wall built round the place 
they had occupied, mto which all the soldiers entered succes- 
sively, till the whole army was thus measured. There were 
found to be a hundred and seventy of these divisions, thus 
making a total of 1,700,000 foot. Besides these, there were 
80,000 horse, and many war-chariots and camels, with about 
20,000 men. The fleet consisted of 1207 triremes, and 3000 
smaller vessels. Each trireme was mamied by 200 rowers and 
30 fighting men ; and each of the accompanying vessels carried 
8 men, according to the calculation of Herodotus. Thus the 
naval force amounted to 517,010. The whole armament, both 
mihtarj' and naval, which passed over from Asia to Doriscus, 
would accordingly consist of 2,317,610 men. Nor is this all. In 
his march from Doriscus to Thermopyla3, Xerxes received a still 
further accession of strength. The Thracian tribes, the Macedo- 
nians, and the other nations in Europe whose territories he tra- 
versed, supplied 300,000 men, and 120 triremes containing an 
aggregate of 24,000 men. Thus when he reached Thermopylaj 
the land and sea forces amounted to 2,041,610 fighting men.' 

* "Wliips made of the hide of the hippopotamus "u-ere used by Ibraliim 
Pasha to flog the Arabs into battle during the Egyptian invasion of 
Greece in 1827. 



190 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chat. XVIIL 

This does not include the attendants, the slaves, the crews of 
the provision ships, &c., which, according to the supposition of 
Herodotus, were more in number than the fighting men ; bu*; 
supposing them to have been equal, the total number of male 
persons who accompanied Xerxes to Thermopylae, reaches the 
astounding figure of 5,283,220 ! 

Such are the vast numbers given by Herodotus; but they 
seem so incredible, that many writers have been led to impeach 
the veracity of the historian. But it cannot be doubted that 
Herodotus had received his account from persons who were pre- 
sent at Doriscus, and that he has faithfully recorded the numbers 
that had been related to him. It is probable, however, that 
these numbers were at first grossly exaggerated in order to 
please Xerxes himself, and were still further magnified by the 
Greeks to exalt their own heroism in overcoming such an enor- 
m.ous host. The exact number of the invading army cannot be 
determined ; but we may safely conclude from all the circum- 
stances of the case, that it was the largest ever assembled at any 
period of history. 

§ 7. From Doriscus Xerxes continued his march along the 
coast through Thrace and Macedonia. The principal cities 
through which he passed had to furnish a day's meal for the 
immense host, and for this purpose had made preparations many 
months beforehand. The cost of feeding such a multitude 
brought many cities to the brink of ruin. The island of Thasos 
alone, which had to undertake this onerous duty on account of 
its possessions on the mainland, expended no less a sum than 400 
talents, or nearly 100,000/. in our money ; and a witty citizen of 
Abdera recommended his countrymen to return thanks to the 
gods, because Xerxes was satisfied with one meal in the day. At 
Acanthus, Xerxes was gratified by the sight of the wonderful 
canal, which had been executed by his order. Here he parted 
for the first time from his fleet, which was directed to double 
the peninsulas of Sithonia and Pallene, and wait his arrival at 
the city of Therma, which is better known by its later name of 
Thessalonica. In his march through the wild and woody country 
between Acanthus and Therma, his baggage-camels were attacked 
by lions, which then existed in this part of Europe. =^ At Therma 
he rejoined his fleet, and continued his march along the coast 
till he reached Mount Olympus, separating Macedonia from the 
country properly called Hellas. The part of Europe through 
which he had hitherto marched, had been already conquered by 
Megabazus and Mardonius, and yielded implicit obedience to the 

* Tlie figure of a lion seizing a bull is found on the reverse of the 
coins of Acanthus. See p. 3. 



B.C. 480. PREPARATIONS OF THE GREEKS. 191 

Persian monarch. He was now for the first time about to leave 
his own dominions and tread upon the Hellenic soil. 



The mighty preparations of Xerxes had been no secret in 
Greece ; and while he was passing the winter at Sard is, a congress 
of the Grecian states was summoned to meet at the isthmus of 
Corinth. This congress had been convened by the Spartans and 
Athenians, who now made a vigorous effort to unite the mem- 
bers of the Hellenic race in one great league for the defence of 
their hearths and their homes. But in this attempt they failed. 
Tiie salvation of Greece appeared to depend upon its unanimity, 
and this unanimity could not bj (obtained. Such was the terror 
inspired by the countless hosts of Xerxes, and so absurd did it 
seem to oiler resistance to his superhuman power, that many of 
the Grecian states at once tendered their submission to him, 
when he sent to demand earth and water, and others at a greater 
distance refused to take any part in the congress. 

Taking a glance at the Hellenic world, we shall be astonished 
to see how small a portion of the Greeks had the courage to 
resist the Persian despot. The only people, north of the isthmus 
of Corinth, who remained faithful to the cause of Grecian liberty, 
were the Athenians and Phocians, and the inhabitants of the 
small Boeotian towns of Plataea and Thespia3. The other people 
in northern Greece were either partizans of the Persians, like the 
Thebans, or were unwilling to make any great sacrifices for the 
preservation of their independence. 

In Peloponnesus, the powerful city of Argos stood sullenly 
aloof. The Argives had never forgotten that they were once the 
ruling people in Peloponnesus. They had made many attempts 
to resist the growing power and influence of Sparta ; but about 
five years before the battle of Marathon (e.g. 495), they had been 
effectually humbled by the great victory which the Spartan 
king Cleoracnes had gained over them, and in which as many 
as six thousand of their citizens perished. They therefore con- 
templated the invasion of Xerxes with indifference, if not with 
pleasure, and were more willing to submit to the sovereignty of 
the Persian monarch than to the supremacy of their hated rivals. 
The Achajans likewise took no part in the contest, probably from 
hatred to the Dorians, who had driven their ancestors from their 
homes. 

From the more distant members of the Hellenic race no assist- 
ance was obtained. Envoys had been sent by the congress at 
Corinth to Crete, Corcyra, and Syracuse. The Cretans excused 
themselves under pretence of an oracle. The Corcyraeans pro- 
mised their aid, and despatched a fleet of sixty vessels, but with 
strict orders not to double Cape Malea, till tho result of tho 



192 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XVIIL 

contest should be known. Gelon, the ruler of Syracuse, offered 
to send a powerful armament, provided the command of the 
allied forces was entrusted to him ; but the envoys did not ven- 
ture to accept a proposal, which would have placed both Sparta 
and Athens under the control of a Sicilian despot. 

^ 9. The desertion of the cause of Grecian independence by so 
many of the Greeks did not shake the resolution of Sparta and 
of Athens. The Athenians, especially, set a noble example of 
an enlarged patriotism. They became reconciled to the ^gi- 
netans, and thus gained for the common cause the powerful navy 
of their rival. They readily granted to the Spartans the supreme 
command of the forces by sea as well as by land, although they 
furnished two-thirds of the vessels of the entire fleet. Their 
illustrious citizen Themistocles was the soul of the congress. 
He sought to enkindle in the other Greeks some portion of the 
ardour and energy, which he had succeeded in breathing into 
the Athenians. The confederates bound themselves to resist 
to the death ; and, in case of success, to consecrate to the 
Delphian god a tenth of the property of every Grecian state 
which had surrendered to the Persians without being compelled 
by irresistible necessity. 

The congress had now to fix upon the spot wdiere they should 
offer resistance to the Persians. The Thessalians, who dreaded 
the return of the Aleuadse to their cities, urged the congress to 
send a body of men to guard the pass of Tempo, which forms 
the entrance to northern Greece. They promised to take an 
active part in the defence ; adding, that if the request was re- 
fused, they should be obliged to make terms with the Persians. 
Accordingly a body of 10,000 men was sent into Thessaly under 
the command of the Spartan Eusenetus and the Athenian The- 
mistocles. The pass of Tempo is a long and narrow defile in 
Mount Olympus, through which the river Peneus forces its way 
into the sea. On each side, steep and inaccessible mountains 
rise to a great height, and in some parts approach so closely as 
to leave scarcely sufficient space for a road. It is impossible for 
an army, to force its way through this pass, if defended by a re- 
solute body of men ; but upon arriving at the spot the Grecian 
commanders perceived that it would be easy for the Persians to 
land troops in their rear ; and they learnt at the same time that 
there was another passage across Mount Olympus, a little farther 
to the west. For these reasons they considered it necessary to 
abandon this position, and return to the isthmus of Corinth. 
Their retreat was followed by the submission of the whole of 
Thessaly to Xerxes. 

HO. After Tempe, the next spot in Greece most convenient 



B.C. 480. 



BATTLE OF THERMOPYLAE. 



193 



for defence against an invading army is the pass of Thcrmo- 
pylsB. This celebrated pass hes between the lofty and preci- 
pitous mountains of (Eta, and an inaccessible morass foiining 
the edge of the Malian gulf It is about a mile in length. At 
each of its extremities the mountains approach so near the 
morass, as to leave barely room for the passage of a single car- 
riage. These narrow entrances were called Pylag, or the Gates. 
The northern, or, to speak more properly, the western Gate, was 
close to the town of Anthela, where the Amphictyonic council 
held its autumnal meetings ; while the southern, or the eastern 
Gate, was near the Locrian town of Alpeni. The space between 
the gates was wider and more open, and was distinguished by 
its hot springs, from which the pass derived the name of Ther- 
mopylae, or the " Hot-Gates." This pass was as defensible as 
that of Tempo, and in one important respect possessed a decided 
superiority over the latter. The island of EuboBa is here sepa- 
rated from, the mainland by a narrow strait, which in one part is 
only two ra.iles and a half in breadth ; and accordingly it is easy, 
by defending this part of the sea with a fleet, to prevent an 
enemy from landing troops at the southern end of the pass. 




Plan of Thermopylae. 

HI- The Greeks, therefore, resolved to make a stand at Ther- 
mopylae, and to defend at the same time both the pass and the 
Eubcean strait. The whole allied fleet, under the command of 
the Spartan Eurybiades, sailed to the north of Eubcca, and took 
up its station off that portion of the northern coast of the 
island, which faces Magnesia and the entrance to the Thessalian 
gulf, and wliich was called Artemisium, from a neighbouring 



194 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XVIII. 

temple of Artemis (Diana). It was, however, only a small land- 
force that was sent to the defence of Thermopylae. When the 
arrival of Xerxes at Therma became known, the Greeks were upon 
the point of celebrating the Olympic games, and the festival of 
the Camean Apollo, which was observed with great solemnity at 
Sparta and in the other Doric states. The Peloponnesians could 
not make up their minds to neglect these sacred games, even 
when the dreaded enemy was almost at their doors. They there- 
fore resolved to send forward only a small detachment, which 
they thought would be sufficient to mamtain the pass till the 
festivals were over, when they would be able to march against 
Xerxes with all their forces. The command of this body was 
entrusted to the Spartan king Leonidas, the younger brother 
and successor of Cleomenes. It consisted of 300 Spartans, with 
their attendant Helots, and nearly 3000 hophtes from the other 
Peloponnesian states. In their march through Bceotia they were 
joined by 700 Thespians, who were warmly attached to the 
cause of Grecian independence, and also by 400 Thebans, whom 
Leonidas compelled the Theban government to furnish much 
against its will. On their arrival at ThermopylsB, their forces 
were still further augmented by 1000 Phocians, and a body of 
Opuntian Locrians, so that their numbers were not much short 
of 7000 men. 

It was now that Leonidas learnt for the first time, that there 
was an unfrequented path over Mount (Eta., by which a foe 
might penetrate into southern Greece without marching through 
Thermopylae. This path, commencing near Trachis, ascended 
the northern side of the mountain called Anopsea, along the 
torrent of the Asopus, crossed one of the ridges of Mount (Eta, 
and descended on the southern side near the termination of the 
pass at the Locrian town of Alpeni. Leonidas was informed of 
the existence of this path by the Phocians; and, at their own 
desire, he posted them at the summit, to defend it against the 
enemy. The Spartan king took up his station, with the re- 
mainder of his troops, within the pass of Thermopylae. He ren- 
dered his position still stronger by rebuilding across the northern 
entrance a wall, which had been erected in former days by the 
Phocians, but which had been suffered to fall into ruins. Hav- 
ing thus made all his arrangements, Leonidas calmly awaited 
the approach of the Persian host. But the majority of the men 
did not share the calmness of their general; and so great became 
their alarm at the smallness of their numbers, when the multi- 
tudinous forces of Xerxes began to draw near, that the Pelopon- 
nesians were anxious to abandon their present position and 
make the isthmus of Corinth their point of defence. It was only 



B,C. 480. BATTLE OF THERMOPYL^. 195 

the personal influence of Leonidas, seconded by the indignant 
remonstrances of the Phocians and Locrians, which prevailed 
upon them to continue faithful to their post. At the same time 
he despatched messengers to the various cities, urging them to 
send him immediately reinforcements. 

§ 12. Meanwhile Xerxes had arrived within sight of Thermo- 
pyla3. He had heard that a handful of desperate men, com^ 
manded by a Spartan, had determined to dispute his passage, 
but he refiised to believe the news. He was still more asto- 
nished when a horseman, whom he had sent to reconnoitre, 
brought back word that he had seen several Spartans outside 
the wall in front of the pass, some amusing themselves with 
gymnastic exercises, and others combing their long hair. In 
[,reat perplexity, he sent for the Spartan king Demaratus, who 
had accompanied him from Persia, and asked him the meaning 
of such madness. Demaratus rephed, that the Spartans would 
defend the pass to the death, and that it was their practice to 
dress their heads with peculiar care when they were going to 
hazard their lives. Xerxes still could not believe that they 
were mad enough to resist his mighty host, and delayed his 
attack for four days, expecting that they would disperse of their 
own accord. Later writers related, that Xerxes sent to them to 
deliver up their arms. Leonidas desired him "to come and take 
them." One of the Spartans being told that "the Persian host 
was so prodigious, that their arrows would conceal the sun :" — 
" So much the better," (he replied,) " we shall then fight in the 
shade." 

At length, upon the fifth day, Xerxes ordered a chosen body 
of Medes to advance against the presumptuous foes and bring 
them into his presence. Remembering their former glory as the 
masters of Asia, and anxious to avenge their defeat at Marathon, 
the Medes fought with bravery ; but their superior numbers 
were of no avail in such a narrow space, and they were kept at 
bay by the long spears and steady ranks of the Greeks. After 
the combat had lasted a long time with heavy loss to the Medes, 
Xerxes ordered his ten thousand "Immortals" to advance. But 
these were as unsuccessful as the former. Xerxes beheld the 
repulse of his troops from a lofty throne which had been provided 
for him, and was seen to leap thrice from his seat in an agony 
of fear or rage. 

H3. On the following day the attack was renewed, but with 
no better success ; and Xerxes was beginning to despair of forcing 
his way through the pass, when a Malian, of the name of Ephi- 
altes, betrayed to the Persian king the secret of the path across 
the mountains. Overjoyed at tliis discovery, a strong detach- 



]96 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XVIIL 

ment of Persians was ordered to follow the traitor. They set 
out at nightfall, and at daybreak had nearly reached the summit, 
where the Phocians were stationed. In Greece the dawn of day 
is distinguished by a peculiar stillness ; and the universal silence 
was first broken by the trampling of so many men upon the 
leaves, with which the sides of the mountauis were strewed. The 
Phocians flew to arms, and anxious for their own safety, became 
unmindful of the important trust which had been committed to 
them, abandoned the path, and took refuge on the highest part 
of the ridge. The Persians, without turning aside to pursue 
them, continued their march along the path, and began to de- 
scend the southern side of the mountain. 

Meantime Leonidas and his troops had received ample notice 
of the impending danger. During the night deserters from the 
enemy had brought him the news ; and their inteUigence was 
confirmed by his own scouts on the hills. In the council of 
war, which was forthwith summoned by Leonidas, opinions were 
divided ; the majority recommended that they should retire 
from a position which could no longer be defended, and reserve 
their lives for the future safety of Greece. But Leonidas refused 
to retreat. As a Spartan he was bound by the laws to conquer 
or to die in the post assigned to him ; and he was the more 
ready to sacrifice his life, since an oracle had declared that either 
Sparta itself or a Spartan king must perish by the Persian arms. 
His three hundred comrades were fully equal to the same heroism 
which actuated their king ; and the seven hundred Thespians re- 
solved to share the fate of this gallant band. He allowed the 
rest of the allies to retire, with the exception of the four hun- 
dred Boeotians, whom he retained as hostages. 

§ 14. Xerxes delayed his attack till the middle of the day, 
when it was expected that the detachment sent across the 
mountain would arrive at the rear of the pass. But Leonidas 
and his comrades, only anxious to sell their lives as dearly as 
possible, did not wait behind the wall to receive the attack of 
the Persians, but advanced into the open space in front of tho 
pass, and charged the enemy vidth desperate valour. Numbers 
of the Persians were slain ; many were driven into the neigh- 
bouring sea; and others again were trampled to death by the 
vast hosts behind them. Notwithstanding the exhortations of 
their officers, and the constant use of the lash, it was with diffi- 
culty that the barbarians could be brought to face this handful 
of heroes. As long as the Greeks could maintain their ranks 
they repelled every attack ; but when their spears were broken, 
and they had only their swords left, the enemy began to press 
in between them. Leonidas was one of the first that fell, and 



B.C. 480. BATTLE OF THERMOPYL^. 197 

around his body the battle raged fiercer than ever. The Persians 
made the greatest efibrts to obtain possession of it ; but four 
times they were driven back by the Greeks with great slaughter. 
At length, tliinned in numbers, and exliausted by fatigue and 
wounds, this noble band retired within the pass, and seated 
themselves on a hillock beliind the wall. Meanwhile the de- 
tachment which had been sent across the mountains, began to 
enter the pass from the south. The Thebans seized the oppor- 
tunity of begging quarter, proclaiming that they had been forced 
to fight against their will. Their lives were spared ; and the 
detachment marched on through the pass. The surviving heroes 
were now surrounded on every side, overwhelmed with a shower 
of missiles and killed to a man. 

§ 1 5. On the hillock, where the Greeks made their last stand, 
a marble lion was set up in honour of Leonidas. Two other 
monuments were also erected near the spot. The inscription on 
the first recorded "that four thousand Peloponnesians had here 
fought with three hundred myriads (or three millions) of foes." 
The second, which was destined for the Spartans alone, contained 
the memorable words : — 

" Go, tell the Spartans, thou that passest b}", 
That here obedient to their laws Tve He."* 

Both of these epigrams were probably WTitten by the poet Si- 
monides, who also celebrated the glory of the heroes of Ther- 
mopylae m a noble ode, of which the folloAving fragment is still 
extant : — 

"Of those -who at Thermopyloe were slain, 
Glorious the doom, and beautiful the lot ; 
Their tomb an altar : men from tears refrain 
To honour them, and praise, but mourn them not. 
Such sepulchre nor drear decay, 

K^or all-destroying time shall waste ; this right have they. 
"Within their grave the home-bred glory 
Of Greece was laid ; this witness gives 
Leonidas the Spartan, in whose story 
A Avreath of famous virtue ever lives." f 

§ 16. "While Leonidas had been fighting at Thermopylae, the 
Greek fleet had also been engaged with the Persians at Artemi- 
sium. The Greek ships assembled off the northern coast of 
Euboea were 271 in number, commanded, as has been mentioned 
above, by the Spartan Eurybiades. The Athenian squadron 
was led by Themistocles and the Corinthian by Adimantus ; but 

* 'G ^£iv', ayyi7XtLv ^aKeSaLfMovioi^, art ryde 

KeifieSa, rolg kcivcjv ^jiaai, TTeidofievoL. 
f Translated by Sterling. 



198 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XVIIL 

of the other commanders we have no mention. Three vessels 
■were sent ahead to watch the movements of the Persians. =^ Off 
the island of Sciathus they were captm-ed by a squadron of ten 
Persian vessels, which had in like manner been despatched by 
the Persian admiral to obtain intelligence. As soon as the 
Greeks at Artemisium heard of this disaster, and of the speedy 
approach of the whole Persian fleet, they were seized with a 
panic, such as had taken possession of the soldiers of Leonidas 
upon the advance of the land force of the Persians. But Eury- 
biades did not possess the same influence over his men as the 
Spartan king ; and the whole fleet abandoned their position, and 
sailed up the channel between Euboea and the mainland to Chal- 
cis, where the straits, being only forty yards across, might easily 
be defended by a few ships. This retreat was equivalent to an 
abandonment of the whole scheme of defence, as it gave the Per- 
sians full liberty to land troops in the rear of the defenders of 
Thermopylae. But now a mightier power than that of man came 
forward, and saved the Greeks in spite of themselves. 

M7. The Persian admiral, having learnt from the ten ships 
sent on the look out that the coast was clear, set sail from the 
gulf of Therma, and arrived in one day at almost the southern 
corner of Magnesia. Along the greater part of this coast the 
high and precipitous rocks of Mount Pelion line the water's 
edge ; but there is an open beach for a short distance between 
the town of Casthanaea and the promontory of Sepias. Here 
the Persian admiral determined to pass the night ; but owing 
to the vast number of his ships, only a small portion of them 
could be drawn up on shore ; the remainder rode at anchor eight 
lines deep. In this position they were overtaken on the follow- 
ing morning by a sudden hurricane, which blew upon the shore 
with irresistible fury. The ships were torn from their anchor- 
age, driven against one another, and dashed against the cliffs. 
For three days and three nights the tempest raged without 
intermission ; and when on the fourth day calm at length re- 
turned, the shore was seen strewed for many miles with wrecks 
and corpses. At least four hundred ships of war were destroyed, 
together with a countless number of transports, stores, and 
treasures. The remainder of the fleet doubled the southern pro- 
montory of Magnesia, and cast anchor at Aphela3 at the en- 
trance to the Pagassean gulf 

§ 18. The news of this terrible disaster, which report had 

magnified into the entire destruction of the Persian fleet, revivec? 

the spirits of the Greeks at Chalcis. They now sailed back with 

the utmost speed to their former station at Artemisium, which 

* See Aj^pendix. 



i 



B.C. 480. BATTLE OF ARTEAIISIUM. 199 

is opposite Aphetae, at the distance of only a few miles. But 
great was their surprise at seeing that the Persians still pos- 
sessed such an overwhelming number of ships. The sight 
again struck them with alarm ; and they were on the point of 
returning to Chalcis, when the Euboeans sent one of their citi- 
zens to Themistocles, with an offer of thirty talents, on condition 
that he should induce the Greek commanders to remain and 
hazard a battle in defence of the island. There can be no doubt 
that Themistocles had already urged his associates in command 
to defend the EuboBan strait against the enemy, and he therefore 
readily undertook the commission offered him by the Euboeans. 
In all periods of their history the Greeks seldom had sufficient 
principle to resist a bribe ; and Themistocles was now enabled 
to accomplish by money what he had failed to do by argument. 
By giving five talents to the Spartan Eurybiades, three to the 
Corinthian Adimantus, and presents to the other commanders, 
he prevailed upon them to remain. 

While the Greeks were thus brought with difficulty to face 
the enemy, the Persian fleet was animated with a very different 
spirit. They felt confident of victory, and their only fear was 
lest the Greeks should escape them. In order to prevent this, 
they sent a squadron of 200 ships, with instructions to sail round 
Euboea and cut off the retreat of the Greeks. Themistocles had 
now succeeded in inspiring his comrades with sufficient courage 
to sail forth and offer battle to the enemy. But being anxious 
to acquire some experience of the nautical evolutions of the 
i?nemy, before they ventured upon a decisive engagement, they 
waited till it was nearly dusk. Their ships were drawn up in a 
circle, with their sterns pointed inwards ; and they seemed to be 
waiting the attack of the enemy, who began to close in upon them 
on every side. But suddenly, at a given signal, they rowed out 
in all directions, and attacked the enemy's ships, of which they 
took or disabled no fewer than thirty. The Persians were not 
prepared for such boldness, and were at first thrown into con- 
fusion ; but they soon ralhed, and began to inffict considerable 
damage upon the Greeks, when night put an end to the contest, 
and each fleet returned to its former station, — the Greeks to 
Artemisium, and the Persians to Aphetae. 

§ 19. This auspicious commencement raised the courage of 
the Greeks, and gave them greater confidence in their own 
strength. They were still further encouraged by the events of 
the following night. It seemed as if the gods had come to fight 
on their side. For, although it was the middle of summer, at 
which season rain rarely falls in Greece, another terrific storm 
burst upon the Persians. All night long it blew upon the coast 



200 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XVni. 

at Aphetae, thus causing little inconvenience to the Greeks upon 
the opposite shore. The main body of the Persian fleet sus- 
tained considerable damage ; and the squadron which was sailing 
round Euboea was completely destroyed. The greater part of 
the eastern side of this island is an unbroken line of precipitous 
rocks, with scarcely a ravine in wliich even a boat can be hauled 
up. The squadron was overtaken by the storm off one of the 
most dangerous parts of the coast, called " the Hollows," and 
was driven upon the rocks and broken to pieces. 

The tidings of this second disaster to the Persian fleet reached 
the Greeks on the following day ; and while they were congra- 
tulating themselves upon the visible interposition of the gods in 
their favor, they were animated to still greater confidence by the 
arrival of fifty-three fresh Athenian ships. With this reintbrce- 
ment they sailed out in the afternoon, and destroyed some Cilician 
ships at their moorings ; but the Persian fleet had suffered too 
much from the storm in the preceding night to engage in battle. 

^ 20. Indignant at these insults, and dreading the anger of 
Xerxes, the Persians prepared to make a grand attack upon the 
following day. Accordingly, about noon they sailed towards 
Artemisium in the form of a crescent. The Greeks kept near 
the shore, that they might not be surrounded, and to prevent 
the Persians from bringing their whole fleet into action. The 
battle raged furiously the whole day, and each side fought with 
determined valour. The Egj'ptians distinguished themselves 
most among the Persians, and the Athenians among the Greeks. 
Both parties sufiered severely ; and though the Persians lost a 
greater number of ships and men, yet so many of the Greek ves- 
sels were disabled that they found it would be impossible to re- 
new the combat. 

Under these circumstances the Greek ccmmanders saw that 
it would be necessary to retreat ; and their determination was 
hastened by the intelligence which they now received, that 
Leonidas and his companions had fallen, and that Xerxes was 
master of the pass of Thermopylae. They forth\\ith sailed up 
the Eubcean channel, the Corinthians leading the van and the 
Athenians bringing up the rear. At the various landing-places 
along the coast Themistocles set up inscriptions, calling upon 
the lonians not to fight against their fathers. He did this in 
the hopes either of detaching some of the lonians from the 
Persians, or at any rate of making them objects of suspicion to 
Xerxes, and thus preventing the monarch from employing them 
in any important service. Having sailed through the Euboean 
strait, the fleet doubled the promontory of Sunium, and did not 
stop till it reached the island of Salamis. 




A Greek Warrior. From an Ancient Vase. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS. 



§ 1. Results of the battle of Tliermopylse. § 2. Alarm and flight of tho 
Athenians. § 3. March of the Persians and attempt upon Delphi. § 4. 
Takiiig of Athens and arrival of the Persian fleet. § 5. Dissensions and 
debates of the Greeks. § 6. Stratagem of Themistocles. Arrival of 
Aristides. § 7. Position of the hostile fleets. Preparations for the 
combat. § 8. Battle of Salamis. § 9. Defeat and flight of Xerxes. 
§ 10. Pursuit of the Greeks. § 11. Homeward march of Xerxes. 
§ 12. The Greeks celebrate their victory. § 13. Carthaginian ex- 
pedition to Sicily. Defeat and death of Hamilcar. 

§ 1 . The apathy of the Lacedasmonians in neglecting to provide 
a sufficient defence against the advancing host of Xerxes seems 
altogether unaccountable ; nor is it easy to understand why the 
Athenians themselves did not send a single troop to aid in de- 
fending Thermopylae. The heroic and long sustained resistance 
of the handful of men who perished in that pass, as well as the 
previous battle of Marathon, clearly proves that a moderately 
numerous force, together with ordinary military precautions, 
would have sufficed to arrest the onward march of the Persians. 
But the small body to which that duty was assigned was alto- 
gether inadequate to the occasion. The forcing of the pass 



202 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIX. 

annihilated the chief defence of southern Greece. Many of the 
Grecian states which before were wavering now declared for 
the invader, and sent contingents to his army ; whilst his fleet 
was also strengthened by reinforcements from Carystus, and the 
Cyclades. 

The Athenians were now threatened with inevitable destruc- 
tion. The Peloponnesians had utterly neglected their promise 
of assembling a force in Boeotia for the protection of Attica ; 
and there was consequently nothing to prevent the Persians 
from marching straight to Athens. The isolated position of the 
Peloponnesians had probably influenced them in their selfish 
policy ; at all events, on the news of the defeat at ThermopylsB, 
they abandoned Attica and the adjoining states to their fate, 
whilst they strained every nerve to secure themselves by forti- 
fying the isthmus of Corinth. It is true that in this selfish 
proceeding they overlooked the fact that their large extent of 
coast could not be thus secured from the descent of the Persian 
fleet. But after all, the greatest as well as the most pressing 
danger arose from the army of Xerxes. At sea, the Greeks and 
the Barbarians were much more nearly matched ; and if the 
multitudinous land-forces of the Persian monarch were once 
arrested in their progress, and compelled to retreat, there was 
perhaps little reason to dread that his fleet, composed mostly 
of auxiliaries, would be able to make any permanent impression 
on the Peloponnesus, or indeed to remain upon the coast of 
Greece. 

§ 2. The Athenians, relying upon the march of a Pelopon- 
nesian army into Boeotia, had taken no measures for the se- 
curity of their families and property, and beheld with terror 
and dismay the barbarian host in full march towards their city. 
Fortunately, the Grecian fleet, on retiring from Artemisium, had 
stopped at Salamis on its way to Troezen, where it had been 
ordered to re-assemble ; and, at the entreaties of the Athenians, 
Eurybiades consented to remain for a time at Salamis, and 
to assist the Athenian citizens in transporting their families 
and efiects. It was thus by accident, and not from any precon- 
certed military plan, that Salamis became the station of the 
Grecian fleet. 

In six days, it was calculated Xerxes would be at Athens — a 
short space to remove the population of a whole city ; but fear 
and necessity work wonders. Before it had elapsed, all who 
were willing to abandon their homes had been safely transported, 
some to iEgina, the greater part to Troezen, where they met with 
a hospitable reception ; but many could not be induced to 
proceed farther than Salamis. It was necessary for Themistocles 



B.a 480. THE ATHENIANS ABANDON THEIR CITY. 203 

to use all Ills art and all his eloquence on this occasion. Those 
who were deaf to the voice of reason were assailed with the 
terrors of superstition. On a first interrogation the oracle of 
Delphi warned the Athenians to fly to the ends of the earth, 
since nothing could save them from destruction. In a second 
response the Delphian god was more obscure but less alarming. 
" The divine Salamis would make women childless" — yet " when 
all was lost, a wooden wall should still shelter the Athenians." 
In the interpretation of Themistocles, by whom these words had 
perhaps been suggested, they clearly indicated a fleet and a naval 
victory as the only means of safety. As a further persuasion it 
was declared that the Sacred Serpent, which haunted the temple 
of Athena Polias, on the Acropolis, had deserted the sanctuary ; 
and could the citizens hesitate to follow the example of their 
guardian deity ? 

In some, however, superstition, combined with love of their 
ancient homes, worked in an opposite direction. The oracle 
which declared the safety of the Athenians to lie in their wooden 
walls might admit of another meanmg ; and a few, especially 
among the aged and the poor, resolved to shut themselves up in 
the Acropolis, and to fortify its accessible or western front with 
barricades of timber. Not only in them, but even in those who 
had resolved to abandon Athens, the love of country grew 
stronger in proportion as the danger of losing it became more 
imminent. The present misery extinguished past dissensions. 
Themistocles proposed a decree revoking all sentences of banish- 
ment, and specially included in it his opponent and rival Aristides. 
The rich and the aristocratic assisted the city both by their ex- 
ample and their money. The Hippeis, or knights, headed by 
Cimon, the son of Miltiades, marched in procession to the Acropohs 
to hang up their bridles in the temple of Athena, and to fetch 
from thence some consecrated arms more suitable for that naval 
service for which they were about to abandon their ancient habits 
and privileges. The senate of the Areopagus not only exerted 
its public authority in order to provide funds for the equipment 
of the fleet and the support of the poorer emigrants, but con- 
tributed to those objects by the private mimificence of its mem- 
bers. The fund was increased by the policy of Themistocles. 
Under the pretext that the Gorgon's head had been removed 
from the statue of Athena, he directed that the baggage of each 
departing citizen should be searched, and appropriated to the 
service of the state the private treasures which were about to 
be exported. 

§ 3. While these things were passing at Athens, the Persian 
army was in full march towards the city. Xerxes was surprised 



204 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIX 

to find that the Olympic games still deterred the Peloponnesians 
from opposing his progress ; nor was his astonishment dimi- 
nished on learning that the prize, which occasioned so much ex- 
citement and emulation, was a simple wreath of the wild oUve. 
Of the states which lay between Thermopylae and Attica, the 
Phocians alone refused to submit to the Persians. Under the 
conduct of the Thessahans, the Persian army poured into Phocis, 
but found only deserted to^^ais ; several of which, however, they 
plundered and destroyed. The same fate attended Thespise and 
Platsea, the only towns of Boeotia which declined to acknowledge 
the conqueror. 

On his mavch towards Athens, Xerxes sent a detachment of his 
army to take and plunder Delphi. But this attempt proved un- 
successful. The god of the most renowned oracle of the Hel- 
lenic world vindicated at once the majesty of his sanctuary and 
the truth of his predictions. He forbade the Delphians tu re- 
miove the treasures wliich enriched and adorned his shrine, and 
encouraged by divine portents the handful of priests and citizens 
who ventured to remain and defend his temple. The sacred 
arms preserved in the inner cell, and which it was sacrilege to 
touch, were miraculously conveyed outside the door, as if the god 
himself interfered to arm his defenders. As the Persians climbed 
the rugged path at the foot of Mount Parnassus, leading up to the 
shrine, and had already reached the temple of Athena Pronsea, 
thunder was heard to roll, and two crags suddenly detaching 
themselves from the mountain, rolled down upon the Persians, 
and spread dismay and destruction in their ranks. Seized with 
a sudden panic, they turned and fled, pursued, as they said, by 
two warriors of superhuman size and prowess, who had assisted 
the Delphians in defending their temple. The Delphians them- 
selves confirmed the report, averrmg that the two warriors were 
the heroes Phylacus and Autonoiis. Herodotus, when he visited 
Delphi, saw in the sacred enclosure of Athena Pronsea the iden- 
tical crags which had crushed the Persians ; and near the spot 
may still be seen large blocks of stone which have rolled down 
from the mountain. 

M. On arriving before Athens, Xerxes found the Acropolis 
occupied by a handful of desperate citizens, whom the Pisis- 
tratids in his suite in vain exhorted to surrender. The nature 
©f the Acropolis might indeed have inspired them with reason- 
able hopes of successful resistance, had the disparity of force 
been less enormous. Rising abrupt and craggy to the height of 
150 feet above the level of the town, its summit presents a space 
of about 1000 feet in length, from east to west, and 500 in 
breadth, from north to south. On every side except the west it 



B.C. 480. THE PERSIANS OCCUPY ATHENS. 205 

is nearly inaccessible, and in the few places where access seemed 
practicable, it was defended by an ancient fortification called 
the Pelasgic wall. The Persian army took up a position on the 
Areopagus (Mars' Hill), over against the north-western side of 
the Acropolis, whence they endeavoured to destroy the wooden 
fortifications which had been erected, by shooting against them 
arrows furnished with burning tow. But even after the destruc- 
tion of these barricades, the Athenians managed to keep their 
assailants at bay by rolling down huge stones upon them as they 
attempted to mount the western ascent. At length some of the 
besiegers ventured to climb up the precipitous rock, on the 
northern side, by the cave of Aglaurus, where no guard was 
stationed. They gained the summit unperceived, thus taking 
the little garrison in the rear. Confusion and despair now 
seized upon the Athenians. Some threw themselves down from 
the rock, others took refuge in the inner temple ; while the 
Persian host, to whom the gates had been thrown open by their 
comrades, mounted to the attack, pillaged and burnt the tem- 
ples and houses on the Acropolis, and put its defenders to the 
sword. 

Thus was the oracle accomplished which had foretold that 
Athens should fall before the might of Persia. But in the very 
midst of her ashes and desolation, a trivial portent seemed to 
foreshadow the resurrection of her power. The Athenians in 
the train of Xerxes, whilst sacrificuig in the Acropolis, observed 
with astonishment that the sacred olive tree, which grew iu the 
temple of Athena, had, in the two days which had elapsed s^moe 
the fire, thrown out a fresh shoot a cubit in length. 

About the same time that the army of Xerxes took possession 
of Athens, his fleet arrived in the bay of Phalerum. Its strength 
is not accurately known, but at the lowest estimate must have 
exceeded 1000 vessels. The combined Grecian fleet at Salamis 
consisted of 366 ships ;^ a larger force than had assembled at 
Artemisium, yet far inferior to that of the Persians. Of these 
ships 200 were Athenian ; the remainder consisted of the con- 
tingents of the allies, among which that of the Corinthians 
was the most numerous after the Athenian, namely, forty ves- 
sels. 

■ Xerxes went down to inspect his fleet, and held a council of 
war as to the expediency of an immediate attack upon the 
Greeks. The kings of Sidon and Tyre, together with the other 
assembled potentates, probably with the view of flattering 
Xerxes, were for an immediate battle. One voice alone broke 

* According to Herodotus : but .^chylus reckons them at 310 only. 



206 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIX 

the unanimity of the meeting. Artemisia, queen of HaUcar- 
nassus, in Caria, deprecated the poHcy of fighting in the narrow 
strait of Salamis, where the numerous force of Xerxes would be 
an incumbrance rather than a help. She urged that if the army 
were marched towards Peloponnesus, the Peloponnesian ships 
would withdraw from the Grecian fleet, in order to protect their 
own homes. She is likewise represented as having drawn a 
comparison between the maritime skill of the Greeks and Per- 
sians, very little flattering to the latter. But these representa- 
tions, though received with good temper, were disregarded by 
Xerxes, and orders were issued for an attack on the following 
morning. At the same time the army was commanded to march 
towards Peloponnesus. 

§ 5. At this critical juncture dissension reigned in the Grecian 
fleet. In the council of war which had been summoned by 
Eurybiades, Themistocles urged the assembled chiefs to remain 
at Salamis, and give battle to the Persians in the narrow straits, 
where the superior numbers of the Persians would be of less 
consequence. The Peloponnesian commanders, on the other 
hand, were strongly opposed to remaining in their present posi- 
tion. They were of opinion that the fleet should be removed to 
the isthmus of Corinth, and thus be put in communication with 
their land-forces. The news of the taking of Athens, which 
arrived during the debate, gave force to these counsels. The 
majority came to a vote in favour of retreat ; but the approach 
of night obliged them to remain till the following morning. 

It was with gloomy thoughts that Themistocles retired from 
the council. Upon reaching his own ship, a friend named 
Mnesiphilus, to whom he communicated the decision, urged him 
to make one more attempt to detain the Peloponnesians. Late 
as it was, he immediately proceeded to the ship of Eurybiades, 
where urging with more freedom, and in greater detail than he 
had been able to use in the council, all the arguments against 
the separation of the fleet, he succeeded in persuading Eury- 
biades to convoke another assembly. He also used all his efibrts 
privately with the diflerent commanders to induce them to alter 
their opinion. But he elicited nothing but anger and reproach. 
When the comicil met, the Peloponnesian commanders loudly 
expressed their dissatisfaction at seeing a debate re-opened which 
they had deemed concluded . Adimantus, especially the Co- 
rinthian admiral, broke out into open rebukes and menaces. 
" Themistocles," he exclaimed, " those who rise at the pubhc 
games before the signal are whipped." " True," replied Themis- 
tocles, " but they who lag behind it never win a crown." An- 
other incident in this discussion has been immortalized by 



B.C. 48a DISSENSIONS .V^IONG THE GREEKS. 207 

Plutarch. It is related by this writer that Eiirybiades, incensed 
by the language of Themistocles, lilted up his stick to strike him, 
whereupon the Athenian exclaimed, " Strike, but hear me I"* 

Themistocles repeated his arguments and entreaties, but with- 
out efiect. Adimantus, with unfeeling insolence, even denied 
his right to vote ; since, Athens being in the hands of the Per- 
sians, he represented no free Grecian city. Stung by this re- 
mark, Themistocles reminded the assembly that he was at the 
head of 200 well manned ships ; a force with which he could 
easily procure for himself a city, and even a better city than 
Corinth. Prophecies, he observed, had promised to Athens the 
town of Siris in Italy ; it only remained for the Athenians to 
sail thither and take possession of it. Meanwhile, let the as- 
sembly consider what the Grecian fleet would be without the 
Athenian contingent. 

This menace silenced his opponents. Eurybiades, half con- 
vinced before, hesitated no longer ; and without taking the votes 
of the assembly, issued orders for the fleet to remain and fight 
at Salamis. The Pelopoimesians obeyed, indeed, the orders of 
their commander. The ibllowing morning discovered them en- 
gaged in preparing their ships for action ; but with an evident 
reluctance, soon increased to open discontent by messages re- 
ceived from home. These represented the distress and terror 
of their countrymen, engaged in fortifying the isthmus against 
the overwhelming force of Xerxes. Of what use was it to at- 
tempt the defence of Attica, already in the hands of the Per- 
sians ? Surely it would be much better for the Peloponnesian 
seamen to return and defend their native and yet unconquered 
country ; where, even if worsted at sea, they might transfer 
their services to the land. 

^ 6. Incited by these representations, the very men who had 
found fault with a second council, now clamoured for a third. It 
met, and was characterized by the same turbulence and the same 
dissensions as the former councils. The malcontents, though 
representing only a small proportion of the naval force,- had a 
numerical superiority of votes ; and Themistocles, perceiving that 
the decision of the assembly would be against him, determined 
to efTect his object by stratagem. Among his slaves was an 
Asiatic Greek named Sicinnus, whom he had intrusted with the 
education of his children ; a man of address and ability, and per- 
fectly acquainted with the Persian tongue. Themistocles secretly 

* This memorable story, however, is not in accordance witli the nar- 
rative of Herodotus, in which it is Adimantus, and not Eurybiades, to 
whom Themistocles had given oflFence, and who opposes the Athenian 
with so much vehemence. 



208 HISTORY OF GREECR Ciiap. XIX. 

despatched tliis man with a message to Xerxes, representing the 
dissensions which prevailed in the Grecian fleet, and how easy a 
matter it would he to surround and vanquish an armament hoth 
small and disunited. Themistocles himself was descrihed hy 
Sicinnus as favourable to the Persian cause ; nor, to judge from 
his subsequent conduct, might the wily Athenian, in the present 
desperate situation of affairs, have been altogether indisposed to 
stand favourably in the sight of Xerxes. However this may be, 
Xerxes, already well inclined to strike a blow, readily adopted 
the suggestion, and ordered his captains to close up the straits 
of Salamis at both ends. 

It has been already stated that the Persian fleet was stationed 
in the bay of Phalerum, a harbour on the Attic coast, a few 
miles eastward of the entrance of the straits which divided the 
island of Salamis from Attica. This entrance, as well as that 
on the north-western side, leading into the bay of Eleusis, is 
exceedingly narrow, being in parts not more than a quarter of a 
mile in breadth. Towards the middle, however, it expands; 
and on the side of Salamis, forms a bay or harbour, on which 
the town of Salamis is situated, and where the Grecian fleet was 
stationed. During the night the fleet of Xerxes moved from 
Phalerum northwards along the coast, and took up a position 
on the Attic side of the straits, w^hich they lined through their 
whole extent, while portions blocked up both the northern and 
southern outlets of the straits. 

Meanwhile the debate of the Grecian leaders continued long 
after nightfall. Themistocles had employed every art to pro- 
tract the discussion, m order to gain time for the effect of his 
stratagem ; and when at last the assembly broke up, it was 
only on the understanding that the debate should be resumed 
before daybreak. 

Scarcely had the council re-assembled, when Themistocles was 
summoned from it by a message that somebody wished to speak 
to him. It was Aristides, who, in the sixth year of an unjust 
banishment, had returned to serve his ungrateful country, and to 
assist, but not to share the triumph of a rival. His rival had, 
indeed, proposed, and his country had ratified, the revocation of 
the sentence ; though to an ordinary man the repentance might 
have seemed suspicious, and the atonement of little value, 
which recalled him to his native land, or, more properly speak- 
ing, which restored him to his exiled countrymen, only to share 
in their dangers and distresses. But no such reflections found 
a place in the mind of Aristides. He was occupied only with 
his country's welfare, and his first address to Themistocles was 
that their ancient rivalry should for the future be exerted only 



B.C. 480. BATTLE OF SALAMIS. 209 

in their country's cause. He then communicated the fact that 
the Grecian fleet was completely surrounded by that of the Per- 
sians ; and related that it was only "by favour of the darkness 
that his own vessel had contrived to elude them. Themistocles, 
having thus learned the success of his stratagem, expressed his 
satisfaction, and desired Aristides to communicate the news of 
their situation to the council, which would not be disposed to 
believe it from his own lips. But even from the lips of Aristides 
Such unwelcome intelligence found but little credit, till it was 
confirmed by the arrival of a Tenian ship, which had deserted 
from the enemy, 

^ 7. At length the day began to dawn which was to decide the 
fate of Greece. As the veil of night rolled gradually away, the 
Persian fleet was discovered stretching as far as the eye could 
reach along the coast of Attica Its right wing, consisting of 
PhoBiiician and Cyprian vessels, was drawn up towards the bay 
of Eleusis, whilst the lonians occupied the left, towards Piraeus 
and the southern entrance of the straits. On the low and bar- 
ren island of Psyttaleia, adjacent to that point, a detachment 
of choice Persian troops had been landed. As the Grecian fleet 
was concentrated in the harbour of the town of Salam^is, it was 
thus surrounded, as it were, in a net by the Persians. Xerxes, 
who attributed the disasters at Artemisium to his own absence, 
had caused a lofty throne to be erected upon one of the project- 
ing declivities of Mount ^Egaleos, opposite the harbour of Sala- 
mis, whence he could survey the combat, and stimulate by his 
presence the courage of his men ; whilst by his side stood scribes, 
prepared to record the names both of the daring and the backward. 

" A king sate on the rocky brow 

Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis ; 
And ships, by thousands, lay below, 

And men in nations ; — all were his ! 
He counted them at break of day — 
. And when the sun set where were they ?" 

The Grecian commanders lost no time in preparing to meet 
their multitudinous opponents. The Athenians were posted in 
the left wing, and consequently opposed to the Phoenicians on the 
Persian right. The Lacedaemonians and the other Peloponnesians 
took their station on the right, and the vEginetans and Eubceans 
in the centre. Animated by the harangues of Themistocles and 
the other leaders, the Greek seamen embarked with alacrity, 
encouraging one another to deliver their country, their wives and 
children, and the temples of their gods, from the grasp of the bar- 
barians. Just at this juncture a favourable omen seemed to pro- 



210 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



Chap. XIX- 



mise them success. When Eury blades gave the order for the fleet 
to remain and fight at Salamis, a trireme had been despatched to 
jEgina to invoke the assistance of ^acus, and the ^acid heroes 
Telamon and Ajax. As the Greeks were on the point of embark- 
ing, the trireme returned from the mission just in time to take 
her place in the Hne of battle. 




B.C. 480. BATTLE OF SALAJ^IIS. 211 

^ 8. As the trumpets sounded, the Greeks rowed forward to 
the attack, hurhng into the still morning air the loud war Paean 
reverberated shiilly from the clilis of Salamis, and not unan- 
swered by the Persians. But suddenly a panic appeared to 
seize the Grecian oarsmen. They paused — ^backed astern — and 
some of the rearward vessels even struck the ground at Salamis. 
At this critical juncture a supernatural portent is said to have 
re-animated the drooping courage of the Greeks. A female figure 
was seen to hover over the fleet, uttering loud reproaches at 
their flight. Re-animated by the vision, the Greeks again rowed 
forward to the attack. History has preserved to us but few 
details of the engagement, which, indeed, soon became a scene of 
confusion too intricate to be accurately observed ; but the names 
of those who first grappled with the enemy have not been left 
unrecorded. The Athenian captains, Aminias and Lycomedes, 
the fomier a brother of the poet ^schylus, were the first to bring 
their ships into action ; Democritus, a Naxian, was the third. 
The Persian fleet, with the exception of some of the Ionic con- 
tingents, appears to have fought with alacrity and courage. But 
the very numbers on which they so confidently relied, provad 
one of the chief causes of their defeat. They had neither concert 
in action, nor space to manceuvre ; and the confusion was aug- 
mented by the mistrust with which the miotley nations compos- 
ing the Persian armament regarded one another. Too crowded 
either to advance or to retreat, their oars broken or impeded by 
collision with one another, their fleet lay like an inert and lifeless 
mass upon the water, and fell an easy prey to the Greeks. A 
single incident will illustrate the terror and confusion which 
reigned among the Persians. Artemisia, although, as we have 
related, averse to giving battle, distinguished herself in it by 
deeds of daring bravery. At length she turned and fled, pur- 
sued by the Athenian trierarch, Aminias. Full in her course 
lay the vessel of the Carian prince, Damosithymus of Calyndus. 
Instead of avoiding, she struck and sunk it, sending her country- 
man and all his crew to the bottom. Aminias, believing from 
this act that she was a deserter from the Persian cause, suiiered 
her to escape. Xerxes, who from his lofty throne beheld the 
feat of the Halicarnassian queen, but who imagined that the 
sunken ship belonged to the Greeks, was filled with admiration 
at her courage, and is said to have exclaimed — " My men are be- 
come women, my women men I"' 

{ 9. The number of ships destroyed and sunk is stated at 40 
on the side of the Greeks, and 200 on that of the Persians, ex- 
clusive of those which were captured with all their crews. Be- 
sides this loss at sea, Aristides succeeded in inflictinir on the 



212 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIX. 

Persians another on land. It has been akeady stated that some 
chosen Persian troops had heen landed at Psyttaleia, in order to 
assist such Persian ships, or destroy such Grecian ships as might 
be forced upon the island. When the rout of the Persian fleet 
was completed, Aristides landed on the island with a body of 
Hoplites, defeated the Persians, and cut them to pieces to a man. 

Boundless were the rage and vexation of Xerxes, as he con- 
templated the flight and destruction of his fleet. Some Phoeni- 
cian crews, wliich Avere unlucky enough to be forced ashore close 
at the despot's feet, felt the full weight of liis displeasure. In 
vam they sought to throw the blame of the defeat on the Ionic 
Greeks serving under the Persian flag, Xerxes, who, besides 
the feat of Artemisia, had observed a very daring act of valour 
performed by a Samothracian vessel, treated the Phoenicians as 
dastardly calumniators, and ordered them to be beheaded. 

Notwithstanding this signal defeat and loss, the Persian fleet 
Avas still formidable by its numbers, wliilst their land-force had 
suffered hardly any loss. The Greeks themselves did not regard 
the victory as decisive, and prepared to renew the combat. But 
from this necessity they Avere relieved by the pusillanimity of 
Xerxes. Passing at once from oA^erweening confidence to unrea- 
sonable distrust, the Persian monarch became anxiously soh- 
citous CA-en about his oaaii personal safety. He no longer relied 
on the capabihty of his ships to protect his retreat over the 
Hellespont, especially as his own conduct had alienated a consi- 
derable part of his fleet. The Phoenicians, alarmed by the threats 
which rage and fear caused Xerxes to utter against them, stole 
aAA'ay in the night and sailed homewards. The whole care of the 
Persian monarch Avas now centered on securing his retreat by 
land. The best troops Av^ere disembarked from the ships, and 
marched toAvards the Hellespont, in order to secure the bridge, 
whilst the fleet itself Avas ordered to leave Phalerum and make 
for Asia. 

These dispositions of Xerxes were prompted by Mardonius, 
As the adviser of the expedition, Mardonius felt all the danger 
of responsibility for its failure, especially if the personal safety 
of his sovereign should be at all endangered. "VTith adroit flat- 
tery he consulted at once the fears and the A^anity of Xerxes, and 
his OAvn personal interests. He represented to his master that 
the defeat, after all, Avas but slight, and had fallen entirely upon 
the foreign auxiliaries ; that haA^ing attained one of the great ob- 
jects of the expedition by the capture of Athens, he might now 
retire with honour, and even Avith glor}" ; and that for the rest 
he (Mardonius) Avould undertake to complete the conquest of 
Greece with 300,000 men. Xerxes readily listened to tliis advice, 



B.C. 480. RETREAT OF XERXES. 2J3 

which accorded so well with his own inchnations, and which was 
supported by his courtiers, as well as by Q,ueen Artemisia. 

MO. When the Greeks learned that the Persian fleet had left 
Phalerum, they immediately sailed in pursuit of it. Themis- 
toclcs and the Athenians are represented, but probably on no 
sufficient ground, as anxious to push on to the Hellespont, and 
cut off the retreat of the Persians, and as having been restrained 
only by the more prudent counsels of Eurybiades and the Pelo- 
ponnesians. The moment was chosen by Themistccles to send 
a second message to Xerxes of a much more questionable cha- 
racter than the first. Siciunus was again despatched to inform 
the Persian monarch that ThemiGlocles, out of personal friend- 
ship for him, had restrained the Greeks from destroying the 
bridge over the Hellespont, and thus cutting off his retreat. In 
this communication it is impossible to believe that Themistccles 
can have had anything but his own personal interest in view. 
He was well aware that the Persian cause was far from de- 
sperate ; and even if the Greeks should prove victorious in the 
end, he may have been anxious to secure a safe retreat for him- 
self, if he should be detected in his guilty practices. 

The Greeks pursued the Persian fleet as far as the island of 
Andros, but without success. To punish those islands which 
had sided with Xerxes was a natural and justifiable act, which 
the large naval force under the command of Themistccles en- 
abled him to execute ; but he abused the same means in order to 
gratify his private rapacity. The Andrians, indeed, were too 
poor to be robbed ; and though Themistocles threatened them 
with two great gods — Persuasion and Necessity — they found 
themselves protected, as they said, by two others equally effi- 
cient — Poveity and Helplessness. But in other quarters he 
succeeded better. From Carystus, Pares, and other places, he 
privately extorted bribes by engaging to preserve them from 
attack ; and after a short time employed in the vain attempt to 
wring something from Andros, the Grecian fleet returned to 
Salamis. 

§11. Meanwhile Xerxes pursued his homeward march through 
BoEotia into Thessaly. In the latter country Mardonius selected 
the forces with which he proposed to conclude the war, consist- 
ing chiefly of Persians, Modes, Saca3, and Bactrians, to the number 
of 300,000 men. But as autumn was now approaching, and as 
GO, 000 of these troops were to escort the inarch of Xerxes as far 
as the Hellespont, Mardonius resolved to poytpone all further 
operations till the spring. 

After forty-five days' march from Attica, Xerxes again reached 
the shores of the Hellespont, with a force greatly diminished by 



2U HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIX. 

famine and pestilence. The sufferings of his army were exag- 
gerated by jEschylus, and by later poets and moralists, who de- 
lighted in heightening the contrast between the proud magni- 
ficence of the monarch's advance, and the ignominious humi- 
liation of his retreat. Many of these statements cannot be 
accepted as historical facts ; although there can be no doubt that 
great numbers perished from want of provisions, and the diseases 
which always follow in the path of famine. On the Hellespont 
Xerxes found his fleet, but the bridge had been washed away by 
storms. Landed on the shores of Asia, the Persian army at 
length obtained abundance of provisions, and contracted new 
maladies by the sudden change from privation to excess. Thus 
terminated this mighty but unsuccessful expedition. Two thou- 
sand years later, still more barbarous eastern hordes were des- 
tined to find a settlement on the lair shores of Greece. But 
Greece had then worked out her appointed task, and had trans- 
mitted her arts, her hterature, and her civilization, to the nations 
of western Europe. 

§ 12. Ainong the Greeks nothing now remained to be done 
but to celebrate their victory after the national fashion by the 
distribution of rewards. To the ^ginetans was adjudged the 
chief prize for valour, whilst the Athenians carried off the second. 
Amongst individual combatants, the ^ginetan, Polycritus, and 
the Athenians, Eumenes and Aminias, obtained the first rank. 
The deities also received their share of honour. Three Phoeni- 
cian triremes were dedicated respectively to Athena at Sunium, 
to Poseidon at the Corinthian isthmus, and to the Salaminian 
hero, Ajax. The shrine of the Delphian Apollo was also still 
further enriched by the offerings of grateful superstition. 

Having distributed the rewards of valour, the Greek com- 
manders undertook the more difficult task of assigning the prizes 
of wisdom and conduct. Upon the altar of Poseidon, at the 
isthmus of Corinth, whither the Grecian fleet had now repaired, 
each chief deposited a ticket inscribed with two names, of those 
whom he considered entitled to the first and second prizes. But 
in this adjudication vanity and self-love defeated their own 
objects. Each commander had put down his own name for the 
first prize ; for the second, a great majority preponderated in 
favour of Themistocles. But since the first prize thus remained 
undecided, and as the second could not, consequently, be adju- 
dicated, the Athenian leader reaped no benefit from these votes. 
Prom the Spartans, however, whom he shortly afterwards visited, 
he received the honours due to his merit. A crown of olive, 
similar to that which rewarded their own commander, Eury- 
biades, was conferred upon him, together with one of the most 



I 



B.C. 480. DEFEAT OF TIIE CARTHAGINIANS. 215 

splendid chariots which the city could produce ; and on his de- 
parture the three hundred Hippeis, or knights, the youth and 
flower of the Lacedsemonian militia, accompanied him as a guard 
of honour as far as Tegea. In fact, the honours heaped upon 
Themistocles by the haughty Spartans were so extraordinary, as 
to excite, it is said, the jealousy of the Athenians against their 
distinguished countryman, 

M3. On the very same day on which the Persians were de- 
feated at Salamis, another portion of the Hellenic race, the Sici- 
lian Greeks, also obtained a victory over an immense barbarian 
force. There is reason to believe that the invasion of Sicily by 
the Carthaghiians M^as concerted with Xerxes, and that the 
simultaneous attack on two distinct Grecian peoples, by two 
immense armaments, was not merely the result of chance. It 
was, however, in the internal affairs of Sicily that the Carthagi- 
nians sought the pretext and the opportunity for their invasion. 
About the year 481 b.c, Theron, despot of Agrigentum, a relative 
of Gelon's, the powerful ruler of Syracuse, expelled Terillus from 
Himera, and took possession of that town. Terillus, backed by 
some Sicilian cities, which formed a kind of Carthaginian party, 
applied to the Carthaginians to restore him. The Carthaginians 
complied with the invitation ; and in the year 480 b.c, Hamilcar 
landed at Panormus with a force composed of various nations, 
which is said to have amounted to the enormous sum of 
300,000 men. Having drawn up his vessels on the beach, 
and protected them with a rampart, Hamilcar proceeded to 
besiege the Himerseans, who on their part prepared for an obsti- 
nate defence. At the instance of Theron, Gelon marched to the 
relief of the town with 50,000 foot and 5000 horse. An obsti- 
nate and bloody engagement ensued, which, by a stratagem of 
Gelon's, was at length determined in his favour. The ships of 
the Carthaginians were fired, and Hamilcar himself slain. Ac- 
cording t(\the statement of Diodorus, 150,000 Carthaginians fell 
iu the engagement, while the greater part of the remainder sur- 
rendered at discretion, twenty ships alone escaping with a few 
fugitives. This account may justly be regarded as an exaggera- 
tion ; yet it cannot be doubted that the victory was a decisive 
one, and the number very great of the prisoners and slain. 

Thus were the arms of Greece victorious on all sides, and the 
outposts of Europe maintained against the incursions of the 
semi-barbarous hordes of Asia and Africa. In Sicily, Greek taste 
made the sinews of the prisoners subserve the purposes of art ; 
and many of the public structures which adorned and distin- 
guished Agrigentum, rose by the labor of the captive Carthagi- 



i 




Temple of Nike Apteros (the Wingless Victory), on the Acropolis at Athent:. 



CHAPTER XX. 



BATTLES OF PLAT^A AND MYCALE. 



§ 1. Position of the Persian and Greek fleets. §2. Preparations of Mar- 
donius for the campaign. § 3. He solicits the Athenians to join him. 
Faithlessness of the Spartans. § 4. Mardonius occupies Athens. Athe- 
nian embassy to Sparta. March of the Spartan army. § 5. Mardonius 
retires into Boeotia : followed by the Grecian army. Skirmishes. § 6. 
The Greeks descend into the plain. Manoeuvres of the two armies. § 7. 
Alexander, king of Macedon, visits the Grecian camp. The Greeks re- 
solve to change their ground: their disorderly retreat. § 8. Battle of 
Platsea. Defeat of the Persians. § 9. Division of the spoil. § 10. Re- 
duction of Thebes, and execution of the Theban leaders. § 11. Death 
of Aristodemus. § 12. League of Platsea. Religious ceremonies. §13. 
Battle of Mycale. Defeat of the Persians. § 14. Liberation of the 
Greek islands. § 15. Siege and capture of Sestos. 

^ 1. The remnant of the Persian fleet, after conveying Xerxes 
and his army across the Hellespont, wintered at Cyme and 
Samos ; and early in the ensuing spring, the whole armament, 
to the number of about 400 vessels, re-assembled at the latter 
island. This movement was adopted in order to keep a watch 
over Ionia, which showed symptoms of an inclination to revolt ; 
and not with any design of attacking the Grecian fleet. The 
latter, consisting of about 110 ships, under the command of the 
Spartan king Leotychides, assembled in the spring at ^gina. 
From this station it advanced as far eastwards as Delos; but 



B.C. 479. PREPARATIONS OF MARDONIUS. 217 

the Ionian envoys despatched to the Peloponnesians, with pro- 
mises that the lonians would revolt from Persia as soon as the 
Greek fleet appeared off their coast, could not prevail upon Leo- 
ty chides to venture an attack upon the Persians. 

^ 2. The disastrous retreat of Xerxes had not much shaken 
the fidelity of his Grecian allies. Potidaea, indeed, and the other 
towns on the isthmus of Pallenc, declared themselves indepen- 
dent ; whilst symptoms of disafiection were also visible among 
the Phocians ; but the more important allies of Persia, the 
Macedonians, the Thessalians, and especially the Boeotians, were 
still disposed to co-operate vigorously with Mardonius. That 
general prepared to open the campaign in the spring. As a 
preliminary measure, adopted probably with the view of flatter- 
ing the religious prejudices of his Greek allies, he consulted some 
of the most celebrated oracles in Bceotia and Phocis respecting 
the issue of the war. He was not without hopes of inducing 
the Athenians to join the Persian alliance ; and, in order to 
facilitate such a step, it was pretended that the oracles had fore- 
told the approach of the time when the Athenians, united with 
the Persians, should expel the Dorians from Peloponnesus. 

^ 3. The influence of superstition was aided by the intrigues 
of diplomacy. Alexander, king of Macedon, was despatched to 
conciliate the Athenians, now partially re-cstabhshed in their 
dilapidated city. His ofiers on the part of the Persians were of 
the most seductive kind ; the reparation of all damage, the 
friendship of the Great King, and a considerable extension of ter- 
ritory : the whole backed by the pressing instances of Alexander 
himself, and enforced by a vivid picture of the exposed and 
helpless situation of Attica. 

The temptation was certainly strong. On the one hand, 
ruined homes and empty granaries, the result of the last cam- 
paign; the first shock and severest brunt of the war to be 
sustained by Attica, as the outpost of southern Hellas, and this 
for lukewarm and selfish allies, to whose negligence and breach 
of faith the Athenians chiefly owed their present calamities : 
on the other hand, their city restored, their starving population 
fed, the horrors of war averted, and only that more agreeable 
part of it adopted which would consist hi accompanying and 
aiding an overwhelming force in a career of almost certain vic- 
tory. The Lacedaemonians were quite alive to the exigencies of 
the situation, so far, at least, as it concerned their own safety. 
They also had sent envoys to counteract the seductions of Alex- 
ander, and to tender relief to the distressed population of Athens. 
The answer of the Athenians was magnanimous and dignified. 
They dismissed Alexander with a jxisitivo refusal and even with 

L 



218 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. XX 

something like a threat of personal violence in case he should 
again be the bearer of such proposals ; whilst to the Lacedaemo- 
nians they protested that no temptations, however great, should 
ever induce them to desert the common cause of Greece and 
freedom. In return for this disinterested conduct, all they 
asked was that a Peloponnesian araiy should be sent into 
BcEotia for the defence of the Attic irontier ; a request which 
the Spartan envoys promised to fulfil. 

No sooner, however, had they returned into their own coun- 
try than this promise was completely forgotten. As on the 
former occasion, the Lacedsemonians covered their selfishness 
and indifference beneath the hypocritical garb of religion. The 
omens were unfavourable ; the sun had been eclipsed at the 
moment when Cleombrotus, the Spartan king, was consulting 
the gods respecting the expedition ; and, besides this, they weie 
engaged in celebrating the festival of the Hyacinthia. But no 
omens or festivals had prevented them from resuming with 
unremitting diligence the labour of fortifying the isthmus, and 
the walls and battlements were now rapidly advancing towards 
completion. 

^ 4. When Mardonius was informed that the Athenians had 
rejected his proposal, he immediately marched against Athens, 
accompanied by all his Grecian allies ; and in May or June, b.c, 
479, about ten months after the retreat of Xerxes, the Persians 
again occupied that city. With feelings of bitter indignation 
against their faithless allies, the Athenians saw themselves once 
more compelled to remove to Salamis. But even in this de- 
pressed condition, the naval force of the Athenians still ren- 
dered them formidable ; and Mardonius took advantage of his 
situation to endeavour once more to win them to his alliance. 
Through a Hellespontine Greek, the same favourable conditions 
were again offered to them, but were again refused. One voice 
alone, that of the senator Lycidas, broke the unanimity of the 
assembly. But his opposition cost him his life. He and his 
family were stoned to death by the excited populace. 

In this desperate condition the Athenians sent ambassadors 
to the Spartans to remonstrate against their breach of faith, 
and to implore them, before it was too late, to come forwards 
in the common cause of Greece. The ambassadors were also 
instructed to intimate that necessity might at length compel the 
Athenians to listen to the proposals of the enemy. This mes- 
sage, however, was very coolly received by the Lacedaemonians. 
For ten days no answer whatever was returned ; and it can 
scarcely be doubted that the reply, which they at last thought 
fit to make, would have been a negative, but for a piece of advico 



B.C. 479. MARDONIUS RETIRES INTO BCEOTIA. 21» 

which opened their eyes to the consequences of their selfish 
pohcy. Chileos, a Tegean, a man whose wisdom they revered, 
and whom they consulted on this occasion, pointed out to them 
that their fortifications at the isthmus would prove of no avail 
in case the Athenians allied themselves to the Persians, and 
thus, by means of their fleet, opened a way into the heart of 
Peloponnesus. It is strange that the Laceda3monians should 
have needed this admonition, which seems obvious enough ; but 
selfishness is proverbially blind. 

The conduct of the Spartans was as prompt as their change 
of resolution had been sudden. That very night 5000 citizens, 
each attended by seven Helots, were despatched to the frontiers : 
and these were shortly followed by 5000 Lacedaemonian Peria3ci, 
each attended by one light-armed Helot. Never before had the 
Spartans sent so large a force into the field. Their example 
was followed by other Peloponnesian cities ; and the Athenian 
envoys returned to Salamis with the joyful news that a large 
army was preparing to march against the enemy, under the 
command of Pausanias, who acted as regent for Plistarchus, the 
infant son of Leonidas. 

^ 5. Mardonius, on learning the approach of the Lacedemo- 
nians, abandoned Attica, and proceeded by the pass of Decelea, 
across Mount Parnes into Boeotia, a country more adapted to 
the operations of cavalry, in which his strength principally lay. 
Whilst he still entertained a hope that the Athenians might be 
induced to join his arms, he had refrained from committing any 
depredations on their territory ; but finding this expectation vain, 
he employed the last days of his stay m burning and devastating all 
that had been spared by the army of Xerxes. After crossing the 
frontiers of Boeotia, and marching a day or two along the Asopus, 
he finally took up a position on the left bank of that river, and 
not far from the town of Plataea. Here he caused a camp to be 
constructed of ten furlongs square, and fortified with barricades 
and towers. The situation was well selected, since he had the 
friendly and well fortified city of Thebes in his rear, and was 
thus in no danger of falling short of provisions. Yet the dispo- 
sition of his army was far from being sanguine. With the ex- 
ception of the Thebans and Boeotians, his Grecian aUies were 
become lukewarm or wavering ; and even among the Persians 
themselves, the disastrous flight of their monarch in the pre- 
ceding year had naturally damped all hopes of the successful 
issue of a campaign which was now to be conducted with far 
inferior forces. 

Meanwhile, the Lacedaemonian force collected at the isthnnis 
was receiving reinforcements from the various states of Pclo- 



220 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XX. 

ponnesus. On its march through Megara it was joined Ly 
3000 Megarians ; and at Eleusis received its iinal accession of 
8000 Athenian and 600 Platsean Hophtes, who had crossed over 
from Salamis under the command of Aristides. The Grecian 
army now consisted of 38,700 heavy-armed men, attended hy 
Helots and hght-armed troops to the number of nearly 70,000 ; 
and, together with 1800 badly armed Thespians, formed a grand 
total of about 110,000 men. There were, however, no cavahy^, 
and but very fev/ bowmen. 

Having consulted the gods by sacrifices, which proved of a 
favourable nature, the Grecian army broke up from Eleusis, and 
directed its march over the ridge of Cithseron. On descending 
its northern side, the Greeks came in sight of the Persian army 
drawn up in the valley of the Asopus. Pausanias, not caring to 
expose his troops to the attacks of the Persian cavalry en the 
plain, halted them on the slopes of the mountain, near Erythra?, 
where the ground was rugged and uneven. (See Plan, First 
Position). This position did not, however, altogether preserve 
them. Skilled in the use of the bow and of the javelin, the 
Persian horsemen, under the coimnand of Masistius, repeatedly 
charged the Greeks, harassing them with flights of missiles, and 
tamiting them with cow^ardice for not venturing down into the 
plain. The Megarians, especially, suffered severely until rescued 
by a body of 300 chosen Athenians, who succeeded in repulsing 
the Persian cavalry, and killing their leader, Masistius, a man 
tall in stature and of distinguished bravery. The Greeks cele- 
brated their triumph by parading the corpse through the army 
in a cart. 

§ 6. This success encouraged Pausanias to quit the high 
ground and take up a position on the plam. Defiling from Ery- 
thra3 in a w^esterly direction, and marching by Hysiae, he formed 
his army in a line on the right bank of the Asopus. In this 
arrangement, the right wing, which extended to the fountain 
Gargaphia, was conceded, as the post of honor, to the Laceda)- 
raonians ; the occupation of the left, near the grove of 'the hero 
Androcrates, w^as disputed between the Tegeans and Athenians. 
The matter was referred to the whole body of the Lacedaemonian 
troops, who by acclamation declared the Athenians entitled to 
the preference. 

On perceiving that the Greeks had changed their position, 
Mardonius drew up his army opposite to them, on the other 
side of the Asopus. (See Plan, Second Position). He himself, 
with the Persians and Medes, the flower of his army, took his 
post in the left wing, facing the Lacedajmonians on the Grecian 
right : whilst the Greeks and Macedonians in the Persian service, 



1 



B.C. 479. 



BATTLE OF PLAT^A. 



221 




Battle of Plataea. (From Grote's Greece.) 



a. Persians. 

b. Athenians. 

e. Lacednemonians. 

d. Various Greek allies. 



I. First position occupied by 

the opposing armies. 
II. Second position. 
III. Third; 



A. Road from Platgea to Thebes 

B. Rond from Megara to Tliebes. 

C. Persian camp. 
T). Ervthr.t. 

E. HVsia;. 



to the number, probably, of 50,000, were opposed to the Athe- 
nians on the left. The centre of Mardonius Avas composed of 
Bactrians, Indians, Sacas, and other Asiatics and Egyptians ; and 
his whole force probably amounted to about 300,000 men. 

But though the armies were thus in presence, each was reluc- 
tant to commence the attack. The soothsayers on both sides, 
whose responses were probably dictated by the feeling prevalent 
among the commanders, declared that the sacrifices were un- 
favourable for any aggressive movement. For eight days the 
armies remained inactive, except that the Persians annoyed the 
Greeks at a distance with their missiles, and altogether pre- 
vented them from watering at the Asopus. On the eighth day 



222 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XX. 

Mardonius, at the suggestion of the Theban leader Tiraagenidas, 
employed his cavalry in cutting off the supplies of the Greeks, 
and captured a train of 500 beasts of burthen, together with 
their escort, as they were defiling through one of the passes of 
Cithaeron. Artabazus, the second in command, advised Mardo- 
nius to contmue this policy of harassing and wearing out the 
G-reeks, without risking a general engagement ; and also to en- 
deavour, by means of bribes, to corrupt and disunite them. 
That this latter step was feasible appears from what actually 
occurred among the Athenians. Several of the wealthier Hop- 
lites serving in their ranks entered into a conspiracy to establish 
at Athens, under Persian supremacy, an oligarchy resembling 
that at Thebes. Fortunately, however, the plot was discovered 
and repressed by Aristides. But Mardonius was too impatient 
to await the success of such measures, which he considered as 
an imputation on the Persian arms ; and, overruling the opinions 
of Artabazus and the rest of his officers, gave orders to prepare 
for a general attack. 

§ 7. On the night after Mardonius had taken this resolution, 
Alexander, king of Macedon, leaving the Persian camp by stealth, 
rode up to the Athenian outposts, and desiring to speak with 
Aristides and the other generals, informed them of the intended 
attack on the morrow. " I risk my life," he observed, " in con- 
veying this intelligence ; but I too am a Greek by descent, and 
with sorrow should I see Hellas enslaved by the Persians." 

Aristides immediately communicated this news to Pausanias. 
On hearing it, the Jatter made a proposal savouring but little of 
the traditionary Spartan valour, namely, that the Athenians, who 
had had experience of the Persian mode of fighting, should 
change places with the Lacedaemonians in the line. The Athe- 
nians readily assented to this arrangement. Mardonius, how- 
ever, on perceiving the change which had been made, effected 
a corresponding one in his own line. Hereupon Pausanias 
marched back to the Grecian right, and was again followed by 
Mardonius ; so that the two armies remained in their original 
position. 

Neither side, however, was inclined to venture a general at- 
tack. The fighting was confined to the Persian cavalry, which 
the Greeks had no adequate means of repelling. For some por- 
tion of the day it obtained possession of the fountain of Garga- 
phia, the only source from which the Greeks could procure their 
water, and succeeded in choking it up. It also intercepted the 
convoys of provisions proceeding to the Grecian camp. Under 
these circumstances, finding the ground untenable, Pausanias 
summoned a council of war, in which it was resolved to retreat 



B.C. 479. BATTLE OF PLAT^EA. 223 

during the night to a place called the Island, about ten furlongs 
in the rear of their present position, and halfway between it and 
the town of Platasa. The spot selected, improperly called an 
island, was in fact a piece of ground about three furlongs in 
breadth, comprised between two branches of the river Oeroe, 
which, rising from distinct sources in Cithseron, and running for 
some space nearly parallel with one another, at length unite, and 
flow in a westerly direction into the gulf of Corinth. The 
nature of the ground would thus afford to the Greeks both 
abundance of water and protection from the enemy's cavalrj'. 

The retreat, however, though for so short a distance, was ef- 
fected in disorder and confusion. The Greek centre, chiefly 
composed of Megarians and Corinthians, instead of taking up a 
position on the Island, as commanded by Pausanias, did not halt 
till they reached the town of Plata^a, where they formed in front 
of the Heraeum on high ground, and protected by buildings. (See 
Plan, Third Position.) Some time after their departure Pau- 
sanias commanded the right wing, which, as we have said, was 
composed of Lacedaemonians, to follow. But his orders were dis- 
puted by one of his captains, Amompharetus, a leader of one of 
the lochi, who had not been present at the council of war, and who, 
considering this retrograde movement as a retreat derogatory to 
Spartan honour, obstinately refused to stir from his post. Mean- 
while, the Athenians — not unnaturally distrustful of the Spartans 
— ^before they broke ground themselves, despatched a mounted 
messenger to ascertain whether the right wing was really pre- 
paring to march. The messenger found the Spartan troops in 
their former position, and Pausanias, together with the other 
generals, engaged in a warm dispute with the refractory captam. 
No threats of being left alone could induce him to move ; and 
when reminded that the order for retreat had been resolved 
upon in a council of war, he took up a huge rock, and casting it 
at the feet of Pausanias, exclaimed — " With this pebble I give my 
vote not to fly from the foreigners." 

Meantime, the day began to dawn : a little longer delay and 
retreat would become impossible. Pausanias resolved to aban- 
don Amompharetus and his lochus to their fate, should he really 
prove so obstinate as to stand his ground after the departure of 
the rest of the army. The order to march was given. The 
slant rays of the rising sun gleamed on the tall and bristling 
spears of the Lacedcemonian coliunns as they slowly ascended 
the hills which separated them from the Island. The Athenians, 
posted more towards the east, and who were to arrive at the 
appointed spot by turning the hills, began their marcli at the 
^ame time. Amompharetus was not so madly obstinate as to 



224 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XX, 

await alone the approach of the Persians. Finding that his com- 
rades had really departed, he gave orders to follow, and overtook 
them at their first halt. 

§ 8. Mardonius beheld with astonishment and disdain the 
retreating ranks of the Spartans. The order was given to pursue. 
The shout of victory already rang through the 'Persian host as 
they dashed in a confused mass, cavalry and infantry, through 
the waters of the Asopus, and up the hill after the retreating 
foe. Scarcely had Pausanias time to deploy on the spot where 
he had halted for Amompharetus, when the Persian cavalry were 
upon him. These were soon followed by the infantry ; who, 
planting in the ground their long wicker shields, or gerrlui, and 
thus forming a kind of breastwork, annoyed the Laceda3monians 
with showers of arrows. Even in these circumstances the rites 
of religion were not neglected by Pausanias. For some time the 
sacrifices were unfavourable for an attack ; till Pausanias invoked 
the assistance of Hera, whose temple rose coiMipicuous at Platsca. 
Hardly had the prayer been uttered when the victims changed, 
and the order to charge was given. The line of Avicker shields 
fell at the first onset of the Lacedsemonians. The light-armed 
undisciplined Persians, whose bodies were unprotected with 
armour, had now to maintain a very unequal combat against the 
serried ranks, the long spears, and the mailed bodies of the 
Spartan phalanx. Desperate deeds of valour they performed, 
throwing themselves upon the Grecian ranks and endeavouring 
to get into close combat, where they could use their javelins and 
daggers. Mardonius at the head of his body-guard of 1 000 picked 
men, and conspicuous by his white charger, was among the fore- 
most in the fight, till struck down by the hand of Aimnestus, a 
distinguished Spartan. The fall of their general was the signal 
for flight to the Persians, already wearied and disheartened by 
the fruitless contest. The panic was general both among the 
Persians themselves and their Asiatic allies ; nor did they 
once stop till they had again crossed the Asopus and reached 
their fortified camp. 

The glory of having defeated the Persians at Plataia rests, 
therefore, with the Lacedsemonians ; yet the Athenians also were 
not without some share in the honour of the day. Pausanias, 
when overtaken by the Persians, despatched a horseman to Aris- 
tides to request him to hasten to his assistance ; but the coming 
up of the Boeotians prevented him from doing so. A sharp 
conflict ensued between the latter and the Athenians. The 
Thebans, especially, fought with great bravery ; but were at 
length repulsed with considerable loss. Though compelled to 
give way, they retreated in good order to Thebes, being covered 



B.C. 479. DEATH OF ALillDONlUS. 225 

by their cavalry from the pursuit of the Athenians. None of 
the otlier Greeks in the Persian service took any share in the 
fight, but turned their backs as soon as they saw that the day 
was lost. Of the Persians themselves, 40,000 under the com- 
mand of Artabazus did not strike a blow. The eagerness and 
impetuosity of Mardonius, and the contempt which he had con- 
ceived for the Lacedaemonians on account of what he considered 
their flight, had led him to begin the attack without waiting ibr 
the corps of Artabazus ; and when that general arrived upon the 
held the rout was already complete. Artabazus, indeed, who had 
always deprecated a general engagement, was probably not very 
zealous on the occasion ; at all CA^ents he did liot make a single 
attempt to restore the fortune of the day ; and instead of ictreat- 
ing either to Thebes, or to the fortified camp of his countrymen, 
he gave up the whole expedition as irretrievably lost, and directed 
his march towards the Hellespont. 

The Lacedsemonians, now reinforced by the Corinthians and 
others from Platsea, pursued the Persians as far as their fortified 
camp, whose barricades proved a complete check to them, till 
the Athenians, more skilled in that species of warfare, came to 
their assistance. The barricades were then stormed and carried, 
after a gallant resistance on the part of the Persians. The camp 
became a scene of the most horrible carnage. According to 
Herodotus, only 3000 men, exclusive of the di\dsion under Arta- 
bazus, escaped out of an army of 300,000. These numbers are 
probably exaggerated ; yet the Persian loss was undoubtedly 
immense. That of the Greeks was comparatively small, and 
seems not to have exceeded 1300 or 1400 men. 

^ 9. It remained to bury the dead and divide the body ; and 
so great was the task, that ten days were consumed in it. The 
body of Mardonius, found among the slain, w as treated by Pau- 
sanias with respect ; on the morrow, not, perhaps, without his 
comiivance, it was secretly conveyed aAvay and interred. A 
monument was even erected over it, which was to be seen several 
centuries afterAvards. His scimitar and silver-footed throne fell 
to the share of the Athenians, by whom they were preserved 
along with the breastplate of Masistius, in the Acropolis of 
Athens. The other booty was ample and magnificent. Gold 
and silver coined, as well as in plate and trinkets ; rich vests 
and carpets ; ornamented arms ; horses, camels ; in a word, all 
the magnificence of eastern luxury, were collected together ir 
order to be divided among the conquerors. A tithe was first 
selected for the Delphian Apollo, together with ample oflerings 
for the Olympic Jove, and the Isthmian Poseidon : then, after a 
large share had been appropriated to Pausanias, the remainder 



226 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cil\p. XX. 

was divided among the Grecian contingents in proportion to 
their numbers. 

§ 10. The reduction of Thebes, which had proved the most 
formidable ally of the Persians, was still necessary to complete 
the victory. On the eleventh day after the battle, Pausanias 
invested that city, and demanded that the leading men who had 
espoused the Persian cause, especially Timagenidas and Atta- 
ginus, should be delivered up to him. The Thebans having 
refused to comply with this demand, Pausanias began to batter 
their walls, and to lay waste the country around. At length, 
after the siege had lasted twenty days, Timagenidas, and the 
other Medising leaders, voluntarily oifered to surrender them- 
selves, hoping, probably, to be able to redeem their lives for a sum 
of money. In this expectation, however, they were completely 
disappointed. The whole of them, wath the exception of Atta- 
ginus, who found means to escape, were conveyed to Corinth, and 
put to death without any form of trial. No attempt was made 
to pursue Artabazus, who escaped safely into Asia. 

§ 11. Among the slain Spartans was Aristodemus, the sole sur- 
vivor of those who had fought at Thermopylae. The disgrace of 
having outlived that battle seems to have rendered life a burthen 
to him. In order to wash it out, he stepped forth from the ranks 
at the battle of Platsea, and after performing prodigies of valour, 
received from the enemy the death which he? courted. But in 
the distribution of funeral honours, this conduct could extort no 
favour from the stern justice of his countrymen. They con- 
sidered that desperate rashness and contempt of disc-ipluie were 
no atonement for former misconduct, and refused to put him on 
a level with the other citizens who had fallen m the combat. 
Among these was Amompharetus, the captain whose obstinacy 
had precipitated the attack of the Persians, and thus perhaps, 
though undesignedly, contributed to secure the victory. 

^12. With the Greeks, religion and politics went ever hand 
in hand ; and if the town and territory of Platsea, as the scene of 
the Persian defeat, were signally honoured on this occasion with 
the grateful offerings of devotion, it was not probably without a 
view to the services which might be hereafter required from its 
citizens in the cause of Grecian independence. In the market- 
place of Plataea, Pausanias, in the presence of the assembled 
allies, offered up a sacrifice and thanksgiving to Jove Eleuthe- 
rios, or the hberator, in which the gods and heroes of the 
Plata^an territory were made partakers. The Plataeans were in- 
trusted with the duty of taking care of the tombs of the slain ; 
of offering a periodical sacrifice in honour of the victory ; and of 
celebrating it every fifth year with gymnastic games, in a grand 



B.C. 4*79. BATTLE OF MYCALK JSi. 

public festival to be called the Eleutheria. For these services 
the large sum of eighty talents w^as allotted to them out of the 
spoil, part of which was employed in erecting a temple to Athena. 
At the same time the independence of Platsea, and the inviola- 
bility of her territory, were guaranteed by the allies ; the de- 
fensive league against the Persians was renewed ; the contingent 
which each ally should furnish was specified ; and it was arranged 
that deputies from all of them should meet annually at Plataea. 

M3. At the very time of the defeat at Platsea, the failure of 
the Persian expedition was completed by the destruction of their 
naval armament. Leotychides, the Spartan admiral, having at 
length sailed across the ^Egean, found the Persian fleet at Mycale, 
a promontory of Asia Minor near Miletus, and only separated by 
a strait of about a mile in breadth from Cape Poseidium, the 
easternmost extremity of Samos. Their Ibrmer reverses seem 
completely to have discouraged the Persians from hazarding an- 
other naval engagement. The Phoenician squadron had been 
permitted to depart ; the rest of the ships were hauled ashore 
and surrounded with a rampart ; whilst an army of 60,000 Per- 
sians, under the command of Tigranes, lined the coast for their 
defence. 

The Greeks landed on the 4th of the month Boedromion 
(September), in the year 479 B.C. ; the very day on which the 
battle of Platsea was fought. A supernatural presentiment of 
that decisive victory, conveyed by a herald's staff, which floated 
over the ^Egean from the shores of Greece, is said to have 
pervaded the Grecian ranks at Mycale as they marched to the 
attack. As at Platsea, the Persians had planted their gerrha, or 
wicker-shields, before them ; but after a sharp contest this bul- 
wark was overthrown. The Persians now turned their backs, 
and fled to their fortifications, pursued by the Greeks, who en- 
tered it almost simultaneously. Here a bloody struggle ensued. 
The Persians fought desperately, though without discipline, and 
for some time maintained an unequal conflict. At length the 
arrival of the Lacedsemonians, who composed the right wing of 
the Greek force, and who had been retarded by the hilly ground 
which they had to traverse, as well as the open revolt of the 
lonians, who now turned upon their masters, completed the dis- 
comfiture of the Persians. A large number of them, together 
with both their generals, Tigranes and Mardontes, perished on 
this occasion ; and the victory was rendered still more decisive 
by the burning of their fleet. The honour of the day, W'hich, 
however, was not won without the sacrifice of many lives, was 
principally due to the Athenians, as the Lacedaimonians did not 
arrive till the battle was nearly decided. 



228 HISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. XX. 

§ 14. The remnant of the Persian army retreated to Sardis, 
where Xerxes had Hngered ever since his flight from Greece. He 
was not in a position to avenge this affront, or to retain the 
Ionian cities of the continent in obedience ; still less was it pos- 
sible for him, after the destruction of his fleet, to preserve his 
dominion over the islands. The latter were immediately ad- 
mitted into the G-reek confederation ; but respecting the Ionian 
cities on the continent there was more difficulty. The Greeks 
were not in a condition to guarantee their independence ; and 
therefore the Peloponnesian commanders offered to transport 
their inhabitants into Greece, where they prepared to make rcom 
for them, by transplanting into Asia the Greeks who had espoused 
the Persian cause. But this proposition was strenuously opposed 
by the Athenians, who regarded their own dignity and glory as 
inseparably bound up with the maintenance of their Ionian colo- 
nies ; and indeed the effect of such a measure must have been to 
transfer them completely to the Persians. 

§ 15. So imperfect in those times was the transmission of in- 
telligence, that the Greeks still believed the bridge across the 
Hellespont to be entire, though it was broken and useless al- 
most a twelvemonth previously, during the retreat of- Xerxes. 
At the instance of the Athenians, Leqty chides set sail with the 
view of destroying it ; but having learnt at Abydos that it 
no longer existed, he departed homewards with the Pelopon- 
nesian vessels. Xanthippus, however, the Athenian commander, 
seized the opportunity to recover from the Persians the Thracian 
Chersonese, which had long been an Athenian possession, and 
proceeded to blockade Sestos, the key of the strait. Being thus 
taken by surprise, the Persians flung themselves into the town 
without having time to collect the provisions necessary for a 
siege. Nevertheless, amid the most painful privations, they con- 
trived to protract the siege till a late period of the autumn, when 
famine and insubordination reached such a height, that the Per- 
sian commanders, QEobazus and Artayctes, were fain to quit the 
town by stealth, which was immediately surrendered. Artayctes, 
having fallen into the hands of the Greeks, was fixed to a high 
pole, and left to perish just at the spot where the bridge of 
Xerxes had stood. This deviation from the usual humanity of the 
. Greeks, and which seems to have been sanctioned by Xanthippus, 
can only be accounted for by religious exasperation occasioned 
by Artayctes having violated and insulted the grove and temple 
of the hero Protesilaus, in the neighbourhood of Sestos. 

After this exploit the Athenians returned home, carrying with 
them the cables of the bridge across the Hellespont, which were 
afterwards preserved in the Acropolis as a trophy. 



31 




Bust of Pindar. 

CHAPTER XXL 

HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 

§1. General characteristics. §2. Simonides. §3. Pindar. §4. ibycns 
and Bacchylides. § 5. Rise of history and of composition in prose. 
8 6. HecatJBUs, Charon of Lampsacus, Hellaniciis. § 7. Herodotus 
§8. Charaeterof his work. Analysis. §9. Predilection of Herodotus 
for Athens. § 10. Style •£ his work. 

^ 1. During the period which we have been surveying in the 
present book, Grecian literature was gradually assuming a more 
popular form, especially at Athens, where, since the expulsion of 
the Pisistratids, the people were rapidly advancing both in intel- 
lectual culture and in political irhportance. Of this we have a 
striking proof in the rise of the drama, and the Ibunding of a regu- 
lar theatre ; for dramatic entertainments must be regarded as the 
most popular form which literature can assume. Nearly half a 
century before the Persian invasion, Thespis had sketched out 
the first feeble rudiments of tragedy ; and jEschylus, the real 
founder of tragic art, exhibited a play nine years before he fought 
at Marathon. But tragedy still awaited its final improvements 
from the hand of Sophocles, whilst comedy can hardly be said to 
have existed. For these reasons we shall defer an account of the 
Greek drama to a later period, when we shall be enabled to pre- 
3ent the subject as a whole, and in a connected point of view. 
Tragedy, the noblest emanation of ancient genius, was in fact 
only the final development of lyric poetry ; which, in the period 
we are considering, had attained its highest pitch of excellence 
in the hands of Simonides and Pindar. These two great masters 
of the lyre never ventured, however, beyond the strictest limits 
of that species of composition, end left their contemporary, 



230 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XXI 

jEschylus, to gather laurels in a new and unexplored field. With 
Pindar ends the ancient school of lyric poetry ; with ^schylus 
properly begins the splendid list of Athenian dramatists. 

^ 2. Simonides was considerably older than both these poets ; 
but the length of years which he attained made him their con- 
temporary. He was born at lulis, in the island of Ceos, in the 
year 556 B.C. His family had cultivated music and poetry with 
diligence and success, and he himself was trained up in them 
as a profession. From his native island he proceeded to Athens, 
where he resided some years at the court of Hipparchus, together 
with Anacreon and Lasus of Hermione, the teacher of Pindar : a 
society which could not but serve to expand and mature his 
powers, more especially as a sort of rivalry existed between him 
and Lasus. Here he seems to have remained till the expulsion 
of Hippias (b.c. 510). Subsequently he spent some time in Thes- 
saly, under the patronage of the Aleuads and Scopads, the domi- 
nant families of the cities of Larissa and Crannon. The poet 
seems, however, to have been but little satisfied with his visit. 
His songs were unappreciated by the rugged Thessalians and ill- 
rewarded by their vain and selfish masters. Scopas bespoke a 
poem on his own exploits, which Simonides recited at a banquet 
In order to diversify the theme, Simonides, as was customary on 
such occasions, introduced into it the exploits of Castor and 
Pollux. An ordinary mortal might have been content to share 
the praises of the sons of Ledo ; but vanity is exacting ; and as 
the tyrant sat at his festal board among his courtiers and syco- 
phants, he grudged every verse that did not echo his own praises. 
When Simonides approached to receive his promised reward, 
Scopas exclaimed, "Here is my half of thy pay ; the Tyndarids 
who have had so much of thy praise will doubtless furnish the 
other." The disconcerted poet retired to his seat amidst the 
laughter which followed the great man's jest. In a little time he 
received a message that two young men on horseback, whose 
description answered m every respect to that of Castor and 
Pollux, were waiting without and wished to see him. Simonides 
hastened to the door, but looked in vain for the visitors. Scarcely, 
however, had he left the banqueting hall, when the building 
fell in with a loud crash, burying Scopas and all his guests be- 
neath the ruins. Into the authenticity of such a story it would 
be idle to inquire. It is enough that we see in it the tribute 
which a lively and ingenious people paid to merit, as in the tales 
of Arion saved by the dolphin, and of Ibycus avenged by the 
cranes. 

But a nobler subject than the praises of despots awaited 
the muse of Simonides — the struggles of Greece for her indc 



Chap. XXI. SIMONIDES.- 231 

pendence. At the time of the Persian wars, the poet, who had 
then reached the age usually allotted to man, was again residing 
among the Athenians. His genius, however, was still iresh and 
vigorous, and was employed in celebrating the most momentous 
events of that memorable epoch. He carried away the prize 
from iEschylus with an elegy upon the warriors who had fallen 
at the battle of Marathon. Subsequently we find him celebrat- 
ing the heroes of ThermopylBB, Artemisium, Salamis, and Plataea. 
He was upwards of 80 when his long poetical career at Athens 
^vas closed with the victory which he gained with the dithyram- 
bic chorus in B.C. 477, making the 56th prize that he had 
carried off. Shortly after this event he repaired to S}Tacuse at 
the invitation of Hiero. Here he spent the remaining ten years 
of his life, not only entertaining Hiero with his poetry, but in- 
structing him by his wisdom ; for Simonides was a philosopher 
as well as a poet, and is reckoned among the sophists. 

Simonides was one of the most prolific poets that Greece had 
seen ; but only a few fragments of his compositions have de- 
scended to us. He employed himself on all the subjects which 
fell to the lyric poet, then the mouth-piece of human life with 
all its joys and sorrows, its hopes and disappointments. He 
wrote hymns, paeans, elegies, hyporchemes, or songs for dancing, 
dithyrambs, cpinician odes, and threnes, or dirges, in which he 
lamented the departed great. In the last species of composition 
he particularly excelled. His genius was inclined to the pathetic, 
and none could touch with truer efiect the chords of human 
sympathy. 

^ 3. Pindar, though the contemporary of Simonides, was con- 
siderably his junior. He was born either at, or in the neigh- 
bourhood of, Thebes in Boeotia, about the year 522 b.c. His 
family ranked among the noblest in Thebes, and seems to have 
been celebrated for its skill in music, though there is no authority 
for the assertion that they were hereditary flute-players. The 
youth soon gave indications of a genius for poetry, which in- 
duced his father to send him to Athens to receive more perfect 
instruction in the art. Later wiiters tell us that his future glory- 
as a poet was miraculously foreshadowed by a swarm of bees 
which rested upon his lips while he was asleep, and that this 
miracle first led him to compose poetry. At Athens he became 
the pupil of Lasus of Hermione, who was the founder of the 
Athenian dithyrambic school. He returned to Thebes before 
he had completed his twentieth year, and is said to have re- 
ceived instruction there from Myrtis and Corinna, two poet- 
esses who then enjoyed great celebrity in Ba'otia. Corinna 
appears to have exercised considerable influence upon the youth- 



232 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXI 

fill poet, and he was not a little indebted to her example and 
precepts. It is related that she recommended him to introduce 
mythical narrations mto his poems, and that when, in accordance 
with her advice, he composed a h}Tiin in which he interwove 
ahnost aU the Theban mytholog}^ she smiled and said, " We 
ought to sow with the hand, and not with the whole sack." 
With both these poetesses he contended for the prize in the mu- 
sical contests at Thebes. 

Pindar commenced his professional career at an early age, and 
soon acquired so great a reputation, that he was employed by 
various states and princes of the Hellenic race to compose choral 
songs. He was courted esj)ecially by Alexander, king of Mace- 
donia, and by Hiero, despot of S}Tacuse. The praises which he 
bestowed upon Alexander are said to have been the chief reason 
which led his descendant, Alexander the Great, to spare the 
house of the poet when he destroyed the rest of Thebes. About 
B.C. 473, he visited Syracuse, but did not remain more than four 
years with Hiero, as he loved an independent life, and did not 
care to cultivate the courtly arts which rendered his contempo- 
rary, Simonides, a more welcome guest at the table of their 
patron. But the estimation in which Pindar was held, is still 
more strikingly shown by the honours conferred upon him by 
the free states of Grreece. Although a Theban, he was always a 
great favourite with the Athenians, whom he frequently praised 
in his poems, and whose city he often visited. The Athenians 
testified their gratitude by making him their public guest, and 
by giving him 10,000 drachmas; and at a later period they 
erected a statue in his honour. 

The only poems of Pindar which have come down to us 
entire are his Epinicia or triumphal odes, composed in comme- 
moration of victories gained in the great public games. But 
these were only a small portion of his works. He also wrote 
hymns, pseans, dithyrambs, odes for processions, songs of maidens, 
mimic dancing songs, drinking songs, dirges, and encomia, or 
panegyrics on princes. =^^ 

* Most of them are mentioned by Horace : — 

" Sen per audaces nova dithyrambos 
Yerba devolvit, numerisque fertur 

Lege solutis ; 
Seu deos {hpnns and pceans) regesve (encomia) canity deoruni 
k^anguinem : 

Sive quos Elea domum reducit 
Palma coelestes {the Epinicia). 

Flebili sponsoe juvenemvc raptum 
rioral" [the Dirges).— Ory. iv. 2. 



CiiAT. XXL PINDAR. 233 

The style of Pindar is marked by daring flights and abrupt 
transitions, and became proverbial for its sublimity. He com- 
pared himself to an eagle, — a simile which has been beautifully 
expressed in the lines of Gray : — 

" The pi'ide and ample pinion 
That the Theban eagle bare, 
Sailing with supreme dominion 
Through the azui-e deep of air." 

^ 4. The only other poets of this epoch whom we need 
mention are Ibycus and Bacchylides. Ibycus was a native of 
Rhegium, and ilourished towards the middle of the sixtli century 
before the Christian era. The best part of his life was spent 
at the court of Polycrates of Samos. The story of his death is 
well known. While travelling through an unfrequented place 
near Corinth, he was set upon by robbers and mortally wounded. 
As he was on the point of expiring, he called upon a flock of 
cranes that happened to fly over the spot to avenge his death. 
Soon afterwards the cranes were beheld hovering over the theatre 
at Corinth, where the people were assembled ; and one of the 
murderers who were present, struck with remorse and terror, in- 
voluntarily exclaimed, " Behold the avengers of Ibycus !' ' and thus 
occasioned the detection of the criminals. The poetr)' of Ibycus 
was chiefly of an amatory character. He wrote in a dialect which 
was a mixture of the Doric and ^Eolic. 

Bacchylides was a native of lulis in the island of Ceos, and 
the nephew and fellow-townsman of Simonides. He lived with 
Simonides and Pindar at the court of Hiero at Syracuse. His 
odes and songs turned on the same subjects as those of the poets 
j ust named ; but though he seems to have rivalled his uncle in 
the grace and fmish of his compositions, he was far irom attaining 
to the strength and energy of Pindar. He wrote in the Doric 
dialect, with a mixture of the Attic. 

Such were the principal characteristics of the poetry of the 
epoch which we are considering, and such the chief poets who 
flourished in it. Our attention must now be directed to a 
striking feature in the literature of the period, — the rise of com- 
position in prose, and of history properly so called. 

^ 5. The Greeks had arrived at a high pitch of civilization 
before they can be said to have possessed a history. Nations 
, far behind them in intellectual development have infinitely ex- 
celled them in this respect. Many of the eastern nations had 
continuous chronicles from a very remote antiquity, as the Egyp- 
tians, the Babylonians, and the Jews. But among the Greeks 
this branch of literature was singularly neglected. Their imagi- 
nation seems to have been entirely dazzled and fascinated with 



234 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXL 

the glories of the heroic ages, and to have taken but httle in- 
terest in the events which were daily passing around them. But 
a more critical and inquiring spirit was now beginning to spring 
up, especially among the lonians of Asia Minor. We have 
already recorded the rise of natural philosophy among that 
people, and we are now to view them as the originators of his- 
tory in prose. This mnovation of course implies a more ex- 
tended use of the art of writing, without which a long prose 
composition could not be remembered. 

§ 6. The use of prose in writing was probably coeval with the 
art of vtriting itself; but its first application was only to objects 
of essential utility, and it was long before it came to be culti- 
vated as a branch of literature. The first essays in literary prose 
cannot be placed earlier than the sixth century before the Chris- 
tian sera. Three nearly contemporary authors, who flourished 
about the middle of that century, lay claim to the honour of 
having been the first prose writers ; namely, Cadmus of Mi- 
letus, Pherecydes of Syros, and Acusilaus of Argos ; but He- 
catseus of Miletus, to whom Herodotus frequently refers by 
name, must be regarded as the first historical prose writer 
of any importance. He was apparently a man of wealth and 
importance, and distinguished himself by the sound advice which 
he gave the lonians at the time of their revolt from Persia 
(b.c. 500). He lived till the close of the Persian wars in Greece. 
Like many other early Greek historians, Hecataeus was a great 
traveller, for at first geography and history were almost iden- 
tical. Egypt especially he seems to have carefully explored. 
Two works are ascribed to him ; one of a geographical nature, 
called " Periodus," or travels round the earth, and the other of 
an historical kind, which is sometimes cited by the name of 
" Genealogies," and sometimes by that of " Histories." The 
former of these seems to have constituted the first regular 
system of Grecian geography ; but it was probably little more 
than a " Periplus," or circumnavigation of the Mediterranean, 
and its adjoining seas. The " Genealogies" related to the descent 
and exploits of the heroes of mythology. 

Charon of Lampsacus, an Ionic city on the Hellespont, is re- 
markable as the first prose writer whose subjects were selected 
from the historical times, and treated in a rational and discrimi- 
nating manner ; and he has therefore some title to be regarded 
as the first historian really deserving of the name. He flourished 
in the first half of the fifth century B.C., and was certainly alive 
in B.C. 4G4. 

The only other prose writer previous to Herodotus, whom it 
is necessary to mention, is Hellanicus of Mytilene. Hellanicus 




Chat. XXI. EARLY PROSE WRITERS. 236 

was alive at the commencement of the Pelopomicsian war, and 
was therefore a contemporary of Herodotus, though probably a 
little older. He was by I'ar the most eminent and most volu- 
minous writer of history before the time of Herodotus, and 
seems to have been the author of at least ten or twelve works of 
considerable size. Many others were ascribed to him which in 
all probability were spurious. Like his predecessors, a large 
portion of his labors was dedicated to imaginary pedigrees, but 
some of them were historical and chronological. He seems to 
have been acquainted with the early history of Italy and Rome. 
He must be regarded as forming the chief hnk between the 
earlier logographers and Herodotus ; but his works were pro- 
bably very far from exhibiting the unity of design which we find 
in that of the latter writer. 

s^ 7. According to the strict order of chronology, neither He- 
rodotus nor some others of the authors just mentioned belong to 
the period which we are now considering ; but the subject of Hero- 
dotus connects him so intimately with the Persian wars, that we 
have preferred to give an account of him here, rather than in 
a subsequent book. Herodotus was born in the Dorian colony 
of Halicarnassus in Caria, in the year 484 B.C., and accordingly 
about the time of the Persian expeditions into Greece. He was 
descended from a distinguished family, but respecting his youth 
and education we are totally in the dark. One of the earliest 
events cf his life with which we are acquainted is his retirement 
to Samos, in order to e^ape the tyranny of Lygdamis, a grand- 
son of queen Artemisia, who had fought so bravely at Salamis. 
It was perhaps in Samos that Herodotus acquired the Ionic 
dialect. The celebrity of the Ionian writers of history had 
caused that dialect to be regarded as the appropriate vehicle lor 
that species of composition ; but though Herodotus made use of 
it, his language has been observed not to be so pure as that of 
Hecata^us, who was an Ionian by birth. Herodotus was pro- 
bably rather more than thirty years of age when he went to 
Samos. How long he remained there cannot be determined. 
He seems to have been recalled to his native city by some poli- 
tical crisis ; for on his return he took a prominent part in deJi- 
vering it from the tyrant Lygdamis. The dissensions, however, 
which prevailed at Halicarnassus after that event, compelled 
Herodotus again to emigrate ; and it was probably at this period 
that he undertook the travels of which he speaks in his work. 
The extent of them may be estimated from the fact that there 
was scarcely a town in Greece, or on the coasts of Asia Minor, 
with which he was not acquainted ; that he had explored Thrace 
and the coasts of the Black Sea ; that in Egypt he had penetrated 



236 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXL 

as far south as Elephantine ; and that in Asia he had visited the 
cities of Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa. The latter part of his 
life was spent at Thurii, a colony founded by the Athenians in 
Italy in B.C. 443 ; and it was probably at this place that he com- 
posed the greater portion of his history. The date of his settle- 
ment at Thurii cannot be accurately fixed. Some accounts make 
him accompany the first colonists thither ; but there are reasons 
for believing that he did not take up his abode there till several 
years afterwards. According to a well-known story in Lucian, 
Herodotus, when he had completed his work, recited it publicly 
at the great Olympic festival, as the best means of procuring for 
it that celebrity to which he felt that it was entitled. Posting 
himself on the platform of the temple of Jove, he recited, or 
rather chaunted, the whole of his work to the assembled Greeks. 
The efiect is described as immediate and complete. The de- 
lighted audience at once assigned the names of the nine Muses 
to the nine books into which it is divided ; whilst the celebrity 
of the author became so great, that it even eclipsed that of the 
victors in the games. A still later author (Suidas) adds, that 
Thucydides, then a boy, was present at the festival with his 
father Olorus, and was so affected by the recital as to shed tears ; 
upon which Herodotus congratulated Olorus on having a son 
who possessed so early such a zeal for knowledge. But there 
are many objections to the probability of these tales. 

The time and manner of the death of Herodotus are uncertain, 
but we know, from some allusions in his history, that he was 
alive subsequently to the year 408 b.c. According to one tradi- 
tion he died at Thurii, according to another at Pella in Mace- 
donia. The former account is hardly probable, since Thurii 
revolted from Athens in 412, when the old Athenian colonists 
who sided with the mother-country were driven into exile. Un- 
less therefore we assume that Herodotus took part with the in- 
surgents, it seems most likely that he quitted Thurii at this 
period, and it is not improbable that, like Lysias the orator, he 
returned to Athens. 

§ 8, Herodotus interwove into his history all the varied and 
extensive knowledge acquired in his travels, and by his own per- 
sonal researches. The real subject of that magnificent work is 
the conflict between the Greek race, in the widest sense of the 
term, and including the Greeks of Asia Minor, with the Asiatics. 
This is the ground-plan of the book, and was founded on a notion 
then current of an ancient enmity between the Greeks and 
Asiatics, as exemplified in the stories of lo, Medea, and Helen. 
Thus the historian had a vast epic subject presented to him, 
which was brought to a natural and glorious termination by the 



Chap. XXL HERODOTUS. 237 

defeat of the Persians in their attempts upon Greece. He touches 
the ancient and mythical times, however, but hghtly, and hastens 
on to a more recent and authentic historical period. Cra3sus, 
king of Lydia, the earliest Asiatic raionarch who had succeeded 
in reducing a portion of the Greek race to subjection, first en- 
gages his attention at any length. The quarrel between Croesus 
and Cyrus, king of Persia, brings the latter power upon the stage. 
The destruction of the Lydian monarchy by the Persians is re- 
lated, and is followed by a retrospective view of the rise of the 
Persian power, and of the Median empire. This is succeeded 
by an account of the reduction of the rest of Asia Minor and of 
Babylonia ; and the first book closes wdth the death of Cyrus in 
an exp2dition against the Massageta), a race inhabiting the plains 
beyond the Caspian Sea. Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, under- 
takes an expedition against Eg}'pt, which gives occasion to o, 
description of that country occupying the whole of the second 
book. In the third book the annexation of Egypt to the Persian 
empire is related, as well as the abortive attempts of Cambyses 
against the jE thiopians and Ammonians. The death of C ambyses, 
the usurpation of the false Smerdis, and the accession of Darius 
form the remainder of the third book. The fourth book is chiefly 
occupied with the Scythian expedition of Darius ; wdiilst at the 
Sim 3 tim3 a Persian armament fitted out in Egypt for the con- 
quest of Libya, serves to introduce an account of the discovery 
and colonization of the latter country by the Greeks. In the 
fifth book the termination of the Thracian expedition under the 
satrap Megabazus is related, and a description given of the 
Thracian people. This book also contains an account of the 
origin of the quarrel between Persia and the Greek colonies in 
Asia Minor. The history of the wars between the Greeks and 
Persians then runs on with little interruption in the remainder 
of" this book, and in the four last books. The work concludes 
with the reduction of Sestos by the Athenians. 

^ 9. The love and admiration of Herodotus for Athens are ap- 
parent throughout his work ; he sided with her with all his soul, 
and declared her to be the saviour of Grecian liberty. This at- 
tachment was not unrewarded by the Athenians, and a _/wc- 
phismci, or vote of the people, is recorded, granting him the sum 
of 1 talents out of the public treasury. It was this not unfounded 
admiration of Herodotus for Athens that gave occasion to Plu- 
tarch, or some writer who assumed Plutarch's name, to charge 
him with partiality, and malice towards other Grecian states. 

HO. The case and simplicity of the style of Herodotus lend 
it an indescribable charm, and we seem rather to be conversing 
with an intelligent traveller than reading an elaborately corn- 



238 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXL 

posed history. On the other hand a certain want of skill in 
composition may be observed in it. Prose style does not arrive 
at perfection till much has been written, and with Herodotus it 
was still in its infancy. Nor must we seek in him for that 
depth of philosophical reflection which we find in Thucydides. 
Sometimes, indeed, he exhibits an almost childish credulity. 
Yet he had formed a high notion of the value of history, and 
was evidently a sincere lover of truth. He may sometimes have 
received the accounts of others with too trusting a simplicity, 
yet he always gives them for what they are worth, leaving the 
reader to form his own judgment, and often cautioning him as 
to their source and value. On the other hand, where he speaks 
from his own observation, his accounts may be implicitly relied 
upon ; and many of them, which were formerly doubted as im- 
probable, have been confirmed by the researches of modern tra- 
vellers. In short, Herodotus is the Homer of history. He has 
all the majesty and simphcity of the great epic bard, and all 
the freshness and vivacity of colouring which mark the founder 
of a new hterary epoch. 




Bust of HerodotuiL'. 




The Theseum at Athens. 



BOOK IV. 



THE ATHENIAN SUPREMACY AND THE 
PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

B.C. 477—404. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



FROM THE EXrULSION OF THE PERSIANS TO THE DEATH OF 
THEMISTOCLES. 

§ 1. Further proceedings against the Persians. § 2. Misconduct and 
treason of Pausanias. § 3. The maritime supremacy transferred to the 
Athenians. § 4. Confederacy of Delos. § 5. The combined fleet under 
Cimon. §6. Growth of the Athenian power. Plans of Themistocles. 
§ 1. Rebuilding of Athens. The Lacedaemonians attempt to prevent its 
being fortified. § 8. Fortification of Pirajus. § 9. Strife of parties at 
Athens. Misconduct of Themistocles. § 10. He is ostracised. §11. 
Pausanias convicted of Mcdis7n. § 12. Themistocles implicated in his 
guilt. He escapes into Asia. § 13. He is magnificently received by 
Artaxerxes. His death and character. § 14. Death of Aristides. 

§ 1 . The last campai^ had effectually delivered Greece from all 
fear of the Persian yoke ; but the Persians still held some posts 



240 HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. XXIL 

from which it concerned both the interests and the honour of 
the Greeks to expel them. They were in possession of the 
island of Cyprus and of the important town of Byzantium; to- 
gether with Eion on the Strymon, Doriscus, and several other 
places in Thrace. A fleet was therefore fitted out (b.c. 478) the 
year after the battle of Piatsa, and placed under the command 
of the Spartan regent, Pausanias. Of this fleet only twenty ships 
belonged to the Peloponnesians, whilst thirty, under the com- 
mand of Aristides and Cimon, were furnished by Athens alone. 
After delivering most of the Grecian towns iu Cyprus from the 
Persians, this armament sailed up the Bosporus and laid siege 
to Byzantium, which was garrisoned by a large Persian force 
commanded by some kinsmen of Xerxes. The town surrendered 
after a protracted siege ; but it was during this expedition that 
the conduct of the Spartan commander struck a fatal blow at the 
interests of his country. 

§ 2. The immense booty, as well as the renown, which Pau- 
sanias had acquired at Piateea, had filled him with pride and 
ambition. When he returned home, he felt it irksome to con- 
form to the simplicity and sobriety of a Spartan life, and to 
submit to the commands of the Ephors. He had given a signal 
instance of the pride with which he was inflated by causing 
Simonides to attribute the glory of the Persian defeat solely to 
himself in the epigram which he composed for the tripod dedi- 
cated at Delphi ; a piece of vanity which gave such ofience to 
the Lacedeemonians that they caused the inscription to bo 
erased, and another to be substituted in its place. Nevertheless, 
in spite of these symptoms, he had been again entrusted with 
the command. Daring the whole course of it his conduct was 
marked by the greatest vanity and insolence ; towards the end 
it was also sullied by treason. After the capture of Byzantium, 
he put himself in communication with the Persian court, through 
Gongylus, an Eretrian exile and subject of Persia. He sent Gon- 
gylus clandestinely to Xerxes with those members of the royal 
family who had been taken at Byzantium, and assured the allies 
that they had escaped. At the same time he despatched the 
following letter to Xerxes : — 

" Pausanias, the Spartan commander, wishing to oblige thee, 
sends back these prisoners of war. I am minded, if it please 
thee, to marry thy daughter, and to bring Sparta, and the rest 
of Greece under thy dominion. This I hold myself able to do 
with the help of thy counsels. If, therefore, the project at all 
pleases thee, send down some trustworthy man to the coast, 
through whom we may carry on our future correspondence." 

Xerxes was highly delighted with this letter, and sent a reply 



15- C. 47b. MARITIME SUPHEMACY OF ATHENS. 241 

in which he urged Pausanias to pursuQ his project night and day, 
and promised to supply him with all the money and troops that 
might be needful for its execution. At the same time he appointed 
Artabazus, who had been second in command in Boeotia, to be sa- 
trap of Dascylium, where he would be able to co-operate with the 
Spartan commander. But the childish vanity of Pausanias be- 
trayed his plot before it was ripe for execution. Elated by the 
confidence of Xerxes, and by the money with which he was 
lavishly supplied, he acted as if he had already married the 
(rreat King's daughter. He assumed the Persian dress ; he 
made a progress through Thrace, attended by Persian and 
Egyptian guards ; and copied, in the luxury of his table and the 
dissoluteness of his manners, the example of his adopted coun- 
try. Above all, he ofTended the allies by his haughty reserve 
and imperiousness. 

i^ 3. His designs were now too manifest to escape attention. 
His proceedings reached the cars of the Spartans, who sent out 
Dorcis to supersede hmi. But when Dorcis arrived, he found 
that the allies had transferred the command cf the fleet to th^ 
Athenians. 

There w^ere other reasons for this step besides the disgust 
occasioned by the conduct of Pausanias. Even before the battle 
of Salamis, the preponderating naval power of Athens had raised 
the question whether she was not entitled to the command at 
sea ; and the victory gained there, under the auspices of Themis- 
tocles, had strengthened her claim to that distinction. But the 
delivery of the Ionian colonies from the Persian yoke was the 
immediate cause for her attaining it. The lonians were not only 
attracted to Athens by affinity of race, but, from her naval su- 
periority, regarded her as the only power capable of securing 
them in their newly acquired independence. Disgusted by the 
insolence of Pausanias, the lonians now serving in the combined 
Grecian fleet addressed themselves to Aristides and Cimon, 
whose manners formed a striking contrast to those of the Spar- 
tan leader, and begged them to assume the command. Aristides 
was the more inclined to listen to this request as it was made 
precisely at the time when Pausanias was recalled. The Spartan 
squadron had accompanied him home ; so that when Dorcis 
arrived with a few ships, he found himself in no condition to as- 
sert his pretensions. 

§ 4. This event was not a mere empty question about a point 
of honour. It was a real revolution, tenuiiiated by a solemn 
league, of which Athens was to be the head ; and though it ir 
wrong to date the Athenian cmjrirc from this period, yet it can- 
not be doubted that this confederacy Ibrmed her lirst step towariL 

M 



242 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXII 

it. Aristides took the \^d in this matter, for which his pro- 
verbial justice and probity, and his concihatory manners, emi- 
nently qualified him. The league obtained the name cf " the 
Confederacy of Delos," from its being arranged that deputies of 
the allies belonging to it should meet periodically for deliberation 
in the temple of Apollo and Artemis in that island. The league 
was not, however, confined to the lonians. It was joined by all 
who sought, in the maritime power of Athens, a protection 
against the attacks of Persia. Besides the Ionic islands of Samos 
and Chios, it was joined by Rhodes, Cos, Lesbos, and Tenedcs. 
Among the continental towns belonging to it we find Miletus, 
the Greek towns on the peninsula of Chalcidice, and the recently 
delivered Byzantium. Each state was assessed in a certain con- 
tribution either of money or ships, as proposed by the Athenians 
and ratified by the Synod. The assessmicnt was intrusted to 
Aristides, whose justice and impartiality were universally ap- 
plauded. Of the details, however, we only know that the first 
assessment amounted to 460 talents (about 160,000/. sterling); 
that certain oflicers called Hellenotamia) were appointed by the 
Athenians to collect and administer the contributions ; that 
Delos was the treasury ; and that the tax Avas called pharos ; a 
name which afterwards became odious when the tribute was 
abused for the purposes of Athenian ambition. 

^ 5. Such was the origin of the Confederacy of Deles. Soon 
after its formation Aristides was succeeded in the command cf 
the combined fleet by Cimon, whose first important action seems 
to have been the capture of Eion on the Strymon. This place 
was bravely defended by Boges, the Persian Governor, who re- 
fused all oilers of capitulation ; and when his provisions were 
exhausted and all further defence impracticable, he caused a large 
funeral pile to be kindled into which he cast his wives, his con- 
cubines, and children, and lastly himself. 

The next event of any moment was the reduction of the island 
of Scyros, probably in B.C. 470. A j)ortion cf the inhabitants of 
Scyros, had been condemned by the Amphictyonic council as guilty 
^f piracy, and in order to avoid payment of the fine imposed upon 
them, appealed to Cimon ; Avho took possession of the island, and 
after expelling the natives, colonised it with Athenians. The 
hero Theseus had been buried in Scyros ; and now, by command 
of an oracle, his bones were disinterred and carried to Athens, 
where they were deposited with much solemnity in a temple 
called the Theseum, which exists at the present day. 

^ 6. The isle of Scyros is small and barren, but its position and 
excellent harbour rendered it an important naval station. The 
occupation of it by the Athenians seems to have been the firr.t 



I 



B.C. 477. COXFEDERACY OF DEL03. 2'IS 

actual step taken by them in the career of aggrandizement on 
which they were now about to enter ; but the rapid growth of 
their maritime power, and especially the formation of the Con- 
federacy of Delos, had already roused the jealousy and suspicion 
of Sparta and other states. It was, probably, a lingering dread 
of the Persians, agrinst whose attacks the Athenian fleet was 
indispensably necessary, which had prevented the Lacedaemo- 
nians, from at once resenting that encroachment on their supre- 
macy. Up to that time Sparta had been regarded as entitled to 
take the lead in Grecian ailairs, and for a moment the league 
formed at Plataea after the defeat of Mardonius seemed to con- 
firm her in that position. But she was soon deprived of it 
by the misconduct of her leaders, and by the skill and enterprise 
ot" Athens. 

That city was the only one which, during the Persian wars, 
had displayed ability and heroism equal to the crisis. She had 
taken a large share in the battle of Platsea, wliilst the glory of 
Marathon, and Salamis, and Mycale was almost entirely her own. 
Above all, the sufferings which she had voluntarily undergone in 
the common cause entitled her to the love and sympathy of 
Greece. It was not, however, the gratitude of her allies which 
placed her in the commanding situation she was now about to 
seize. She owed it rather to the eminent qualities of two of her 
citizens — to the genius of Themistocles, and to the virtue of 
Aristides. It was, as we have seen, through the immediate 
agency of Aristides that the Confederacy of Delos was esta- 
blished : a matter which his able but unprincipled rival, owing 
to the want of confidence felt in his character, would hardly have 
been able to carry out. But it was Themistocles who had first 
placed Athens in a situation which enabled her to aspire to the 
chief command. His genius had mastered all the exigencies of 
the crisis. His advice to the Athenians to rely on their ships, 
and to abandon their city to its fate, had not only saved Athens 
but Greece. He was now engaged in measures which might 
enable Athens by the same means to consolidate and extend her 
power ; and the Confederacy of Delos promised to bring his 
plans to an earlier maturity than even he had perhaps ventured 
to anticipate. But in order to understand the plans of Themis- 
tocles, it will be necessary to revert to the city of Athens 
itself, aiid to trace its progress after the close of the Persian war. 

§ 7. The Athenians, on their return to Attica after the defeat 
of the Persians, found their city ruined and their country deso- 
late. Their first care was to provide shelter for the houseless fa. 
milies whicli had been transported back from Trcezen, ^gina, and 
Salamis. AYhen this had been accomplished, they began t*» 



244 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXII. 

rebuild their city on a larger scale than before, and to fortify it 
with a wall. Those allies to whom the increasing maritime 
power of Athens was an object of suspicion, and especially the 
JEginetans, to whom it was more particularly formidable, beheld 
her rising fortifications with dismay. In order to prevent the 
completion of these fortifications, they endeavored to inspire 
the Lacedsemonians with their own fears, and urged them to 
arrest the work. But, though Sparta shared the jealousy of the 
JEginetans on this occasion, she could not with any decency 
interfere by force to prevent a friendly city from exercising a 
right inherent in all independent states. She assumed, there- 
fore, the hypocritical garb of an adviser and counsellor. Con- 
cealing her jealousy under the pretence of zeal for the common 
interests of Greece, she represented to the Athenians that, in 
the event of another Persian invasion, fortified towns would serve 
the enemy for camps and strongholds, as Thebes had done in the 
last war ; and proposed that the Athenians should not only desist 
from completing their own fortifications, but help to demolish 
those which already existed in other towns. 

The object of this proposal was too transparent to deceive so 
acute a statesman as Themistocles. Athens was not yet, how- 
ever, in a condition to incur the danger of openly rejecting it ; and 
he therefore advised the Athenians to dismiss jthe Spartan envoys 
with the assurance that they would send ambassadors to Sparta 
to explain their views. He then caused himself to be appointed 
one of these ambassadors, together with Aristides and Abrcnychus ; 
and setting oft^ at once for Sparta, directed his colleagues to linger 
behind as long as possible. At Sparta, the absence of his colleagues, 
at which he affected to be surprised, afforded him an excuse for 
not demanding an audience of the Ephors. During the interval 
thus gained the whole population of Athens, of both sexes and 
every age, worked day and night at the walls, which, when Aris- 
tides and Abronychus at length arrived at Sparta, had attained a 
height sufficient to aflbrd a tolerable defence. Meanwhile, the 
suspicions of the Spartans had been more than once aroused by 
messages from the zEginetans respecting the progress of the 
walls. Themistocles, however, positively denied their state- 
ments, and urged the Spartans to send messengers of their own 
to Athens in order to learn the true state of affairs ; at the same 
time instructing the Athenians to detain them as hostages for 
the safety of himself and colleagues. As there was now no 
longer any motive of concealment, Themistocles openly avowed 
the progress of the works, and his intention of securing the 
independence of Athens, and enabling her to act for herself. As 
tlie walls were now too far advanced to be easily taken, thp 



1 



U.C. 478. FORTIFICATION OF ATHENS. 245 

Spartans found themselves compelled to acquiesce, and the works 
were completed without further hindrance. 

§ 8. Having thus secured the city from all danger of an imme- 
diate attack, Themistocles pursued his favourite project of ren- 
dering Athens the greatest maritime and commercial power of 
Greece. The large fleet which he had called into existence, and 
which he had persuaded the Athenians to increase by building 
twenty triremes every year, was destitute of a strong and com- 
modious harbour such as might afibrd shelter both against the 
weather and the attacks of an enemy. The open roadstead of Pha- 
Icrum was quite inadequate for these purposes ; and during his 
administration three years before, Themistocles had persuaded his 
countrymen to improve the natural basins of Piraeus and Muny- 
chia. The works had been interrupted and perhaps ruined by 
the Persians ; but he now resumed his scheme on a still more 
magnificent scale. Piraeus and Munychia were both enclosed in 
a wall as i.irge in extent as that of the city itself, but of vastly 
greater height and thickness. In his own magnificent ideas, 
which already beheld Athens the undisputed mistress of the sea, 
the wall which sheltered her fleet was to be perfectly unassaila- 
ble. Its height was to be such that boys and old men might 
suffice for its defence, and leave the men of military age to act 
on board the fleet. It seems, however, to have been found either 
unnecessary or impossible to carry out the design of Themistocles. 
The wall rose only to about sixty feet, or half the projected 
height ; but this was always found amply sufficient.* 

^ 9. The ancient rivalry between Themistocles and Aristides 
had been in a good degree extinguished by the danger which 
threatened their common country during the Persian wars. 
Aristides had since abandoned his former prejudices, and was 
willing to conform to many of the democratical innovations of 
his rival. In fact, the crisis through which Athens had recently 
passed, had rendered the progress of the democratical sentiment 
irresistible. Whilst the greater part of the male population was 
serving on shipboard without distinction of rank, and the re- 
mainder dispersed in temporary exile, political privileges had 
been necessarily suspended ; and the whole body of the people, 
rendered equal by the common danger, became also equal in 
their civil rights. The effect of this was to produce, soon after 
their return to Attica, a still further modification of the consti- 
tution of Clisthenes. The Thetes, the lowest of the four classes 
of Athenian citizens, were declared ehgible for the magistracy, 
from which they had been excluded by the laws of Solon. Thus 

* For a further account of the topography of Athens and the PinBua, 
sec Chap. XXXIV. 



246 HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. XXII. 

not only the archonship, but consequently the Council of Areo- 
pagus, was thrown open to them ; and, strange to say, this reform 
was proposed by Aristides himself 

Nevertheless, party spirit still ran high at Athens. Cimon 
and Alcmseon were violent opponents of Themistocles, and of 
their party Aristides was still the head. The popularity of Aris- 
tides was never greater than at the present time, owing not only 
to the moderation and the more liberal spirit which he exhibited, 
but also to his great services in establishing the Confederacy of 
Delos. He was, therefore, more than ever to be dreaded as an 
adversary ; and the conduct of Themistocles soon laid him. open 
to the attacks of his enemies. He offended the Athenians by 
his ostentation and vanity. He was contiimally boasting of his 
services to the state ; but worse than all this, his conduct was 
stained with positive guilt. There was much to be done after 
the close of the Persian wars in restoring order in the Grecian 
communities ; in deposing corrupt magistrates, in punishing evil 
doers, and in replacing fugitives and political exiles in their 
possessions. All these things opened up a great field for bribery 
and corruption ; and whilst Themistocles, at the head of an 
Athenian squadron, was sailing among the Greek islands for the 
ostensible purpose of executing justice, there is little room to 
doubt that he corrupted its very source by accepting large sums of 
money from the cities which he visited. 

§ 10. The influence of the Lacedaemonians was still considera- 
ble at Athens. The conservative party there, and especially Ci- 
mon, one of its prmcipal leaders, regarded with love and venera- 
tion the stable institutions of Sparta, which formed a striking 
contrast to the democratical innovations which were making such 
rapid progress in their own city. The Laceda3monians on their 
side were naturally inimical to the Athenian democracy, as the 
party most opposed to their interests and power ; and to Themis- 
tocles himself they were personally hostile, on account of the 
deception which he had lately practised upon them. Hence when 
Pausanias became suspected of Mcdisni, they urged the political 
opponents of Themistocles to accuse him of being implicated 
in the same crime. This accusation was at all events prema- 
ture ; nor is it surprising that the Athenian statesman should 
have been acquitted of a charge which could not at that time be 
brought home to Pausanias himself. The result, however, of this 
accusation was to embitter party spirit at Athens to such a de- 
gree that it was found necessary to resort to ostracism, and 
Themistocles was condemned to a temporary banishment (b.c. 
471). He retired to Argos, and had been residing in that city for a 
space of about five years when indubitable proofs were discovered . 



B.C. 471. TREASON AND FALL OF PAUSANIAS. 247 

of his being implicated in the treasonable correspondence of 
Pausanias with the Persians. But in order to explain the fall of 
the Athenian statesman, we must first relate that of the Spartan 
regent with which it was intimately connected. 

HI- The recall of Pausanias from Byzantium has been already 
mentioned. On his arrival at home he seems to have been ac- 
quitted of any definite charges ; yet the general presumption of 
his guilt was so strong that he was not again entrusted with the 
command of the fleet. This was perhaps an additional motive 
with him to complete his treachery. Under pretence of serving 
as a volunteer, he returned to Byzantium with a single trireme, 
and renewed his negotiations with Artabazus. Here he seems 
to have again enjoyed a sort of ascendency, till his conduct 
obliged the Athenians to expel him from this city. He then 
retired to Colonse, in the Troad, where he still pursued his de- 
signs ; employing both Persian gold, and perhaps the influence 
of the Spartan name, in order to induce various Grecian cities 
to participate in his schemes. 

At the news of these proceedings the Spartans again ordered 
Pausanias home, under pain of being denounced as a public 
enemy. With this order he deemed it prudent to comply ; fore- 
seeing that, if proscribed, his influence would be at an end, and 
relying, probably, on his riches to bribe his judges and procure 
an acquittal. But, though at first imprisoned by the Ephors, 
nobody was bold enough to come forward as his accuser. His 
treachery, though sufficiently palpable, seems to have offered no 
overt and legally tangible act, and he was accordingly set at 
Hberty. He now employed himself in hatching treason nearer 
home. He tampered with the Helots, and by promises of en- 
franchisement and political rights, endeavoured to persuade 
them to overthrow the Ephors, and make him sole sovereign. 
Though these plots were communicated to the Ephors, they 
were still either unable or unwilling to prosecute so powerful a 
criminal. Meanwhile, he continued his correspondence with 
Persia ; and an accident at length afforded convincing proofs of 
his guilt. 

A favourite slave, to whom he had entrusted a letter to Ar- 
tabazus, observed with dismay that none of the messengers 
employed in this service had ever returned. Moved by these 
fears, he broke the seal and read the letter, and finding his 
suspicions of the fate that awaited him confirmed, he carried the 
document to the Ephors. But in ancient states the testimony 
of a slave was always regarded with suspicion. The Ephors re- 
fused to believe the evidence offered to them unless the slave 
placed them in a position to have it confirmed by their own 



248 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXIL 

ears- For this purpose they directed him to plant himself as a 
suppliant in the grove of Poseidon, near Cape Tsenarus, in a hut 
hehind which two of their body might conceal themselves. 
Pausanias, as they had expected, anxious and surprised at the 
step taken by his slave, hastened to the spot to question him 
about it. The conversation which ensued between them, and 
which was overheard by the Epliors, rendered it impossible for 
them any longer to doubt the guilt of Pausanias. They now 
determined to arrest him on his return to Sparta. They met 
him in the street near the temple of Athena Chalcioecus (of the 
Brazen House) ; when Pausanias, either alarmed by his guilty 
conscience, or put on his guard by a secret signal irom one of 
the Ephors, turned and fled to the temple, where he took refuge 
m a small chamber belonging to the building, From this sanc- 
tuary it Avas unlawful to drag him ; but the Ephors caused the 
doors to be built up and the roof to be removed ; and his own 
mother is said to have placed the first stone at the doors, ^lieu 
at the point of death from starvation, he was carried frcm the 
sanctuary before he polluted it with his' corpse. 

^12. Such was the end of the victor of Piataea. After his 
death proofs were discovered among his correspondence that 
Themistocles was im.phcated in his guilt. The Lacedeemonians 
now again called upon the Athenians to prosecute their great 
statesman before a synod of the alhes assembled at Sparta ; and 
joint envoys were sent from Athens and Sparta to arrest him. 

Themistocles avoided the impendhig danger by flying from 
Argos to Corcyra. The Corcyreeans, however, refusing to shelter 
him, he passed over to the continent ; where, being still pursued, 
he was forced to seek refuge at the court of Admetus, king of 
the Molossians, though he had made Admetus his personal ene- 
my by opposing him on one occasion in some favour which the 
king begged of the Athenians. Fortunately, Admetus happened 
to be from home. The forlorn condition of Themistocles ex- 
cited the compassion of the wife of the Molossian king, who 
placed her child in his arms, and bade him seat himself on the 
hearth as a suppliant. As soon as the king arrived, Themis- 
tocles explamed his peril, and adjured him by the sacred laws 
of hospitality not to take vengeance upon a fallen foe. Admetus 
accepted his appeal and raised him from the hearth ; he refused 
to deliver him up to his pursuers, and at last only dismissed him 
on his own expressed desire to proceed to Persia. Having tra- 
versed the mountains, Themistocles reached Pydna, on the Ther- 
maic gulf, where, under an assumed name, he took a passage in 
a merchant vessel bound for the coast of Asia Minor. The ship 
was driven by stress of weather to the island of Naxos, which 



B.C. 449. DEATH OF THEMISTOCLES. 219 

happened at that very moment to be blockaded by an Atlieniaii 
fleet. In this conjuncture Themistocles adopted one of those 
decisive resolutions which never failed him in the hour of dan- 
ger. Having summoned the master of the vessel, he disclosed 
to him his real name, and the peril which menaced liim in case 
of discovery. He then conjured the master not to make the 
land, at the same time threatening that, if detected, he would 
involve him in his own ruin by representing him as the accom- 
plice of his flight ; promising, on the other hand, a large reward 
if he would secure his escape. These representations induced 
the master to keep the sea in spite of the weather ; and Themis- 
tocles landed safely at Ephesus. 

s^ 13. Artaxerxes, the son of Xerxes, was now upon the throne 
of Persia, and to him Themistocles hastened to announce himself 
Having been conducted to Susa, he addressed a letter to the Per- 
sian king, in which he claimed a reward for his past services in 
favouring the escape of Xerxes, and promised to eflect much for 
Persian interests if a year were allowed him to mature his plans. 
Artaxerxes welcomed the arrival of the illustrious stranger and 
readily granted his request. According to the tales current at a 
later period, the king was so transported with joy as to start 
from his sleep at night and thrice to cry out, " I have got The- 
mistocles the Athenian." At the end of the year, Themistccles 
having acquired a sufficient knowledge of the Persian language 
to be able to converse in it, entertained Artaxerxes with magni- 
ficent schemes for the subjugation of Greece, and succeeded 
in gaining his entire confidence and favour. Artaxerxes loaded 
him with presents, gave him a Persian wife, and appointed Mag- 
nesia, a town not far from the Ionian coast, as his place of 
residence. In accordance with Eastern magnificence, the reve- 
nues of that place, amounting to the yearly sum of fifty talents, 
were assigned to him for bread, whilst Myos was to supply con- 
diments, and Lampsa.cus wine. At Magnesia Themistocles was 
joined by his family ; and after living there some time, was 
carried oti" by disease at the age of sixty-five, without having 
realized, or apparently attempted, any of those plans with which 
he had dazzled the Persian monarch. Rumour, which ever dogs 
the footsteps of the great, ascribed his death to poison, which Lo 
took of his own accord, from a consciousness of his inability to 
perform his promises ; but this report, which was current in the 
time of Thucydides, is rejected by that historian, though it was 
subsequently adopted by writers of no mean note. The tale was 
probably propagated by the friends of Themistocles, wlio also 
asserted that, at his express command, they had carried hin 
bones to Attica, and had secretly buried them in l;is native land 



250 niSTORY OF GREECR Chap. XXII 

In tlie time of the Roman empire his tomb was showii upon the 
promontory at the right hand of the entrance of the great har- 
bour of Piraeus. This was doubtless the invention of a later 
age ; but the imagination could not have chosen a fitter spot for 
the ashes of the founder of the maritime greatness of Athens. 
Hence we find in an ancient epigram, supposed to have been 
inscribed upon his tomb : — » 

"By the sea's margin, on the 'watery strand, 
Thy monument, Themistocles, shall stand: 
By this directed to thy native shore 
The merchant shall convey his freighted store ; 
And ^vhen our fleets are summoned to the fight^ 
Athens shall conquer with thy tomb in sight" 

Themistocles is one of those characters which exhibit at onco 
all the greatness and all the meanness of human nature. Acute- 
ness in foreseeing, readiness and wisdom in contriving, combined 
with vigour and decision in acting, were the characteristics of 
this great statesman, and by these qualities he not only rescued 
his country from the imminent danger of the Persian yoke, but 
enabled her to become one of the leading states of Greece. Yet 
his lofty genius did not secure him li-om the seductions of 
avarice and pride, which led him to sacrifice both his honour 
and his countr}' for the tmsel of Eastern pomp. But the riches 
and luxuiT which suiTouuded him sers^ed oiily to heighten his 
infamy, and were dearly bought with the hatred of his countr}'- 
men, the reputation of a traitor, and the death of an exile. 

§ 14. Aristides died about four years after the banishment of 
Themistocles. The common accounts of his poverty are pro- 
bably exaggerated, and seem to have been founded on the circum- 
stances of a public funeral, and of handsome donations made to 
his three children by the state. But in ancient times these were 
no unusual marks of respect and gratitude towards merit and 
virtue ; and as he was archon cponymus at a time when only the 
first class of the Solonian census was admissible to this oflice, 
he must have enjoyed a certain amount of property. But what- 
ever his property may have been, it is at least certain that 
he did not acquire or increase it by milawful means ; and not 
even calumny has ventured to ajcsail his well earned title of tlie 
Just. 





Pericles and Aspasia. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

RISE AND GROWTH OF THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE. FROM THE 

BATTLE OF EURYMEDON TO THE THIRTY YEARS' TRUCE WITH 
SPARTA. 

§ 1. Cimon leader of the aristocratical party at Athens. § 2. Revolt 
of Naxos. § 3. Battle of Eurymedon. § 4. The Athenians blockade 
Thasos, and attempt to found colonies in Thrace. § 6. Earthquake 
at Sparta and revolt of the Helots. § 6. Decline of Spartan power. 
§ 7. Cimon assists the Spartans to suppress the revolt, but without 
success. The Spartans offend the Athenians by dismissing their troops. 
§ 8. Parties at Athens. Character of Pericles. § 9. Attack upon the 
Areopagus. § 10. Ostracism of Cimon. § 11. Administration and 
foreign policy of Pericles. § 12. Expedition of the Athenians into 
Egypt against the Persians. § 13. Hostilities with Corinth and JEgina. 
Defeat of the Corinthians at Megara. § 14. The long walls of Athens 
commenced. § 15. The Lacedsemonians march into Boeotia. Battle 
ofTanagra. §16. Recall of Cimon. §17. Battle of (Enophyta, and 
conquest of Boeotia. Conquest of .^gina. § 18. The five years' truce. 
Expedition of Cimon to Cyprus. His death. § 19. Conclusion of the 
war with Persia. § 20. The Athenian power at its height. § 21. 
Decline of Athenian power. Revolution in Boeotia. Other Athe- 
nian reverses. Invasion of Attica by the Lacedaemonians under 
Pleistoanax. § 22. Pericles recovers Eubcea. Thirty years' truce 
with Sparta. 



4 1. On the death of Aristides, Cimon became the undisputed 
leader of the aristocratical or conservative party at Athens. Cimon 



252 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXIIl 

was generous, affable, magnificent; and, notwithstanding his po- 
litical views, of exceedingly popular manners. He had inherited 
the military genius of his father, and was undoubtedly the 
greatest commander of his time. He employed the vast wealth 
acquired in his expeditions in adorning Athens and gratifying 
his fellow-citizens. He kept open house for such of his demos 
(the Laciadee) as were in want of a meal, and appeared in pub- 
lic attended by well-dressed slaves, who were often directed to ex- 
change their comfortable garments with the thread-bare clothes 
of needy citizens. But his mind was uncultivated by arts or 
letters, and what eloquence he possessed was rough and soldier- 
like. 

k 2. The capture of Eion and reduction of Scyros by Cimon 
have been already related. It was two or three years after the 
latter event that we find the first symptoms of discontent among 
the members of the Confederacy of Delos. Naxos, one of the 
confederate islands, and the largest of the Cyclades, revolted in 
B.C. 466, probably from a feeling of the growing oppressiveness 
of the Athenian headship. It was immediately invested by the 
confederate fl.eet, and after a blockade of unknown duration re- 
duced and made tributary to. Athens. It was during this block- 
ade that Themistocles, as before related, passed the island in his 
flight to Asia. This was another step towards dominion gained 
by the Athenians, whose pretensions were assisted by the im- 
prudence of the allies. Many of the smaller states belonging to 
the confederacy, wearied with perpetual hostilities, commuted 
for a money payment the ships which they were bound to 
supply; and thus, by depriving themselves of a navy, lost the 
only means by which they could assert their independence. 

§ 3. The same year was marked by a memorable action against 
the Persians. Cimon, at the head of 200 Athenian triremes, and 
100 furnished by the allies, proceeded to the coast of Asia Minor, 
where he expelled the Persians from several Grecian towns in 
Caria and Lycia. Meanwhile the Persians had assembled a large 
fleet and army at the mouth of the river Eurymedon in Pam- 
phylia. Their fleet already consisted of 200 vessels, chiefly Phoe- 
nician; and as a reinforcement of 80 more was expected, Cimon 
resolved to lose no time in making an attack. After speedily 
defeating the fleet, Cimon landed his men and marched against 
the Persian army, which was drawn up on the shore to protect 
the fleet. The land-force fought with bravery, but was at length 
put to the rout. These victories were still further enhanced by 
the destruction of the 80 vessels, with which Cimon happened 
ta fafl in on his return. A victory gained on the same day both 
Iw sea and land added greatly to the renown of Cimon, and was 



B.C. 466. BATTLES AT THE EURYMEDON. 253 

commemorated on the tripod dedicated to Apollo as one of the 
most glorious of Grecian exploits. 

§ 4. The successes of the Athenians, and their undisputed 
power at sea, led them to extend their empire by means ol" co- 
lonies. Some of the Athenians who had settled at Eion on the 
Strymon after the expulsion of the Persians, had an opportunity 
of becoming acquainted with the surrounding country, which 
was principally occupied by Edonian Thracians, and was distin- 
guished not only by the fertility of its soil, but also by its gold 
mines on Mount Pangaeus. But in their attempts to form a 
permanent settlement on this coast, the Athenians were opposed 
by the inhabitants of the opposite island of Thasos, who were 
possessed of considerable territory upon the continent of Thrace, 
and derived a large revenue from the mines of Scapte Hyle and 
other places. 

The island of Thasos was a member of the Confederacy of 
Delos, with which, however, this quarrel does not appear to have 
been m any w^ay comiected. The ill-feeling soon reached such a 
pitch, that Cimon was despatched in B.C. 465 with a powerful 
tieet against the Thasians. In this expedition the Athenians 
gahied various successes both by sea and land, but totally failed 
in their attempt to found a colony on the main land, near Eion. 
This result, however, was owing to the hostility of the native 
tribes. A body of ten thousand Athenians and their allies, who 
had taken possession of Ennea Hodoi, a place on the Strj-mon, 
about three miles above Eion, were attacked by the Thracians 
and nearly all of them slain. Nevertheless the Athenians did 
not abandon the blockade of Thasos. After a siege of more than 
two years that island surrendered, when its fortifications were 
razed, its fleet and its possessions in Tlirace were confiscated, 
and it was condemned to pay an annual, as well as an imme- 
diate, tribute. 

§ 5. The expedition to Thasos was attended with a circum- 
stance which first gives token of the coming hostilities betAveen 
Sparta and Athens. At an early period of the blockade the 
Thasians secretly apphed to the Lacedaemonians to make a diver- 
sion in their favour by mvading Attica ; and though the Lace- 
daemonians were still ostensibly aUied with Athens, they were 
base enough to comply with this request. But their treachery 
was prevented by a terrible calamity which befel themselves. 
In the year B.C. 464, their capital was visited by an earthquake 
which laid it in ruins and killed 20,000 of the citizens, besides a 
large body of their chosen youth, who were engaged in a build- 
ing in their gymnastic exercises. But this was only part of the 
calamity. The earthquake was immediately followed by a revolt 



254 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXIII. 

of the Helots, who were always ready to avail themselves of the 
weakness of their tyrants. Some of that oppressed people had 
been dragged from the sanctuary of Poseidon at Taenarus proba- 
bly in connexion with the afiair of Pausanias, related in the pre- 
ceding chapter ; and now the whole race, and even the Lace- 
daemonians themselves, believed that the earthquake was caused 
by the anger of that " earth-shaking" deity. Encouraged by this 
signal of the divine favour, and being joined by some of the 
Perioeci, the Helots rushed to arms, and marched straight upon 
Sparta. In this attempt to seize the capital they were repulsed ; 
nevertheless they were still able to keep the field ; and being 
joined by the Messenians, fortified themselves in Mount Ithome 
in Messenia. Hence this revolt is sometimes called the third 
Messenian war. After two or three years spent in a vain at- 
tempt to dislodge them from this position, the Lacedaemonians 
found themselves obliged to call in the assistance of their allies, 
and among the rest of the Athenians. 

^ 6. That Sparta should thus have condescended to soHcit the 
assistance of her rival to quell a domestic feud, shows that she 
must have fallen greatly from her former power and station. 
During the period, indeed, in which we have traced the rise of 
Athens, Sparta had been proportionably declining. Of the causes 
of this decline we can only mention some of the more prominent. 
Foremost among them was the misconduct of her leaders. The 
misconduct of Pausanias, by which the maritime supremacy was 
transferred to Athens, has been already related. His infamy found 
a counterpart in the infamy of Leoty chides, another of her kings, 
and the conqueror of Mycale ; who, being employed in arranging 
the affairs of Thessaly after its evacuation by the Persians, was 
convicted of taking bribes from the Persian king. The Lacedaemo- 
nians committed, moreover, a great political blunder in the set- 
tlement of Ba3otia, whose affairs had been so thoroughly shaken 
by the Persian invasion. Thebes, convicted of Medism, was, 
with the concurrence of Sparta, degraded from her former rank 
and influence ; whilst Plataea and Thespiae, which stood opposed 
to the capital, were strengthened, and the latter repeopled. Thus 
the influence of Athens in Boeotia was promoted, in proportion 
as Thebes, her ancient enemy, was weakened and degraded. The 
affairs of the Peloponnesus itself had been unfavourable to the 
Spartans. They had been engaged in a harassing war with the 
Arcadians, and were also cramped and menaced by the growing 
power of E lis. And now all these causes of weakness were aggra- 
vated by the earthquake, and consequent revolt of the Helots. 

§ 7. It was with great difficulty that Cimon persuaded his 
countrymen to assist the Lacedaemonians in quelling this revolt. 



B.C. 464. REVOLT OF THE MESSEIS lAA'S. 255 

His power was now somewhat waning before the rising influence 
of Pericles. Notwithstanding what he had accomplished at 
Thasos, it is even said that more had been expected by the Athe- 
nians, and that Pericles actually accused him, though without suc- 
cess, of having been diverted from the conquest of Macedonia, by 
the bribes of Alexander, the king of that country. Cimon, however, 
at length succeeded in persuading the Athenians to despatch him 
with a force of 4000 hoplites, to the assistance of the LacedaB- 
monians ; but the ill-success of this expedition still further 
strengthened the hands of his political opponents. 

The aid of the Athenians had been requested by the Lacedse- 
monians on account of their acknowledged superiority in the art 
of attacking fortified places. As, however, Cimon did not succeed 
in dislodging the Helots from Ithome, the Laced;., monians, pro- 
bably from a consciousness of their own treachery in the affair 
of Thasos, began to suspect that the Athenians were playing 
them false. The conduct of the latter does not seem 1o have 
afforded the least ground for this suspicion, and Cimon, their 
general, was notoriously attached to Sparta. Yet the Lacedae- 
monians, fearing that the Athenians intended to join the Helots, 
abruptly dismissed them, stating that they had no longer any 
occasion for their services ; although the other allies were re- 
tained, and the siege of Ithome still proceeded. 

§ 8. This rude dismissal gave gi-eat oflence at Athens, and 
annihilated for a time the political influence of Cimon. The de- 
mocratical party had from the first opposed the expedition ; and 
it afforded them a great triumph to be able to point to Cimon re- 
turning not only unsuccessful but insulted. That party was now 
led by Pericles. A sort of hereditary feud existed between Pe- 
ricles and Cimon ; for it was Xanthippus, the father of Policies, 
who had impeached Miltiades, the father of Cimon. The cha- 
racter of Pericles was almost the reverse of Cimon's. Although 
the leader of the popular party, his maimers were reserved. He 
was of high family, being descended on his mother's side fiom 
the princes of Sicyon and the Alcmeeonidse, whilst, en his 
father's, he was connected with the family of Pisistratus, to 
which tyrant he is said to have borne a striking personal resem- 
blance. He appeared but little in society or in public, reserving 
himself for great occasions ; a conduct which, when he did come 
forward, enhanced the effect of his dignified bearing and impres- 
sive eloquence. His mihtary talents were but slender, and in 
fact in this department he was frequently unsuccessful. But his 
mind had received the highest polish which that period was 
capable of giving. He constantly conversed witli Anaxaporas, 
Protagoras, Zeno, and other eminent philcscjphers. To oratory 



250 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap, XXIH 

in particular he had devoted much attention, as an indispensable 
instrument for swaying the public assemblies of Athens ; and he 
is said to have been the first who committed his speeches to 
writing. He was not much distinguished for private liberality ; 
but he made amends for the popularity which he lost in this way 
by his lavish distribution of the public money. Such was the 
man who for a considerable period was to administer the affairs 
of Athens. 

§ 9. Pericles seized the occasion presented by the ill-success of 
Cimon, both to ruin that leader and to strike a fatal blow at the 
aristocratical party. The latter object he sought to accomplish 
by various changes in the Athenian constitution, and particu- 
larly by an attack upon the Areopagus. That venerable and 
time-honoured assembly contained the very pith and marrow 
of Athenian aristocracy. Besides its high judicial functions, it 
exercised a kind of general censorship over the citizens. By the 
nature of its constitution it was composed of men of advanced 
years, and of high position in the state. The measure of Aris- 
tides, already mentioned, opened it, at least ostensibly, even 
to the lowest class of citizens ; but this innovation, which was 
perhaps only designed to stave off those more serious changes 
which the rapid progress of democratic al opinion seemed to 
threaten, was probably but of little practical effect. So long as 
magistracies continued to be elective, there can be little doubt 
that the rich would carry them, to the exclusion of the poor. 
A fatal blow to aristocratical power was, however, struck about 
this time by rendering the election to magistracies dependent 
upon lot ; though it is uncertain whether this measure was ori- 
ginated by Pericles. We are also ignorant of the precise nature 
of the changes which he introduced into the constitution and 
functions of the Areopagus, though, with regard to their result, 
it is certain that they left that august body the mere shadow of 
its former influence and power. Other changes which accom- 
panied this revolution — for such it must be called — were, the 
institution of paid dicasteries or jury-courts, and the almost 
entire abrogation of the judicial power of the Senate of Five 
Hundred. As the seal and symbol of these momentous innova- 
tions, Ephialtes, the friend of Pericles, caused the tablets con- 
taining the laws of Solon to be brought down from the Acropolis 
and deposited in the market-place, as if to signify that the guar- 
dianship of the laws had been transferred to the people. 

^ 10. It cannot be supposed that such fundamental changes 
were effected without violent party strife. Even the theatre 
became a vehicle to express the passions and the principles of 
the agora. In the drama of the Eumenides, vEschylus in vain 



B.C. 458. ADMINISTRATIOIv^ OF PERICLES. 257 

exerted all the powers of his g-enius in support of the aristocra- 
tical party and of the tottering Areopagns ; his exertions on 
this occasion resulted only in his own flight from Athens. Tlie 
same fate attended Cimon himself In the heat of political con- 
tention, recourse was had to ostracism, the safety-valve of the 
Athenian constitution, and Cimon was condemned to a ten 
years' banishment. Nay, party violence even went the length of 
assassination. Epliialtes, who had taken the lead in the attacks 
upon the Areopagus, and whom Pericles, in conformity with his 
policy and character, seems to have put forward throughout as 
the more active and ostensible agent, fell beneath the dagger 
of a Boeotian, hired by the conservative party to despatch him. 
This event took place after the banishment of Cimon, who was 
guiltless of all participation in so foul a deed, 

§11. It was from this period that the long administration of 
Pericles may be properly said to have commenced. The effects of 
his accession to power soon became visible in the foreign rela- 
tions of Athens. Pericles had succeeded to the political prin- 
ciples of Themistocles, and his aim was to render Athens the 
leading power of Greece. The Confederacy of Delos had already 
secured her maritime ascendency ; Pericles directed his policy 
to the extension of her influence in continental Greece. The 
insult offered by Sparta to Athens in dismissing her troops had 
highly inflamed the Athenians against that power, whose sup- 
porters at Athens were designated with the contemptuous name 
of Laconizers. Pericles and the democratic party improved the 
conjuncture not only by persuading the people to renounce the 
Spartan alliance, but to join her bitterest enemies. Argos, the 
ancient rival of Sparta, claimed the headship of Greece rather 
from the recollections of her former mythical renown than from 
her present material power. But she had availed herself of the 
embarrassment which the revolt of the Helots occasioned to 
Sparta, to reduce to subjection Mycence, Tiryns, and some other 
neighbouring towns. With Argos thus strengthened Athens 
now formed a defensive alliance against Sparta, which the Thes- 
salians were also induced to join. Soon afterwards Athens still 
further extended her influence in continental Greece by an alli- 
ance with Megara. This step, which gave signal oflcncc both 
at Sparta and Corinth, greatly increased the power of the Athe- 
nians, not only by opening to them a communication with the 
Crisssean gulf, but also by giving them the key to the passes of 
Mount Geraneia, and thus enabling them to arrest the progress 
of an invading army from Peloponnesus. In order to strcngtlion 
Megara the Athenians adopted a contrivance which they aitor- 
wards apphed to their own city. Megara was seated on a hill, 



258 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXIIL 

at the distance of nearly a mile from its port, Nissea. To pre- 
vent the communication between the port and city from being 
cut off, the Athenians caused them to be connected together by 
two parallel lines of wall, and placed a permanent garrison of 
their own in the place. 

^12. Whilst these tilings were passing in Greece, the Athenians 
were still actively engaged in prosecuting the war against Persia. 
The confederate fleet was hovering about the coasts of Cyprus 
and Phoenicia ; and the revolt of Inarus (b.c. 460) gave them 
an opportunity to carry the war into Eg}^pt. Inaros, a Libyan 
prince, and son of Psammetichus, was bent on expelling the Per- 
sians from Eg}^pt and obtaining the sovereignty of that country ; 
and with tliis view he solicited the assistance of the Greeks. 
The Athenian fleet at Cyprus, amounting to 200 triremes, accord- 
ingly sailed to the Nile, and proceeded up that river as far as 
Memphis. From tliis city they succeeded in expelling the Per- 
sians, who, however, maintained themselves in a kind of citadel 
or fortification called " the White Fortress." The siege of this 
fortress had already lasted four or five years, when Artaxerxes 
sent a large army, together with a Phcenician fleet, into Egypt, 
under the command of Megabyzus, who compelled the Athenians 
to raise the siege and to retire to an island in the Nile, called 
Prosopitis, as the Persians had prevented their further retreat 
by obstructing the lower part of the river. Here the Athenians 
offered a long and heroic resistance, till at length Megabyzus, 
having diverted one of the channels which formed the island, 
was enabled to attack them by land. The Athenians, who had 
previously burnt their ships, were now obliged to capitulate. 
The barbarians did not, however, observe the terms of the capi- 
tulation, but perfidiously massacred the Athenians, with the 
exception of a small body, who succeeded in cutting their way 
through the enemy, and escaping to CjTene, and thence to 
Greece. Inaros himself was taken and crucified. As an aggra- 
vation of the calamity, a reinforcement of 50 Athenian vessels, 
whose crews were ignorant of the defeat of their countrymen, 
fell into the power of the enemy and were ahnost entirely de- 
stroyed. Thus one of the finest armaments ever sent forth from 
Athens was all but annihilated, and the Persians regained pos- 
session of the greater part of Egypt (b.c. 455.) 

§ 13. It may well excite our astonishment that while Athens 
was employing so large an armament against the Persians, she 
was still able to maintain and extend her power in Greece by 
force of arms. Corinth, Epidaurus, and ^gina, were watching 
her progress with jealousy and awe. At the time of the Mega- 
rian alliance no actual blow had yet been struck; but that 



B.C. 457. LONG WALLS OF ATHENS. 259 

important accession to the Athenian power was speedily followed 
by open war. The JEginetans, in conjunction with the Co- 
rinthians, Epidaurians, and other Peloponnesians, fitted out a 
large fleet. A battle ensued near the island of ^Egina, in which 
the Athenians gained a decisive victory, and entirely ruined the 
naval power of the iEginetans. The Athenians captured seventy 
of their ships, and, landing a large force upon the island, laid siege 
to the capital. 

The growth of the Athenian power was greatly promoted by 
the continuance of the revolt of the Helots, which was not put 
down till the year b.c. 455. This circumstance prevented the 
Lacedaemonians from opposing the Athenians as they would 
otherwise probably have done. All the assistance aflorded by 
the allies to the ^Eginetans consisted of a miserable detachment 
of 300 men ; but the Corinthians attempted to divert the Athe- 
nians by making an attack upon Megara. Hereupon Myronides 
marched from Athens at the head of the boys and old men, and 
gave battle to the enemy near Megara. The aflair was not very 
decisive, but the Corinthians retired, leaving their adversaries 
masters of the field. On their return home, however, the taunts 
which they encountered at having been defeated by so unwarlik? 
a force incited them to trj' their fortune once more. The Athe- 
nians again marched out to the attack, and this time gained a 
decisive victory, rendered still more disastrous to the Corinthians 
by a large body of their troops having marched by mistake into an 
enclosed place, where they were cut up to a man by the Athenians. 

^ 14. It was about this time (b.c. 458 — 457) that the Athe- 
nians, chiefly through the advice of Pericles, began to construct 
the long walls which connected the Piraeus and Phalerum with 
Athens. They were doubtless suggested by the apprehension 
that the Lacedaemonians, though now engaged with domestic 
broils, would sooner or later take part in the confederacy which 
had been organized against Athens. This gigantic undertaking 
was in conformity with the policy of Themistocles for rendering 
the maritime power of Athens wholly unassailable ; but even the 
magnificent ideas of that statesman might perhaps have deemed 
the work chimerical and extravagant. The wall from Phalerum 
was 35 stadia, or about 4 miles long, and that from Piraeus 
40 stadia, or about 4^ miles in length. The plan of these walls 
was probably taken from those already erected at Megara, m hich 
had been recently tried, and perhaps found to be of good service 
in the war Avhich had taken place there. The measure was vio- 
lently opposed by the aristocratic party, but without success. 

s^ 15. The progress of Athens had now awakened tlie serious 
jealousy of Sparta, and though she was still engaged in the Acgc 



260 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XXIIL 

of Ithome, she resolved on taking some steps against the Athe- 
nians. Under pretence of assisting the Dorians, whose territory 
had been invaded by the Phocians, 1500 Spartan hoplites, sup- 
ported by 10,000 allies, were despatched into Doris. The mere 
approach of so large a force speedily effected the ostensible 
object of the expedition, and compelled the Phocians to retire. 
The Laceda3monians now proceeded to effect their real design, 
which was to prevent the Athenians from gaining such an ascend- 
ency in BoBotia as they had gained in other places. In conse- 
quence of the part she had played during the Persian wars, 
Thebes had lost much of her Ibrmer influence and power ; and 
the conduct of Sparta herself in the subsequent settlement of 
Greece, had, as before related, been conducive to the same result. 
The Lacedaemonians seem to have now become sensible of the 
mistake which they had committed ; and though their general 
policy was adverse to the confederation of cities, yet they were 
now induced to adopt a different course, and to restore the power 
of Thebes by way of counterpoise to that of Athens. With this 
view the Lacedaemonian troops were marched into Boeotia, where 
they were employed in restoring the fortifications of Thebes, and 
in reducing the Boeotian cities to her obedience. The designs 
of Sparta were assisted by the traitorous co-operation of some 
of the oligarchical party at Athens. The faction, finding itself 
foiled in its attempt to arrest the progress of the long walls, not 
only invited the Lacedaemonians to assist them in this attempt, 
but also to overthrow the democracy itself The Lacedaemonians 
listened to these proposals, and their army took up a position at 
Tanagra, on the very borders of Attica. The Athenians, suspect- 
ing that some treason was in progress, now considered it high 
time to strike a blow. With such of their troops as were not 
engaged at ^gina, together with a thousand Argeians, and some 
Thessaloniaii horse, they marched out to oppose the Lacedae- 
m.oniaiis at Tanagra. Here a bloody battle ensued (b.c. 457), 
in which the Lacedaemonians gained the advantage, chiefly 
through the treacherous desertion of the Thessalians in the very 
heat of the engagement. The victory was not sufficiently deci- 
sive to enable the Lacedaemonians to invade Attica ; but it served 
to secure them an unmolested retreat, after partially ravaging 
the Megarid, through the passes of the Geraneia. 

M6. Previously to the engagement, the ostracised Cimon, 
who was grievously suspected of being implicated in the treach- 
erous correspondence of some of his party with the Lacedaemo- 
nians, presented himself before the Athenian army as soon as it 
had crossed the border, and earnestly entreated permission to 
place himself in the ranks of the hoplites. His request being 



i 



B.C. 45G. BATTLE OF (ENOrilYTA. 2G1 

refused, he left his armour with some friends, conjuring them to 
wipe out, by their conduct in the field, the imputation under 
which they laboured. Stung by the unjust suspicions of their 
countr}Tnen, and incited by the exhortations of their beloved 
and banished leader, a large band of his most devoted followers, 
setting up his armour in their ranks, fought side by side with 
desperate valour, as if he still animated them by his presence. 
A hundred of them fell in the engagement, and proved by their 
conduct that, with regard at least to the majority of Cimon's 
party, they were rmjustly suspected of collusion with the enemy. 
Cimon's request had also stim.iated Pericles to deeds of extra- 
ordinary valour ; and thus both parties seemed to be bidding for 
public favour on the held of battle as they formerly had done in 
the bloodless contentions of the Athenian assembly. A happy 
result of this generous emulation was that it produced a great 
change in public feeling. Cimon's ostracism was revoked, and 
the decree lor that purpose was proposed by Pericles himself 

M7. The healing of domestic faction gave a new impulse to 
public spirit at Athens. At the beghming of the year B.C. 45G, 
and only about two months after their defeat at Tanagra, the 
Athenians again marched into Boeotia. The B-ocotians went out 
to meet them with a numerous army ; but in the battle of Q^no- 
phyta, which ensued, the Athenians under Myronides gained a 
brilliant and decisive victory, by which Thebes itself, and conse- 
quently the other Boeotian towns, fell into their power. The 
Athenians now proceeded to reverse all the arrangements which 
had been made by the Lacedajraonians, banished all the leaders 
who were favourable to Spartan ascendency, and established a 
democratical form of government. To these acquisitions Phocis 
and Locris were soon afterwards added. 

From the gulf of Corinth to the straits of Thermopyla3 
Athenian influence was now predominant. In the year after "the 
battle of CEnophjiia (b.c. 455), the Athenians finished Ihe build- 
ing of the long walls and completed the reduction of ^Egina, 
which became a subject and tributaiy ally. Their expedition 
into Eg}^pt, and its unfortmiate catastrophe in this year, has been 
already related. But notwithstanding their efibrts and reverses 
in that quarter, they were strong enough at sea to scour the 
coasts of Greece, of which, tliey gave a convincing proof. An 
Athenian fleet, under the command of Tolmides, sailed round 
Peloponnesus, and insulted the Laceda3monians by burning their 
portj of Methonc and Cxythium. Naupactus, a town of the Ozo- 
lian Lccrians near the mouth of the Gulf of Corinth, was cap- 
tured ; and in the latter place Tolmides established the Helots 
and Ivlessenians, who in the course of this year had been subdued 



262 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXIII 

by the Lacedsemonians, and compelled lo evacuate Ithcmc. 
During the course of the same expedition the islands cf Za- 
cynthus and Cephallenia were gained over to the Athenian alii' 
ance, and probably also some towns on the coast of Achaia. 

§ 1 8. Alter the battle of Tanagra the LacedBemonians made for 
a while no further attempts to oppose its progress, and quietly 
beheld the occupation of Boeotia and Phccis. Even after the 
surrender of Ithome they still remained inactive ; and three 
years after that event (b.c. 452), concluded a five years' truce 
with the Athenians. This ti-uce was effected through the medi- 
ation of Cimon, who was anxious that no dread of hostilities 
at home should divert him from resuming operations against the 
Persians ; nor perhaps was Pericles unwilling that so formidable 
a rival should be absent on foreign ser%dce. Cimon sailed to 
Cyprus with a fleet of 200 triremes belonging to the confede- 
racy ; whence he despatched 60 vessels to Eg}'pt, to assist the 
rebel prince Am}Ttseus, who still held out against the Persians 
among the marshes of the Delta. But this expedition proved 
fatal to the great Athenian commander. With the remainder 
cf the fleet, Cimon undertook the siege of Citium in Cyprus ; 
but died during the progress of it, either from disease or frcm 
the effects of a wound. The command now devolved on Anaxi- 
crates ; who, being straitened by a want of pro^asions, raised the 
siege of Citium, and sailed for Salamis, a town in the same 
island, in order to engage the Phcenician and Cilician fleet. 
Here he gained a complete victory both on sea and land, tut 
was deterred, either by pestilence or famine, from the further 
prosecution of the war; and having been rejoined by the sixty 
ships from Egypt, sailed home to Athens. 

§ 19. After these events a pacification was concluded with 
Persia, which has sometimes, but erroneously, been called " the 
peace of Cimon." It is stated that by this compact the Persian 
monarch agreed not to tax or molest the Greek colonies on the 
coast of Asia Minor, nor to send any vessels of war westwards of 
Phaselis in Lycia, or within the Cyanean rocks at the junction 
of the Euxine with the Thracian Bosporus ; the Athenians on 
their side undertaking to leave the Persians in undisturbed pos- 
session of C}7)rus and Eg}'pt. Even if no treaty was actually 
concluded, the existence of such a state of relations between 
Greece and Persia at this time must be recognized as an histo- 
rical fact, and the war between them considered as now brought 
to a conclusion. 

^ 20. During the progress of these events the states which 
formed the Confederacy of Delos, with the exception of Chios, 
Lesbos, and Samos, had gradually become, instead of the active 



B.C. 447. DECLINE OF THE ATHENIAN TOWER. 263 

allies of Athens, her disarmed and passive tributaries. Even the 
custody of the fund had been transferred from Delos to Athens, but 
we are unable to specify the precise time at which this change took 
place. This transfer marked the subjection of the confederates 
as complete ; yet it is said to have been made with the con- 
currence of the Samians ; and it is probable that Delos would 
have been an unsafe place for the deposit of so large a treasure. 
The purpose for which the confederacy had been originally orga- 
nized disappeared with the Persian peace ; yet what may now be 
called imperial Athens continued, for her own ends, to exercise 
her prerogatives as head of the league. Her alliances, as we 
have seen, had likev-i^^e been extended in continental Greece, 
where they embraced Megara, Boeotia, Phocis, Locris ; together 
with Troezen and Achaia in Peloponnesus. Of these allies some 
were merely bound to military service and a conformity of 
foreign policy, whilst others were dependent tributaries. Of the 
former kind were the states just mentioned, together with Chios, 
Lesbos, and Samos ; whilst in the latter were comprehended all 
the remaining members of the Confederacy of Delos, as well as 
the recently conquered ^gina. Such was the position of Athens 
in the year 448 e.g., the period of her greatest power and pros- 
perity. From this time her empire began to decline ; whilst 
Sparta, and other watchful and jealous enemies, stood ever ready 
to strike a blow. 

s^ 21. In the following year (b.c. 447) a revolution in Boeotia 
deprived Athens of her ascendency in that country. This, as 
we have seen, was altogether political, being founded in the de- 
mocracies which she had established in the Boeotian towns after 
the battle of Q^noph}i;a. These measures had not been elFected 
without producing a numerous and powerful class of discon- 
tented exiles, who, being joined by other malcontents from 
Phocis, Locris, and other places, succeeded in seizing Orclio- 
menus, Chseronea, and a few more unimportant towns of Boeotia. 
With an overweening contempt of their enemies, a small band of 
1000 Athenian hophtes, chiefly composed of youthful volunteers 
belonging to the best Athenian families, together with a few 
auxiliaries, marched under the command of Tolmides to put 
down the revolt, in direct opposition to the advice of Pericles, 
who adjured them to wait and collect a more numerous force. 
The enterprise proved disastrous in the extreme. Tolmides suc- 
ceeded, indeed, in retaking Chajronea and garrisoning it with an 
Athenian foyce ; but whilst his small army was retiring from the 
place, it was surprised by the enemy and totally defeated. Tol- 
mides himself fell in the engagement, together with many of tlie 
hophtes, whilst a still larger number were taken prisoners. This 



264 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chat. XXIIL 

last circumstance proved fatal to the interests of Athens in 
Boeotia, In order to recover these prisoners, she agreed to eva- 
cuate Boeotia, to restore the exiles, and to permit the re-esta- 
blishment of the aristocracies w^hicli she had formerly overthro^^Ti. 
Thus all BoBotia, with the exception of Platsea, once more stood 
opposed, and indeed doubly hostile, to Athens. 

But the Athenian reverses did not end here. The ex- 
pulsion of the partizans of Athens from the government of 
Phocis and Locris, and the revolt of Euboia and Megara, w^ere 
announced in quick succession ; whilst to crown all, the Spartans, 
who were now set free to act by the termination of the five 
years' truce, were preparing to invade Attica itself The youtliful 
Pleistoanax, king of Sparta, actually penetrated, with an army of 
Lacedaemonians and Peloponnesian allies, as far as the neigh- 
bourhood of Eleusis ; and the capital itself, it is said, was saved 
only by Pericles having bribed the Spartan monarch, as well as 
Cleandrides, his adjutant and counsellor, to evacuate the country. 
The story was at least believed at Sparta ; for both Pleistoanax 
and Cleandrides were found guilty -^f corruption and sent into 
baidshment. 

^ 22. Pericles had been recalled by the Spartan invasion from 
an expedition which he had undertaken for the reconquest of Eu- 
boea, and which he resumed as soon as the Spartans had departed 
from Attica. With an overwhelming force of 50 triremes and 
5000 hophtes he soon succeeded in reducing the island to obe- 
dience, in some parts of which the landowners were expelled and 
their . properties given to Athenian cleruchs or colonists. But 
this was the only possession which Athens succeeded in recover- 
ing. Her empire on land had vanished more speedily than it 
had been acquired ; whilst in the distance loomed the danger of 
an extensive and formidable confederacy against her, realized 
some years afterwards by the Peloponnesian war, and not unde- 
servedly provoked by lier aggressive schemes of conquest and 
empire. Thus both her present position and her future prospects 
were well calculated to fill the Athenians, and their leader Peri- 
cles, with apprehension and alarm ; and under these feelings of 
despondency they were induced to conclude, at the beginning of 
the year B.C. 445, a thirty years' truce with Sparta and her allies, 
by which they consented to abandon all the acquisitions which 
they had made in Peloponnesus, and to leave Megara to be 
included among the Peloponnesian allies of Sparta. 










The Acropolis restored. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



FROM THE THIRTY YEARS TRUCE TO THE WAR BETAVEEN CORINTH 
AND CORCYRA. 

§ 1. State of parties at Athens. Thuc^'dides. § 2. Opposite political 
views, § 3. Ostracism of Thucydides. Administration of Pericles. 
He adorns Athens. His foreign policy. § 4. Athenian colonization. 
Cleruchire, Thurii and Amphipolis. § 5. Nature of the Athenian 
maritime empire. Amount of tribute. Oppressions, § 6. Revolt 
of Samos, Reduction of the island by Pericles. 

§ 1. The aristocratical party at Athens had been nearly anni- 
hilated by the measures of Pericles recorded in the precedint; 
chapter. In order to make a final eflbrt against the policy of 
that statesman, the remnant of this party had united them- 
selves under Thucydides, the son of Melesias. Thucydides — 
who must not be confounded with his namesake, the great 
historian — was a relative of Cimon's, to whose political prin- 
ciples he succeeded. In ability and character he diHered 
considerably from Cimon. He was not much distinguished 
as a militaiy man ; but as a statesman and orator he might 
even bear some comparison with his great opponent Pericles. 
Thucydides, however, had not the advantage of being on the 
popular side ; and his manner of leading the opposition soon 
proved the ruin both of himself and of his party. The high 
character and great services of Aristides and Cimon, tlic con- 
ciliatory manners of both, and especially the atiiible and generous 

N 



266 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXIV. 

temper of Cimon, had, in spite of their unpopular views, se- 
cured them considerable influence. Thucydides, on the con- 
trary, does not appear to have been distinguished by any of 
these quaUties ; and though the steps which he took to give his 
party a stronger organization in the assembly at first enabled 
him to make head against Pericles, yet they ultimately proved 
the cause of his overthrow. Not only were his adherents urged 
to a more regular attendance in the assembly, but they were 
also instructed to take up a separate and distinct position on 
the benches ; and thus, instead of being mixed as before with 
the general mass of citizens, they became a regularly organized 
pxrty. This arrangement seemed at first to lend them strength. 
Their applause or dissent, being more concentrated, produced a 
greater etfect. At any sudden turn in a debate they were in a 
better position to concert their measures, and could more readily 
put forwards their best speakers according to emergencies. But 
these advantages were counterbalanced by still greater draw- 
backs. A little knot of men, who from a particular comer of 
the ecclesia were constantly opposing the most popular mea- 
sures, naturally incurred a great share of odium and suspicion ; 
but what was still worse, the paucity of their numbers — and 
from their position they could easily be counted — ^was soon re- 
marked ; and they then began to fall into contempt, and were 
designated as The Few. 

k 2. The points of dispute between the two parties were much 
the same as they had been in the time of Cimon. Thucydides and 
his followers were for maintaining amicable relations with the 
rest of Greece, and were opposed to the more popular notion of 
extending the Athenian dominion even at the risk of incurring 
the hostility of the other Grecian states. They were of opinion 
that all their efforts should be directed against the common 
enemy, the Persians ; and that the advantages which Athens 
derived from the Confederacy of Delos should be strictly and 
honestly applied to the purposes for which that confederacy 
had been formed. With regard to this subject the administra- 
tion of Pericles had produced a fresh point of contention. The 
vast amount of treasure accumulated at Athens from the tribute 
paid by the allies was more than sufficient for any apprehended 
necessities of defence, and Pericles applied the surplus to 
strengthening and beautifying the city. Thucydides complained 
that, by this misapplication of the common fund, Athens was dis- 
graced in the eyes of Greece. Pericles, on the other hand, con- 
tended that so long as he reserved sufficient to guarantee secu- 
rity against the Persians, he was perfectly at liberty to apply the 
surplus to Athenian purposes. This argument is the argument 



B.C. 445. TERICLES ADORNS ATHKNS. 207 

of the strongest, and, if valid in this case, might at any time be 
apphed to justify the grossest abuses of power. The best that 
we can say in favour of the Athenians is that, if they were strong 
enough to commit this injustice, they were also enlightened 
enough to apply the proceeds in producing works of art that 
have excited the wonder and admiration of the world. Other 
conquerors have often contented themselves with canying off 
the works of others — the Athenians had genius enough to pro- 
duce their own. But we can hardly justify the means by point- 
ing to the result. 

^ 3. From the opposition of Thucydides, Pericles was released 
by ostracism ; though by which party such a step w as proposed 
cannot be determined. Thucydides went into banishment. This 
event, which probably took place about two years after the con- 
clusion of the Thirty Years' Truce, completely broke up the 
aristocratical party; and lor the remainder of his life Pericles 
enjoyed the sole direction of aflairs. His views were of the 
most lofty kind. Athens was to become the capital of Greece, 
the centre of art and refinement, and at the same tim.e of these 
democratical theories which formed the beaic ideal of the Athe- 
nian notions of government. In her external appearance the 
city was to be rendered worthy of the high position to which 
she aspired by the beauty and splendour of her public buildings, 
by her works of art in sculpture, architecture, and painting, and 
by the pomp and magnificence of her religious festivals. All 
these objects Athens was enabled to attain in an incredibly 
short space of time, through the genius and energy of her citi- 
zens and the vast resources at her command. No state has ever 
exhibited so much intellectual activity and so great a progress 
in art as was displayed by Athens in the period which elapsed 
between the Thirty Years' Truce and the breaking out of the 
Peloponnesian war. But of the literature of this period, as well 
as of the great works of art produced in it, an account is given 
in another place,* and it will suffice to mention briefly here the 
more important structures with which Athens was adorned dur- 
ing the administration of Pericles. On the Acropolis rose the 
magnificent temple of Athena, called the Parthenon, built from 
the plans of Ictinus and Callicrates, but under the direction of 
Phidias, who adorned it with the most beautiful sculptures, and 
especially with a colossal statue of Athena in ivory, 47 feet in 
height. At the same time a theatre designed for musical per- 
formances, called the Odeum, was erected at the south-eastern 
foot of the Acropolis. Both these structures appear to have been 

* See below, Chap. XXXIV., XXXV. 



268 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXIV. 

finished by 437 b.c. Somewhat later were erected the Propy- 
lasa, or magnificent entrance to the Acropohs, on the western 
side. Besides these vast works, others were commenced which 
were interrupted by the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war, 
as the reconstruction of the Erechtheum, or ancient temple of 
Athena Polias; the building of a great temple of Demeter, at 
Eleusis, for the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries ; an- 
other of Athena at Sunium, and one of Nemesis at Rhamnus. 
Besides these ornamental works, Pericles undertook others of a 
more useful kind. In order to render the communication be- 
tween Athens and Pirasus still more secure, he constructed a 
third long wall between the two already built, running parallel 
to, and at a short distance from, the one which united the city 
to Piraeus. At the same time Pirseus itself was improved and 
beautified, and a new dock and arsenal constructed, said to have 
cost 1000 talents. The whole cost of these improvements was 
estimated at 3000 talents, or nearly 700,000Z. 

In this part of his plans Pericles may be said to have been 
entirely successful. The beautiful works which arose under his 
superintendence established the empire of Athenian taste, not 
only for his own time but for all succeeding ages. But the other 
and more substantial part of his projects — the establishment of 
the material empire of Athens, of which these works were to 
be but the type and ornament — was founded on a miscalcula- 
tion of the physical strength and resources of his country ; and 
after involving Athens, as will be seen in the sequel, in a long 
series of suffering and misfortune, ended at last in her degrada- 
tion and ruin. 

^ 4. Colonization, for which the genius and inclination of the 
Athenians had always been suited, was another and safer method 
adopted by Pericles for extending the influence and empire of 
Athens. The settlements made under his auspices were of two 
kinds, Clcruchies,^'^ and regular colonies. The Ibrmer mode was 
exclusively Athenian. It consisted in the allotment of land in 
conquered or subject countries to certain bodies of Athenians, 
who continued to retain all their original rights of citizenship. 
This circumstance, as well as the convenience of entering upon 
land already in a state of cultivation, instead of having to re- 
claim it from the rude condition of nature, seems to have render- 
ed sucli a mode of settlement much preferred by the Athenians. 
The earliest instance which we find of it is in the year b.c. 50G, 
when four thousand Athenians entered upon the domains of the 
Chalcidian knights. But it was under Pericles that this system 

* K?i7ipovxcai. 



B.C. 443. ATHENIAN COLONIES. 269 

was most extensively adopted. During his administration 1000 
Athenian citizens were settled in the Thracian Chersonese, 500 
in Naxos, and 250 in Andros. His expeditions for this purpose 
even extended into the Euxine. From Sinope, on the shores of 
that sea, he expelled the despot Timesilaus and his party, whose 
estates were confiscated, and assigned for the maintenance of 
600 Athenian citizens. The islands of Lemnos, Imbros, and 
Scyros, as well as a large tract in the north of Eubcea, were also 
completely occupied by Athenian proprietors. 

The most important colonies settled by Pericles were those of 
Thurii and Amphipolis. Since the destruction of Sybaris by the 
Crotoniates, in c.c. 509, the formicr inhabitants had lived dis- 
persed in the adjoining territory along the gulf of Tarentum. 
They had in vain requested Sparta to recolonize them, and now 
applied to Pericles, who granted their request. In B.C. 443 he 
Bent out a colony to found Thurii, near the site of the ancient 
Sybaris. But though established under the auspices of Athens, 
Thurii can hardly be considered an Athenian colony, since it 
contained settlers from almost all parts of Greece. Among 
those who joined this colony were the historian Herodotus and 
the orator Lysias. The colony of Amphipolis was founded some 
years later (b.c. 437), under the conduct of Agnon. But here 
also the proportion of Athenian settlers was small. Amphipolis 
was in fact only a new name for Ennea Hodoi, to colonize 
which place the Athenians, as before related, had already made 
some unsuccessful attempts. They now succeeded in maintain- 
ing their ground against the Edonians, and Amphipolis became 
an important Athenian dependency with reference to Thrace and 
Macedonia. 

^ 5. Such were the schemes of Pericles for promoting the em- 
pire of Athens. That empire, since the conclusion of the Thirty 
Years' Truce, had again become exclusively maritime. Yet even 
among the subjects and allies united with Athens by the Con- 
federacy of Delos, her sway was borne with growing discontent. 
One of the chief causes of this dissatisfaction was the amount of 
the tribute exacted by the Athenians, as well as their misappli- 
cation of the proceeds. During the administration of Pericles, 
the rate of contribution was raised upwards of thirty per cent., 
although the purpose for which the tribute was originally levied 
had almost entirely ceased. In the time of Aristides and Cimon, 
when an active war was carrying on against the Persians, the 
sum annually collected amounted to 460 talents. In the time of 
Pericles, although that war had been brought to a close by what 
has been called the peace of Cimon, and though the only arma- 
ment still maintained for the ostensible purposes of the con- 



270 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXIV. 

federacy was a fleet of sixty triremes, which cruised m the 
TEgaean, the tribute had nevertheless increased to the annual 
sum of 600 talents. The importance of this tribute to the 
Athenians may be estimated Irom the fact that it formed con- 
siderably more than half of their whole revenue ; for their in- 
come from other sources amounted only to 400 talents. It may be 
said, indeed, that Greece was not even yet wholly secure from 
another Persian invasion ; and that Athens was therefore justified 
in continuing to collect the tribute, out of which it must injustice 
to Pericles be admitted, a large sum had been laid by, amounting, 
when the Peloponnesian war broke out, to GOOO talents. But 
that there was no longer much danger to be apprehended from 
the Persians is shown by subsequent events ; and though it is 
true that Pericles saved a large sum, yet he had spent much in 
decorating Athens ; and the surplus was ultimately applied, not 
for the purposes of the league, but in defending Athens from 
enemies which her aggressive policy had provoked. 

But the tribute was not the only grievance of w] lich the alhes 
had to complain. Of all the members of the C>»nfederacy of 
Delos, the islands of Chios, Samos, and Lesbos y\ ere the only 
states which now held the footing of independent a Hies : that is, 
they alone were allowed to retain their ships and fortifications, 
and were only called upon to furnish military aud naval aid 
when required. The other members of the league, some of them 
indeed with their own consent, had been deprived of their navy 
and reduced to the condition of tributaries. The deliberative 
synod for discussing and conducting the aflliirs of the league 
had been discontinued, probably from the time when the trea- 
sury was removed from Delos to Athens ; whilst the Helleno- 
tamiffi had been converted into a board consisting solely of 
Athenians. Notwithstanding, therefore, the seeming independ- 
ence of the three islands just mentioned, the Athenians were in 
fact the sole arbiters of the aflairs of the league, and the sole 
administrators of the fund. Another grievance was the trans- 
ference to Athens of all lawsuits, at least of all public suits ; for 
on this subject we are unable to draw the line distinctly. In 
criminal cases, at all events, the allies seem to have been 
deprived of the power to inflict capital punishment. It can 
scarcely be doubted that even private suits in which an Athe- 
nian was concerned were referred to Athens. In some cases, it 
is true, the allies may have derived benefit from a trial before 
the Athenian people, as the dicasteries were then constituted ; 
but on the whole, the practice can only be regarded as a means 
and a badge of their subjection. Besides all these causes of 
complaint, the allies had often to endure the oppressions and 



B.C. 440. REDUCTION OF SAMOS. 271 

exactions of Athenian officers both mihtary and naval, as 
well as of the rich and powerful Athenian citizens settled among 
them. 

Many of these abuses had no doubt arisen before the time of 
Pericles ; but the excuse for them had at all events ceased to 
exist with the death of Cimon and the extinction of the Persian 
war. To expect that the Athenians should have voluntarily 
relinquished the advantages derived from them might be to de- 
mand too much of human nature, especially as society was then 
constituted ; and the Athenians perhaps, on the whole, did not 
abuse their power to a greater extent than many other nations 
both in ancient and modern times. With this argument for 
their exculpation we must rest content ; for it is the only 
one. They were neither better nor worse than other people. 
The allurement, it must be confessed, was a splendid one. By 
means of the league Athens had become the mistress of many 
scattered cities, formerly her equals ; and the term of desjoot over 
them was applied to her not only by her enemies, but adopted 
in her overweening confidence and pride by herself. 

^ 6. The principal event in the external history of Athens 
during the period comprised in the present chapter was the 
subjugation of the island of Samos, the most important of 
the three islands which still retained their independence. In 
B.C. 440, the Milesians, who had been defeated by the Samians 
in a war respecting the possession cf Priene, lodged a formal 
complaint in Athens against the Samians ; and it was seconded 
by a party in Samos itself, who were adverse to the oligar- 
chical form of government established there. As the Sa- 
mians refused to submit to the arbitration of the Athenians, 
the latter resolved to reduce them to obedience by force ; and 
for that purpose despatched an armam'^nt of forty ships to 
Samos, under the command of Pericles, who established a demo- 
cratical form of government in the island, and carried away 
hostages belonging to the first Samian families, whom he de- 
posited in the isle of Lemnos. But no sooner had Pericles 
departed than some of the oligarchical party, supported by 
Pissuthnes, satrap of Sardis, passed over in the night time to 
Samos, overpowered the small Athenian garrison which had been 
left by Pericles, and abolished the democracy. They then pro- 
ceeded to Lemnos, and having regained possession of the hos- 
tages, proclaimed an open revolt against Athens, in which they 
were joined by Byzantium. 

When these tidings reached Athens a fleet of sixty triremes 
immediately sailed for Samos. Pericles was again one of the ten 
strategi or generals in command of the expedition, and among his 



2*72 HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. XXIV. 

colleagues was Sophocles, the tragic poet. After several engage- 
ments between the hostile fleets, the Samians were obUged to 
abandon the sea and take refuge in their city, which, after en- 
during a siege of nine months, was forced to capitulate. 

The Samians were com.pelled to raze their fortifications, to 
surrender their fleet, to give hostages for their future conduct, 
and to pay the expenses of the war, amounting to 1000 talents. 
The Byzantines submitted at the same time. During these 
operations, it was a point disputed among the states opposed to 
Athens whether the Samians should be assisted in their revolt ; 
a question decided in the negative, chiefly through the influence 
of the Corinthians, who m.aintained the right of every confe- 
deracy to punish its refractory members. 

The triumphs and the power of Athens were no doubt 
regarded with fear and jealousy by her rivals ; but the conquest 
of Samos was not followed by any open manifestation of hos- 
tility. A general impression however prevailed that sooner 
or later a war must ensue ; but men looked forwards to it 
with fear and trembling from a conviction of the internecine 
character which it must necessarily assume. It was a hollow 
peace, which the most trifling events might disturb. The train 
was already laid ; and an apparently unimportant event, which 
occurred in B.C. 435 in a remote comer of Greece, kindled the 
spark which was to produce the conflagration. This was the 
quarrel between Corinth and Corcyra, which will be detailed iu 
the following chapter. 




£jU8t of the poet Sopho«lott 




The Propylaea of the Acropolis. 



CHAPTER XXY. 



CAUSES OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 



§ 1. Quarrel between Corinth and Corcyra. § 2. Corcyrean embassy 
to Athens. Decision of the Athenians. § 3. They send a fleet to 
Corcyra. Naval engagements. Defeat of the Corinthians, § 4. Re- 
volt of Potidsea. § 5. Congress of the Peloponnesian allies at Sparta. 
The Spartans. decide for war. § 6. Second congress. The allies re- 
solve upon war. § 1. The Lacedaemonians require the Athenians to 
expel Pericles. § 8. Attacks upon Pericles, Aspasia, and Anaxagoras, 
Imprisonment and death of Phidias. § 9. Further requisitions of the 
Lacedaemonians. Rejected by the Athenians. § 10. The Thebans 
surprise Platsea. § 11- The Athenians prepare for war. Portents. 
§ 12. Forces of the Lacedaemonians and Athenians. § 13. The Pelo- 
ponnesian army assembles at the isthmus of Corinth. 

M- On the coast of Illyria, near the site of the modern Du- 
razzo, the Corcyraeans had founded the city of Epidamnus. Cor- 
cyra (now Corfu) was itself a colony of Corinth ; and, though 
long at enmity with its mother country, was forced, according to 
the time-hallowed custom of the Greeks in such matters, to 
select the founder or cecist of Epidamnus from the Corinthians. 
Accordingly Corinth became the metropolis of Epidamnus also. 
At the time of which we speak, the Epidamnians were hard 
l)ressed by the Illyrians, led by some oligarchical exiles of their 
own city, whom they had expelled in consequence of a domestic 
sedition. In their distress they applied to Corcyra for assist- 



274 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXV. 

ance ; which the Corcyrseans, being principally connected with 
the Epidamnian oligarchy, refused. The Epidamnians, after con- 
sulting the oracle of Delphi, then sought help from the Corin- 
thians, who undertook to assist them, and organized an expedi- 
tion for that purpose, consisting partly of new settlers, and partly 
of a military force. The CorcyraBans highly resented this mter- 
ference, proceeded to restore the Epidamnian oligarchs, and with 
a fleet of 40 ships blockaded the town and its new Corinthian 
garrison. Hereupon the Corinthians fitted out a still stronger 
expedition, for which they collected both ships and money from 
their allies. The Corcyrseans, having made a fruitless attempt 
to persuade the Corinthians to refer the matter to arbitration, 
prepared to meet the blow. Their fleet, the best in Greece after 
that of Athens, completely defeated the Corinthians off" Cape 
Actium ; and on the same day Epidamnus surrendered to their 
blockading squadron (b.c. 435). 

^ 2. Deeply humbled by this defeat, the Corinthians spent the 
two following years in active preparations for retrieving, it. 
They got ready 90 well-manned ships of their own ; and by active 
exertions among their allies, they were m a condition, in the 
third year after their disgrace, to put to sea with a fleet of 150 
sail. The Corcyrseans, who had not enrolled themselves either 
in the Lacedaemonian or Athenian alliance, and therefore stood 
alone, were greatly alarmed at these preparations. They now 
resolved to remedy this deficiency ; and as Corinth belonged to 
the Lacedaemonian alhance, the Corcyraeans had no option, and 
were obliged to apply to Athens. Ambassadors were accord- 
ingly despatched to that city, who, being introduced into the 
assembly, endeavoured to set in a striking hght the great acces- 
sion of naval power which the Athenians would derive from an 
alliance with the Corcyraeans. The Corinthians, who had also 
sent an embassy to Athens, replied to the arguments of the 
Corcyraean envoys, appealing to the terais of the Thirty Years' 
Truce, and reminding the Athenians that it was through the 
representations of the Corinthians that the Peloponnesian allies 
had not assisted the Sam.ians in their late revolt. . The opinions 
of the Athenian assembly were much divided on the subject ; 
but the views of Pericles and other speakers at length pre- 
vailed. They urged that whatever course might now be taken, 
war could not ultimately be avoided ; and that therefore the 
more prudent course was to avail themselves of the increase 
of strength offered by the Corcyraean alliance, rather than to be 
at last driven to undertake the war at a comparative disadvantage. 
To avoid, however, an open infringement of the Thirty Years' 
Truce, a middle course was adopted. It was resolved to con- 



B.n 433. CORINTH AND CORCYRA. 275 

elude only a defensive alliance with Corcyra ; that is, to defend 
the Corcyrseans in case their territories were actually invaded by 
the Corinthians, but beyond that not to lend them any active 
assistance. 

^ 3. By entering upon this merely defensive alhance the Athe- 
nians also hoped to stand aloof and see the Corintliian and Cor- 
cyraean fleets mutually destroy one another ; and it was probably 
in accordance with this policy that only a small squadron of 
ten triremes, under the command of Lacedaemonius the son of 
Cimon, was despatched to the assistance of the Corcyraeans. 
The Corinthian fleet of 150 sail took up its station at Cape Chei- 
merium on the coast of Epirus ; where the Corinthians establish- 
ed a naval camp, and summoned to their assistance the friendly 
Epirot tribes. The Corcyresan fleet of 110 sail, together with 
the 10 Athenian ships, were stationed at one of the adjoining 
islands called Sybota. A battle speedily ensued, which for the 
number of ships engaged, was the greatest yet fought between 
fleets entirely Grecian. Neither side, however, had yet adopted 
the Athenian tactics. They had no conception of that mode of 
attack in which the ship itself, by the method of handling it, 
became a more important instrument than the crew by which 
it was manned. Their only idea of a naval engagement was to 
lay the ships alongside one another, and to leave the hoplites on 
deck to decide the combat after the fashion of a land fight. At 
first Lacedaemonius, in accordance with his instructions, took no 
part in the battle, though he afforded all the assistance he could 
to the Corcyraeans by manoeuvring as if he were preparing to 
engage. After a hard fought day, victory finally declared in 
favour of the Corinthians. The Athenians now abandoned their 
neutrality, and did all in their power to save the flying Corcy- 
raeans from their pursuers. This action took place early in the 
morning ; and the Corinthians, after returning to the spot where 
it had been fought in order to pick up their own dead and 
wounded, prepared to renew the attack in the afternoon, and to 
effect a landing at Corcyra. The Corcyraeans made the best 
preparations they could to receive them, and the Athenians, 
who were now within the strict letter of their instructions, de- 
termined to give their new allies all the assistance in their 
power. The war paean had been sounded, and the Corinthian 
line was in full advance, when suddenly it tacked and stood away 
to the coast of Epiinis. This unexpected retreat was caused by 
the appearance of 20 Athenian vessels in the distance, which the 
Corinthians believed to be the advanced guard of a still larger 
fleet. But though this was not the case, the succour proved 
sufficient to deter the Corinthians from any further hostilitiei; 



STe HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. XXV. 

Drawing up their ships along the coast of Epirus, they sent a 
few men in a small boat to remonstrate with the Athenians for 
having violated the truce ; and finding from the parley that the 
Athenians did not mean to undertake offensive operations against 
them, they sailed homewards with their whole fleet, after erect- 
ing a trophy at Sybota. On reaching Corinth 800 of their pri- 
soners were sold as slaves ; but the remaining 250, many of whom 
belonged to the first families in Corcyra, though detained in 
custody were treated with peculiar kindness, in the hope that 
they would eventually establish in that island a party favourable 
to Corinth. These events took place in the year b.c. 432. 

§ 4. The Corinthians were naturally incensed at the conduct 
of Athens, a:. I it is not surprising that they should have watched 
for an opportunity of revenge. This was soon afforded them by 
the enmity of the Macedonian prince Perdiccas towards the 
Athenians. Offended with the Athenians for having received 
into their alliance his two l^rothers Philip and Derdas, with whom 
he was at open variance, Perdiccas exerted all liis efforts to injure 
Athens. He incited her tributaries among the Chalcidians and 
Bottiaeans to revolt, including Potidsea, a town seated on the 
isthmus of Pallene. Potidsea, though nov/ a tributary of Athens, 
was originally a colony of the Cormthians, towards whom it still 
owed a sort of metropolitan allegiance, and received from them 
certain annual magistrates called Epidemiurgi. Aware of the 
hostile feeling entertained at Corinth against the Athenians, 
Perdiccas not only sent envoys to that city to concert measures 
for a revolt of Potidsea, but also to Sparta to induce the Pelopon- 
nesian league to declare war against Athens. 

The Athenians were not ignorant of these proceedings. They 
were about to despatch an armament to the Thermaic gulf, de- 
signed to act against Perdiccas ; and they now directed the com- 
mander of this armament to require the Potideeans to level their 
walls on the side of the town towards the sea, to dismiss theit 
Corinthian magistrates, and to give hostages, as a pledge of theii 
future fidelity. Thereupon the Potidseans openly raised the 
standard of revolt, in the summer apparently of b.c. 432. In- 
stead of immediately blockading Potidaea the Athenian fleet 
wasted six weeks in the siege of Therma, during which interval 
the Corhitliians were enabled to throw a reinforcement of 2000 
troops into Potidaea. Thereupon a second armament was de- 
spatched from Athens, and joined the former one, which was 
now engaged in the siege of Pydna on the Macedonian coast. But 
as the town promised to hold out for some time, and as the 
necessity for attacking Potidaea seemed pressing, an accommo- 
dation was patched up with Perdiccas, and the whole Athenian 



B.C. 432. MEETING OF THE PELOPONNESIAN ALLIES. 277 

force marched overland against Potidsea. Aristeus, the Corinthian 
general, was waiting to receive them near Olynthus, and a battle 
ensued in which the Athenians were victorious. The Corinthians 
ultimately succeeded in effecting their retreat to Potidsea ; and 
the Athenians, after receiving a further reinforcement, com- 
pletely blockaded the town both by sea and land. 

§ 5. Meanwhile the Lacedaemonians, urged on all sides by the 
complaints of their allies, summoned a general meeting of the 
Peloponnesian confederacy at Sparta. Besides the Corinthians 
other members of it had heavy grievances to allege against 
Athens. Foremost among these were the Megarians, who com- 
plained that their commerce had been ruined by a recent decree 
of the Athenians, which excluded them from every port within 
the Athenian jurisdiction. The pretexts for this severe measure 
were that the Megarians had harboured runaway Athenian 
slaves, and had cultivated pieces of unappropriated and conse- 
crated land upon the borders. These reasons seem frivolous ; 
and the real cause of the decree must no doubt be ascribed to 
the hatred which the Athenians entertained towards Megara, 
since her revolt from them fourteen years before. jEgina was 
another, though not an open, accuser. No deputy from that 
island actually appeared at the congress ; but the ^Eginetans 
loudly complained through the mouths of others, that Athens 
withheld from them the independence to which they were entitled. 

The assembly having been convened, the deputies from the 
various allied cities addressed it in turn, the Corinthian envoy 
reserving himself for the last. He depicted in glowing language 
the ambition, the enterprise, and the perseverance of Athens, 
which he contrasted with the over-cautious and inactive policy 
of Sparta. Addressing himself to the Spartans, he exclaimed : 
" The Athenians are naturally innovators, prompt both in de- 
cidirxg and in acting : whilst you only think of keeping what 
you have got, and do even less than what positive necessity re- 
quires. Tkeij are bold beyond their means, venturesome beyond 
their judgment, sanguine even in desperate reverses ; you do 
even less than you are able to perform, distrust your own con- 
clusions, and when in difficulties fall into utter despair. They 
never hang back ; you never advance ; they love to serve abroad, 
you seem chained at home ; ^^ey believe that every new movement 
will procure them fresh advantage ; you fancy that every new 
step will endanger what you already possess." And after telling 
them some more home-truths, he concluded with a threat that if 
they still delayed to perform their duty towards their confede- 
rates, the Corinthians would forthwith seek some other alliance. 

An Athenian ambassador, charged with some other business. 



278 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXV 

was then residing at Sparta ; and when the Corinthian envoy- 
had concluded his address, he rose to reply to it. After de- 
nying the right of Sparta to interfere in a dispute between 
Corinth and Athens, he entered into a general vindication of the 
Athenian policy. He contended that empire had not been 
sought by Athens, but thrust upon her, and that she could not 
abdicate it without endangering her very existence. He alluded 
to the eminent services rendered by Athens to all Greece during 
the Persian war ; maintained that her empire was the natural 
result of that conjuncture, and denied that it had been exercised 
with more severity than was necessary, or than would have been 
used by any other Grecian power, including Sparta herself He 
concluded by calling upon the Lacedaemonians to pause before 
taking a step which would be irretrievable, and to compose all 
present differences by an amicable arbitration ; declaring that, 
should Sparta begin the war, Athens was prepared to resist her, 
as he now called those gods to witness who had been invoked to 
sanctify the truce. 

After these speeches had been delivered, all strangers, in- 
cluding the Peloponnesian allies, were ordered to withdraw from 
the assembly, and the Lacedaemonians then proceeded to de- 
cide among themselves the question of peace or war. In this 
debate the Spartan king Archidamus spoke strongly in favour of 
peace ; but the ephor Sthenela'idas, who presided upon this occa- 
sion in the assembly, called upon his countrymen in a short and 
vigorous speech to declare immediate war against Athens. The 
Spartan assembly was accustomed to vote by acclamation, and, 
on the question being put, the vote for war decidedly predomi- 
nated. But in order to remove all doubts upon so important a 
subject, Sthenela'idas, contrary to the usual practice, ordered 
the assembly to divide, when a vast majority declared themselves 
for war. 

^ 6. Before their resolution was publicly announced, the Lace- 
daemonians, with characteristic caution, sent to consult the oracle 
of Delphi upon the subject. The god having promised them 
his aid, and assured them of success, provided they exerted 
themselves to obtain it, another congress of the allies was sum- 
moned at Sparta. Li this, as in the former one, the Corinthians 
took the most prominent part in the debate. The majority of 
the congress decided for war, thus binding the whole Peloponne- 
sian confederacy to the same policy. This important resolution 
was adopted towards the close of b.c 432, or early in the fol- 
lowing year. 

^ 7 . Previously to an open declaration of war, the Lacedaemo- 
nians sent several requisitions to Athens, intended apparently to 



i 



B.C. 432. ATTACKS UPON PERICLES. 279 

justify the step they were about to take against her, in case she 
refused to comply with their demands. The first of these requi- 
sitions seems to have been a pohtical mancEuvre, aimed against 
Pericles, their most constant and powerful enemy in the Athe- 
nian assembly. Pericles, as we have said, belonged to the Alc- 
mseonidae ; a family regarded as having incurred an inexpiable 
taint through the sacrilege committed nearly two centuries 
before by their ancestor Megacles, in causing the adherents of 
Cylon to be slaughtered at the altar of the Eumenides, whither 
they had fled for refuge.* The Lacedaemonians, in now demand- 
ing that Athens should be delivered from this " abomination," 
hardly expected that she would consent to the banishment of 
her great statesman ; but they at all events gave his opponents 
in the assembly an opportunity to declaim against him, and to 
fix upon him the odium of being, in part at least, the cause of 
the impending war. 

^ 8. For Pericles, despite his influence and power, Lad still 
many bitter and active enemies, who not long before had indi- 
rectly assailed him through his private connections, and even 
endeavoured to wound his honour by a charge of peculation. 
His mistress Aspasia belonged to that class of women whom the 
Greeks called lietcercB, literally " female companions," or as we 
should designate them, courtezans. Many of these women were 
distinguished not only for their beauty, but also for their wit 
and accomplishments, and in this respect formed a striking con- 
trast to the generalit)' of Athenian ladies ; who, being destined 
to a life of privacy and seclusion, did not receive the benefit 
of much mental culture. Pericles, after divorcing a wife with 
whom he had lived unhappily, took Aspasia to his house, and 
dwelt with her till his death on terms of the greatest affection. 
Their intimacy with Anaxagoras, the celebrated Ionic philoso- 
pher, was made a handle for wounding Pericles in his tenderest 
relations. Paganism, notwithstanding its hcence, was, with sur- 
prising inconsistency, capable of producing bigots : and even at 
Athens the man who ventured to dispute the existence of a 
hundred gods with morals and passions somewhat worse than 
those of ordinary human nature, did so at the risk of his life. 
Anaxagoras was indicted for impiety. Aspasia was included in 
the same charge, and dragged before the dicastery by the comic 
poet Hermippus. Anaxagoras prudently fled from Athens, and 
thus probably avoided a fate which in consequence of a similar 
accusation afterwards overtook Socrates. Pericles himself pleaded 
the cause of Aspasia. He was indeed indirectly implicated in 
the indictment ; but he felt no concern except for liis beloved 
* See above, p. 93 



280 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXV. 

Aspasia, and on this occasion the cold and somewhat haughty 
statesman, whom the most violent storms of the assembly could 
not deprive of his self-possession, was for once seen to weep. 
His appeal to the dicastery was successful, but another trial still 
awaited him. An indictment was preferred against his friend, 
the great sculptor Phidias, for embezzlement of the gold in- 
tended to adorn the celebrated ivory statue of Athena ; and 
according to some, Pericles himself was included in the charge 
of peculation. Whether Pericles was ever actually tried on 
this accusation is uncertain ; but at all events if he was, there 
can be no doubt that he was honourably acquitted. The gold 
employed in the statue had been fixed in such a manner that it 
could be detached and weighed, and Pericles challenged his ac- 
cusers to the proof But Phidias did not escape so fortunately. 
There were other circumstances which rendered him unpopular, 
and amongst them the fact that he had introduced portraits 
both of himself and Pericles in the sculptures which adorned the 
frieze of the Parthenon. Phidias died in prison before the day 
of trial ; and some even whispered that he had been poisoned by 
the enemies of Pericles, in order to increase the suspicions which 
attached to the latter. Another report, equally absurd and un- 
founded, was that Pericles, in order to avoid the impending 
accusation, kindled the Peloponnesian war. 

But although these proceedings proved that Pericles had many 
bitter enem.ies at Athens, still the majority of the Athenians 
were in his favour, and were not prepared to sacrifice him on 
account of the absurd and obsolete charge which the Lacedae- 
monians now thought fit to bring against him. They retorted 
that the Spartans themselves had some accounts to settle on the 
score of sacrilege, and required them to clear themselves from 
having violated the sanctuary of Poseidon at Cape Teenarus by 
dragging away and slaying the Helots who had taken refuge 
there, as well as from their impiety in starving to death the 
regent Pausanias in the temple of Athena Chalcicecus. 

§ 9. Having lailed in this requisition the Lacedaemonians 
brought forward others more pertinent to the matter in hand. 
They demanded that the Athenians should withdraw their 
troops from Potidsea, restore the independence of ^gina, and 
repeal their decree against the Megarians. On the last of these 
demands they laid particular stress, and intimated that war 
might be avoided by a compliance with it. But this was rejected 
as well as the others. The Lacedaemonians then sent their ulti- 
matum. They declared that they Avished for peace, and that it 
would not be interrupted if the Athenians consented to recognise 
tlve independence of the other Grecian states. 



B.C. 431. THE TIIEBANS SURPRISE PLATJSA. 281 

This last requisition, so different from, and so much more 
general than the preceding demands, showed clearly enough that 
the Lacedaemonians were resolved upon war. The character of 
this requisition seems to indicate that it had been adopted as a 
sort of manifesto in order to enhst the sympathy of all Greece in 
favour of the Pelopoimesian league, which now professed to 
stand forwards as the champion of its liberties. That this was 
the view taken of it by the Athenian assembly may be inferred 
from the debate that ensued, in which the principal topic was 
the Megarian decree, and the possibihty of still avoiding a war 
by its repeal. On this point a warm discussion took place. A 
majority of the assembly seemed still inclined for peace. IJut 
Pericles, in a speech of surpassing eloquence and power, again 
contended that no concessions could ultimately avert a warj and 
after passing in review the comparative forces of Athens and her 
opponents, concluded by persuading the Athenians to retixm for 
answer that they were reaay to give satisfaction respectuig any 
matter which properly concerned the Thirty Years' TrubC, and 
that they Avould forbear from conunencing hostilities ; b\tt that 
at the same time they were prepared to repel force by force. 
This answer was accordingly adopted, though not withouc much 
reluctance, and communicated to the Spartan envoys. 

MO. Before any actual declaration of war, and whilst both 
parties stood in suspense, hostilities were begun in the spring of 
B.C. 431 by a treacherous attack of the Thebans upoii Plat?Ba. 
Though BcEotians by descent, the Plataeans did not belong to 
the Boeotian league ; but, as we have seen, had long been in aUi- 
ance with the Athenians, and enjoyed in some degree a commu- 
nion of their civil rights. Hence they were regarded with hatred 
and jealousy by the Thebans, which sentiments were also shared 
by a small ohgarchical faction in Plataea itself The state of 
affairs in Greece seemed favourable for striking a secret and 
unexpected blow. Nauchdes, the head of the ohgarchical faction 
at Platsea, entered into a correspondence with the Thebans, and 
it was agreed to surprise the town at a time Vv'hen the citizens 
were off their guard. During a religious festival and m a rainy 
night, a body of more than 300 Thebans presented themselves 
before one of the gates of Plataea, and were admitted by Nau- 
clides and his partisans. The latter wished to conduct the 
Thebans at once to the houses of their chief political opponents, 
in order that they might be secured or made aw^ay with. The 
Thebans, however, hesitated to commit so gross a piece of vio- 
lence. They expected to be reinforced next day by the larger 
part of the Theban army, when they should be able to dictate 
their own terms •without having recourse to the invidious act 



282 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXV. 

which had been proposed to them. They accordingly took up 
a position in the agora, or market-place, and directed their 
herald to summon all the inhabitants whose pohtical views coin- 
cided with their own, to come and join their ranks. The first 
feehng of the Platseans was one of surprise and alarm on being 
roused from their sleep with the astounding inteUigence that 
their ancient enemies were in possession of their town. But 
when the small number of the Thebans began to be ascertained, 
they took heart, estabhshed communications with one another 
by breaking through the walls of their houses, and having barri- 
caded the streets with waggons, fell upon the enemy a little 
before daybreak. The Thebans formed in close order, and de- 
fended themselves as well as they could. But they were ex- 
hausted by their midnight march through a soaking rain ; they 
were unacquainted with the narrow crooked streets of the town, 
now choked "wdth mud and obstructed by barricades ; whilst the 
women hurhng the tiles from the housetops with loud yells and 
execrations, completed their confusion and dismay. A very few 
succeeded in escaping over the walls. The great majority, mis- 
taking the folding-doors of a large granary for the city gates, 
rushed in and were made prisoners. The march of the rein- 
forcement had been delayed by the rain, which had rendered the 
river Asopus scarcely fordable ; and when they at last arrived 
they found all their countrjinen either slain or captured. 

The Thebans without the walls now proceeded to lay hands on 
all the persons and property they could find, as pledges for the 
restoration of the prisoners. Hereupon the Plataeans despatched 
a herald to remonstrate against this flagrant breach of the exist- 
ing peace, promising at the same time that if they retired the 
prisoners should be giA^en up, but if not, that they would be im- 
mediately put to death. The Thebans withdrew on this under- 
standing. But no sooner were they gone than the Plataeans, 
instead of observing the conditions, removed all their moveable 
property from the country into the town, and then massacred 
all the prisoners to the number of 180. 

§ 11. At the first entrance of the Thebans into Platsea a mes- 
genger had been despatched to Athens with the news, and a 
second one after their capture. The Athenians immediately sent 
a herald to enjoin the Platsans to take no steps without their 
concurrence ; but he arrived too late, and the prisoners were 
already slain. So striking an incident as this attempt on the 
part of the Thebans could not fail to produce an immediate war, 
and the Athenians concerted their measures accordingly. They 
immediately issued orders for seizing all Boeotians who might 
happen to be in Attica, placed an Athenian garrison in Platsea, 



B.C. 431. FORCES \)F SPARTA AND ATHENS. 283 

and removed thence all the women and other inhabitants} inca- 
pable of taking a part in its defence. War was now fairly kindled. 
All Greece looked on in suspense as its two leading cities were 
about to engage in a strife of which no man could foresee the 
end ; but the youth, with which both Athens and Peloponnesus 
then abounded, having had no experience of the bitter calamities 
of war, rushed into it with ardour. Every city, nay, almost 
every individual, seemed desirous of taking a part in it ; most of 
them, however, from a feehng of hatred against Athens, and with 
a desire either of avoiding or of being relieved from her yoke. 
The predictions of soothsayers and oracles were heard on all 
sides, whilst natural portents were eagerly inquired after and in- 
terpreted. A recent earthquake in Delos, which had never 
before experienced such a calamity, seemed to foreshadow the 
approaching struggle, and to form a fitting introduction to a 
period which was to be marked not only by the usual horrors of 
war, but by the calamities of earthquakes, drought, famine, and 
pestilence. 

M2. The nature of the preparations and the amount offerees 
on both sides were well calculated to excite these apprehensions. 
On the side of Sparta was ranged the whole of Peloponnesus — 
except Argos and Achaia, — together with the Megarians, Boeo- 
tians, Phocians, Opuntian Locrians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, and 
Anactorians. The force collected from these tribes consisted 
chiefly of hoplites, or heavy-armed foot-soldiers ; but Bceotia, 
Phocis, and Locris also supplied some excellent cavalry. A good 
navy was the great deficiency on the side of the Peloponnesians, 
though Corinth and several other cities furnished ships. Yet 
with the assistance of the Dorian cities in Italy and Sicily, they 
hoped to collect a fleet of 500 triremes ; and they even designed 
to apply to the Persian king, and thus bring a Phoenician fleet 
again to act against Athens. 

The allies of Athens, with the exception of the Thessalians, 
Acarnanians, Messenians at Naupactus, and Platseans, were all 
insular, and consisted of the Chians, Lesbians, Corcyrseans, and 
Zacynthians, and shortly afterwards of the Cephallenians. To 
these must be added her tributary towns on the coast of Thrace 
and Asia Minor, together with all the islands north of Crete, 
except Me] OS and Thera. The resources at Athens immediately 
available were very great. They consisted of 300 triremes ready 
for active service, 1200 cavalry, IGOO bowmen, and 29,000 hop- 
lites, for the most part Athenian citizens. Of these, 13,000 
formed the flower of the army, whilst the rest were employed in 
garrison duty in Athens and the ports, and in the defence of the 
long walls. In the treasury of the Acropolis was the large sum 



284 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXV. 

of 6000 talents, or about 1,400,000Z. sterling, in coined silver. 
This reserve had at one time amounted to 9700 talents, but had 
been reduced to the sum stated by the architectural improve- 
ments in Athens, and by the siege of Potidsea. The plate and 
votive offerings in the temples, available in case of urgent need, 
were estimated at nearly 1000 talents of silver. Besides these 
resources, Athens had also the annual tribute of her subjects. 

^13. Such were the forces of the two contending cities. Im- 
mediately after the attempted surprise of Plalsea, the Lacedae- 
monians issued orders to their allies to send two-thirds of their 
disposable troops at once to the isthmus of Corinth, where they 
were to assemble by a day named, for the purpose of invading 
Attica. At the appointed time, the Spartan king Archidamus, 
the commander-in-chief of the expedition, reviewed the assem- 
bled host, and addressed a few words of advice and exhortation 
to the principal officers. Archidamus still cherished hopes that 
the Athenians would yield, when they saw the hostile army 
ready to enter Attica, and accordingly he sent forwards Mele- 
sippus to announce the impending invasion. But, at the instance 
of Pericles, the assembly had adopted a resolution to receive 
neither envoy nor herald ; and Melesippus was escorted back 
without having been permitted to enter the city. As he parted 
from his escort at the Attic border, he could not help exclaim- 
ing — " This day will be the beginning of many calamities to the 
Greeks." 




Bust of tlifi historian Tliucydidcs. 




The Parthenon. 



CHAPTER XXYI. 



PELOPONNESIAN WAR. FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR 

TO THE CAPTURE AND DESTRUCTION OF PLATJ^A. 

§ 1. The Peloponnesians invade Attica. § 2. Athenian naval expedi- 
tions to Peloponnesus and Locris. § 3. The Athenians invade the 
Megarid. § 4. Second invasion of Attica. Plague at Athens. § 5. 
Unpopularity of Pericles. He is accused of malversation. § 6. His 
domestic misfortunes. Death. Character. § 7. The Lacedaemo- 
nians ravage Attica. Their naval operations. § 8. Surrender of 
Potidaea. § 9. The Lacedaemonians besiege Plataia. § 10. Part of 
the garrison escape. § 11. Surrender of the town. Trial and exe- 
cution of the garrison. 

^ 1. Archidamus had entered upon the war with reluctance, and 
he now prosecuted it without vigour. He still clung to the 
idea that the Athenians would ultimately incline to peace, and 
he did all he could to promote so desirable a result. The enor- 
mous force which he was leading against them was, indeed, well 
calculated to test their firmness. It consisted, according to the 
lowest estimate, of 60,000 men, whilst some writers raise the 
number to 100,000 ; and the greater part of them were animated 
with a bitter hatred of Athens, and with a lively desire of revenge. 
Archidamus having lingered as long as he could at the isthmus, 
marched slowly forwards after the return of Melesippus, and 
taking a circuitous road, crossed the Attic border. Having 
wasted several days in an unsuccessful attack upon ihe frontier 
fortress of Qiiioe, and not having received, as he expected, any 



286 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. XXVI. 

message from the Athenians, he proceeded towards Eleusis and 
the Thriasian plain, where he arrived about the middle of June 
in B.C. 431. 

Meanwhile, Pericles had instructed the inhabitants of At- 
tica to secure themselves and their property within the walla 
of Athens. They obeyed his injunctions with reluctance, for 
the Attic population had from the earliest times been strongly 
attached to a rural life. But the circum2ta,nces admitted of 
no alternative. From all quarters they might be seen hurrying 
towards the capital with their families and goods; whilst the 
cattle were for the most part conveyed to Euboea, or some other 
of the adjoining islands. Athens now became inconveniently 
crowded. Every vacant spot in the city or in Piraeus, even 
those which belonged to the temples, were occupied by the 
encampments of the fugitives. The Acropolis, indeed, was pre- 
served from this profane invasion ; but the ground immediately 
under it, called the Pelasgicon, which, in obedience to an an- 
cient oracle, had hitherto been suffered to remain unoccupied, 
was now brought into use. The towers and recesses of the 
city walls were converted into dwellings ; whilst huts, tents, 
and even casks were placed under the long walls to answer the 
same purpose. 

Archidamus, after ravaging the fertile Thriasian plain, in 
which he was but feebly opposed by a body of Athenian ca- 
valry, proceeded to AcharriBB, one of the largest and most flour- 
ishing of the Attic boroughs, situated only about seven miles 
from Athens. Here he encamped on a rising ground within 
sight of the metropolis, and began to lay waste the country 
around, expecting probably by that means to provoke the Athe- 
nians to battle. But in this he was disappointed. The Athe- 
nians, indeed, and especially the Acharnians now within the walls, 
who had contributed no fewer than 3000 Hoplites to the army, 
were excited to the highest pitch of exasperation at beholding 
their houses, their ripening crops, their fruitful vineyards and 
orchards destroyed before their very eyes. Little groups might 
be seen gathering together in the streets angrily discussing the 
question of an attack, quoting oracles and prophecies which 
assured them of success, and indignantly denouncing Pericles 
as a traitor and a coward for not leading them out to battle. 
Among the leaders of these attacks upon Pericles, Cleon, the 
future demagogue, now first rising into public notice, was con- 
spicuous. It required all the firmness of Pericles to stem the 
torrent of public indignation. He had resolved not to venture 
an engagement in the open field, and steadily refused in the pre- 
sent excited state of the public mind to call an assembly of the 



B.C. 431. INVASION OF A^mCA. 287 

people, in which no doubt some desperate resolution would have 
been adopted. In order, however, to divert in some degree the 
popular clamour, he permitted the Athenian and Thessalian ca- 
valry to make sallies for the purpose of harassing the plundering 
parties of the enemy and of protecting as much as possible the 
lands adjacent to the city. 

^ 2. But whilst Pericles thus abandoned the Attic territory 
to the enemy, he was taking active measures to retaliate on the 
PelojDonnesus itself the suflerings inflicted on the Athenians. For 
this purpose an Athenian fleet of 100 triremes, strengthened by 
50 Corcyrsean ships, as well as by some from the other allies, 
sailed round Peloponnesus, and disembarking troops at various 
points, caused considerable damage. This expedition penetrated 
as far northwards as the coast of Acarnania, where the Corin- 
thian settlement of Sollium and the town of Astacus were taken, 
whilst the island of Cephallenia, which voluntarily submitted, 
was enrolled among the allies of Athens. 

Meanwhile a smaller fleet of thirty triremes had been de- 
spatched to the coast of Locris, where the toAAns of Thronium 
and Alope were taken and sacked, and a naval station established 
at the small uninhabited island of Atalanta, in order to coerce 
the Locrian privateers who infested Eubcea. The naval oper- 
ations of the year were concluded by the total expulsion of the 
jEginetans from their island. The situation of ^gina rendered 
it of the highest importance as a maritime station ; and the 
Athenians were, moreover, incensed against the inhabitants for 
the part they had taken in exciting the war. The whole of the 
population was transported to the coast of Peloponnesus, where 
the Spartans allowed them to occupy the town and district of 
Thyrea ; and their island was portioned out among a body of 
Athenian cleruchs. 

§ 3. Archidamus evacuated Attica towards the end of July, 
by the route of Oropus and Boeotia ; after which his army was 
disbanded. The Athenians availed themselves of his departure 
to wreak their vengeance on the Megarians. Towards the end 
of September, Pericles, at the head of 13,000 Hoplites, and a 
large force of light-armed troops, marched into the Megarid, 
which he ravaged up to the very gates of the city. The Athe- 
nians repeated the same ravages once, and sometimes twice 
every year whilst the war lasted. In the course of this year the 
Athenians also formed an alliance with Sitalces, king of the 
Odrysian Thracians, whose assistance promised to be of use to 
them in reducing Potidfca and the revolted Chalcidian towns. 

Such were the results of the first campaign. From the 
method in which the war was conducted it had become pretty 



288 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XXVI 

evident that it would prove of long duration ; and the Athenians 
now proceeded to provide for this contingency. It was agreed 
that a reserve fund of 1000 talents should be set apart, which 
was not to be touched in any other case than an attack upon 
Athens by sea. Any citizen who proposed to make a different 
use of the fund incurred thereby the punishment of death. With 
the same view it was resolved to reserve every year 100 of their 
best triremes, fully manned and equipped. 

Towards the winter Pericles delivered, from a lofty platform 
erected in the Cer amicus, the funeral oration cf those who had 
fallen in the war. This speech, or at all events the substance 
of it, has been preserved by Thucydides, who may possibly have 
heard it pronounced. It is a valuable monument of eloquence 
and patriotism, and particularly interesting for the sketch which 
it contains of Athenian manners as well as of the Athenian con- 
stitution. 

§ 4. Another year had elapsed, and in the spring of b.c. 430 
the Peloponnesians, under Archidamus, again invaded Attica. 
At the same time the Athenians were attacked by a more in- 
sidious and more formidable enemy. The plague broke out in 
the crowded city. This terrible disorder, which was supposed 
to have originated in Ethiopia, had already desolated Asia and 
many of the countries around the Mediterranean. At Athens it 
first appeared in the Piraeus ; and the numbers of people now 
congregated in a narrow space caused it to spread with fearful 
rapidity. A great proportion of those who were seized perished 
in from seven to nine days. Even in those who recovered it 
generally left behind some dreadful and incurable distemper. It 
frequently attacked the mental faculties, and left these who re- 
covered from it so entirely deprived of memory that they could 
neither recognise themselves nor others. The disorder being 
new, the physicians could find no remedy in the resources of their 
art, nor, as may be well supposed, did the charms and incantations 
to which the superstitious resorted prove more effectual. Despair 
now began to take possession of the Athenians. Some suspected 
that the Pelopomiesians had poisoned "^e wells ; others attributed 
the pestilence to the anger of Apollo. A dreadful state of moral 
dissolution followed. The sick were seized with unconquer- 
able despondency ; whilst a great part of the population who 
had hitherto escaped the disorder, expecting soon to be attacked 
in turn, abandoned themselves to all manner of excess, debauch- 
er}% and crime. The dread of contagion produced an all per- 
vading selfislmcss. Men abstained from tending and alleviating 
the sufferings even of their nearest relatives and friends dur- 
ing their sickness, as well as from administering the sacred rites 






15. a 430. PLAGUE OF ATHENS, 289 

of sepulture to their remains after death. These pious offices of 
duty and friendship either remained unperformed, or were left 
to be discharged by strangers, who, having recovered from the 
disease, enjoyed an immunity from its further attacks. Often 
would a struggle arise for the possession of a funeral pile, and 
many a body was burnt on the pile destined for another. But for 
the most part the dead and the dying lay unheeded in the streets 
and temples, but more particularly around the wells, whither 
they had crowded to quench the * burning and insatiable thirst 
excited by the disorder. The very dogs died that preyed upon 
the corpses, whilst by a peculiar instinct the vultures and other 
birds of prey abstained from feeding on them. 

The numbers carried off by the pestilence can hardly be esti- 
mated at less than a fourth of the Avholo population. Such at 
least was about the ascertained proportion among the knights 
and hoplites forming the upper classes. The number of vic- 
tims among the poorer part of the population was never ascer- 
tained, but there can be no doubt that the ratio among these 
was much higher. 

§ 5. Oppressed at once by war and pestilence, their lands 
desolated, their homes filled with mourning, it is not surprising 
that the Athenians were seized with rage and despair, or that 
they vented their anger on Pericles, whom they deemed the 
author of their misfortunes. But that statesman still adhered 
to his plans with unshaken firmness. Though the Lacedaemo- 
nians were in Attica, though the plague had already seized on 
Athens, he was vigorously pushing his plans of offensive opera- 
tions. A foreign expedition might not only divert the popular 
mind, but would prove beneficial by relieving the crowded city 
of part of its population ; and accordingly a fleet was fitted out, 
of which Pericles himself took the command, and Avhich com- 
mitted devastations upon various parts of the Peloponnesian 
coast. But, upon returning from this expedition, Pericles found 
the public feeling more exasperated than before. Envoys had 
even been despatched to Sparta to sue for peace, but had been 
dismissed without a hearing ; a disappointment which had ren- 
dered the populace still more furious. Pericles now found it 
necessary to call a public assembly in order to vindicate his 
conduct, and to encourage the desponding citizens to persevere. 
But though he succeeded in persuading them to prosecute tho 
war with vigour, they still continued to nourish their feelings of 
hatred against the great statesman. His political enemies, of 
whom Cleon was the chief, took advantage of this state of the 
public mind to bring against him a charge of peculation. The 
main object of this accusation was to incapacitate him for the 

O 



290 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXVI 

office of strategus or general. He was brought before the dicas- 
tery on this charge, and sentenced to pay a considerable fine ; 
but eventually a strong re-action occurred in his favour. He 
was re-elected general, and apparently regained all the influence 
he had ever possessed. 

§ 6. But he was not destined long to enjoy this return of 
popularity. His life was now closing in, and its end was clouded 
by a long train of domestic misfortunes. The epidemic deprived 
him not only of many personal and poUtical friends, but also of 
several near relations, amongst whom were his sister and his 
two legitimate sons, Xanthippus and Paralus. The death of the 
latter was a severe blow to him. During the funeral ceremonies, 
as he placed a garland on the body of this his favourite son, he 
was completely overpowered by his feelings and wept aloud. 
His ancient house was now left without an heir. By Aspasia, 
however, he had an illegitimate son who bore his own name, and 
whom the Athenians now legitimised, and thus alleviated, as 
far as lay in their power, the misfortunes of their great leader ; 
a proceeding all the more striking, since Pericles himself had pro- 
posed the law which deprived of citizenship all those who were 
not Athenians on the mother's side, as well as on the father's. 

After this period it was with difficulty that Pericles was 
persuaded by his friends to take any active part in public 
affairs ; nor did he survive more than a twelvemonth. An at- 
tack of the prevaiUng epidemic was succeeded by a low and 
lingering fever, which undermined both his strength of body and 
vigour of intellect As he lay apparently unconscious on his 
death-bed, the friends who stood around it were engaged in re- 
calling his exploits. The dying man interrupted them by 
remarking — " What you praise in me is partly the result of good 
fortune, and at all events common to me with many other com- 
manders. What I chiefly pride myself upon, you have not no- 
ticed — no Athenian ever wore mourning through me." 

The character of Pericles has been very variously estimated. 
Those who reflect upon the enormous influence which, for so long 
a period, and especially during the last fifteen years of his lite, 
he exercised over an ingenious but fickle people like the Athe- 
nians, will hardly be disposed to question his intellectual supe- 
riority. This hold on the public aflection was not, as in the case 
of Cimon, the result of any popularity of manner, for, as we have 
said, the demeanour of Pericles was characterized by a reserve 
bordering upon haughtiness. To what then are we to attribute 
it ? Doubtless, in the first place, to his extraordinary eloquence. 
Cicero regards him as the first example of an almost perfect 
orator, at once delighting the Athenians with his copiousness 



B.C. 430. SECOND INVASION OF ATTICA. 291 

and grace and overawing them by the force and cogency of his 
diction and arguments. He seems, indeed, on the testimony of 
two comic poets who will not be suspected of exaggeration in 
his favour, to have singularly combined the power of persuasion 
with that more rapid and abrupt style of oratory which takes 
an audience by storm and defies all resistance. According to 
Eupolis, persuasion itseli' sat upon his lips, and lie was the only 
orator who left a sting behind ; w^hilst Aristophanes charac- 
terizes his eloquence as producing the same eHects upon the 
social elements as a storm of thunder and lightning exerts upon 
the natural atmosphere. His reserved manners may have con- 
tributed, and were perhaps designed, to preserve his autho- 
rity from falling into that contempt which proverbially springs 
from familiarity ; whilst the popularity w^hich he enjoyed in 
spite of them may probably be traced to the ecjuivocal benefits 
which he had conferred on the Athenians, by not only making 
the humblest citizen a partaker in all the judicial and legislative 
functions of the state, but even paying him for the peribrmance 
of them. These innovations are condemned by the two greatest 
philosophers, though of opposite schools, that Greece ever saw, 
by Plato and Aristotle, and not only by them but by the unaru- 
mous voice of antiquity. Pericles, indeed, by the unlimited 
authority which he possessed over the people, was able to coun- 
teract the evil effects of these changes, which, however, soon 
became apparent after his death, and made the city a prey to 
the artifices of demagogues and rhetors. But if Pericles, as a 
politician, may not be deserving of unqualified praise, Pericles 
as the accomplished man of genius and the liberal patron of 
literature and art, is worthy of the highest admiration. By 
these qualities he has justly given name to the most brilliant 
intellectual epoch that the world has ever seen. But on this 
point we have already touched, and shall have occasion to refer 
hereafter. 

^ 7. Whilst the Athenians were suffering from the pestilence, 
the Lacedaemonians were prosecuting their second invasion even 
more extensively than in the previous year. Instead of confin- 
ing their ravages to the Thriasian plain, and the country in the 
immediate neighbourhood of Athens, they now extended them 
to the more southern portions of Attica, and even as far as the 
mines of Laurium. The Athenians still kept within their walls ; 
and the Laceda3monians, after remaing forty days in their ter- 
ritory, again evacuated it as before. This year, however, the 
operations of the latter by sea foniied a new feature in the war. 
Their fleet of 100 triremes, under the command of Cnemus, at- 
tacked and devastated the island of Zacynthi\s, but did not 



292 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. XXVL 

succeed in effecting a permanent conquest. They were too 
inferior in naval strength to cope with the Athenians on the 
open sea ; but the Peloponnesian privateers, especially those 
from the Megarian port of Niseea, inflicted considerable loss 
on the Anthenian fisheries and commerce. Some of these 
privateers even ventured as far as the coasts of Asia Minor, 
and molested the Athenian trade, for the protection of which 
the Athenians were obliged to despatch a squadron of six 
triremes, under Melesander. A revolting feature in this pre- 
datory warfare was the cruelty with which the Lacedaemonians 
treated their prisoners, who were mercilessly slain, and their 
bodies cast into clefts and ravines. This produced retaliation 
on the part of the Athenians. Some Peloponnesian envoys, on 
their way to the court of Persia to solicit aid against Athens, 
were joined by the Corinthian general Aristeus, who persuaded 
them to visit the court of the Thracian king Sitalces, in order if 
possible to detach him from the Athenian alliance. But this 
was a fatal miscalculation. Not only was Sitalces firmly attached 
to the Athenians, but his son Sadocus had been admitted as a 
citizen of Athens ; and the Athenian residents at the court of 
Sitalces induced him, in testimony of zeal and gratitude for his 
newly conferred rights, to procure the arrest of the Peloponne- 
sian envoys. The whole party were accordingly seized and 
conducted to Athens, where they were put to death without 
even the form of a trial, and their bodies cast out among the 
rocks, by way of reprisal for the murders committed by the La- 
cedaemonians. 

§ 8. By this act the Athenians got rid of Aristeus, who had 
proved himself an active and able commander, and who was the 
chief mstigator of the revolt of Potidsea as well as the principal 
cause of its successful resistance. In the following winter that 
town capitulated, after a blockade of two years, during which it 
suffered such extremity of famine, that even the bodies of the 
dead were converted into food. Although the garrison was re- 
duced to such distress, and though the siege had cost Athens 
2000 talents, the Athenian generals, Xenophon, the son of Euri- 
pides, and his two colleagues, granted the Potidaeans favourable 
terms. For this they were reprimanded by the Athenians, who 
had expected to defray the expenses of the siege by selling the 
prisoners as slaves, and perhaps also to gratify their vengeance 
by putting the intrepid garrison to death. Potida^a and its 
territory was now occupied by a body of 1000 colonists from 
Athens. 

^ 9. The third year of the war (e.g. 429) was now opening 
and iio thing decisive had been performed on cither side. After 



B.C. 429. SIEGE OF PLATiEA. 293 

two invasions, but little mischief, probably, was capable of being 
inflicted on the Attic territory, or at all events not sufficient to 
induce the Peloponnesians to incur the risk of infection from 
the plague. Archidamus, therefore, now directed his whole 
force against the ill-fated town of Plataea. As he approached 
their city, the Platseans despatched a herald to Arcliidamus to 
remonstrate against this invasion, and to remind him of the 
solemn oath which Pausanias had sworn, when, after the defeat 
of the Persians, he offered sacrifice to Jove Eleutherios in the 
great square of Platasa, and there, in the presence of the as- 
sembled allies, bound himself and them to respect and guarantee 
their independence. Archidamus replied that by their oaths 
they were bound to assist him in the liberation of the rest of 
Greece ; but, if they would not agree to do this, their independ- 
ence should be respected if they only consented to remain 
neutral. After this summons had been twice repeated, the Pla- 
tseans returned for answer that they could do nothing without 
the consent of the Athenians, in whose custody their wives and 
families now were ; adding, that a profession of neutrality might 
again induce the Thebans to surprise their city. Hereupon 
Archidamus proposed to them to hand over their town and 
territory to the Lacedeemonians, together with a schedule of all 
the property which they contained, engaging to hold them in 
trust and to cultivate the land till the war was terminated, when 
every thing should be safely restored. In the mean time, the 
Platasans might retire whithersoever they chose, and receive an 
allowance sufficient for their support. 

The offer seemed fair and tempting, and the majority of the 
Plataeans were for accepting it, but it was resolved first of all to 
obtain the sanction of the Athenians : who, however, exhorted 
them to hold out, and promised to assist them to the last. The 
Platseans, afraid to send a herald to the Spartan camp, now pro- 
claimed from the walls their refusal of the profiered terms ; 
when Archidamus invoked the gods and heroes of the soil to 
witness that it was not until the Platseans had renounced the 
oaths which bound them, that he had invaded their territory. 
The Peloponnesians, indeed, seem to have been really unwilling 
to undertake the siege. They were driven into it by the ancient 
grudge of the Thebans against Platsea. 

The siege that ensued is one of the most memorable in the 
annals of Grecian warfare. Platsea was but a small city, and its 
garrison consisted of only 400 citizens and 80 Athenians, toge- 
ther with 110 women to manage their household af lairs. Yet 
this small force set at defiance the whole army of the Pelopon- 
nesians. The first operation of Archidamus was to surround the 



294 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXYL 

toAvn with a strong palisade formed of the fruit trees which had 
been cut down, and thus to deprive the Platseans of all egress. 
He then began to erect a mound of timber, earth, and stones 
against the wall, forming an inclined plane up which his troops 
might march, and thus take the place by escalade. The whole 
army laboured at this mound seventy days and nights ; but 
whilst it was gradually attaining the requisite height the Pla- 
taeans on their side were engaged in raising their walls with a 
superstructure of wood and brickwork, protected in front with 
hides. They also formed a subterranean passage imder their 
walls, and undermined the mound, which thus fell in and re- 
quired constant additions. And as even these precautions 
seemed in danger of being ultimately defeated, they built a new 
interior wall, in the shape of a crescent, whose two horns joined 
the old one at points beyond the extent of the mound ; so that 
if the besiegers succeeded in carr^dng the first rampart, they 
would be in no better position than before. So energetic was 
the defence, that the Lacedaemonians, after spending three 
months in these fruitless attempts, resolved to turn the siege 
into a blockade, and reduce the place by famine. 

MO. They now proceeded to surround the city with a double 
wall of circumvallation, the interior space between the two of 
sixteen feet in breadth being roofed in, and the whole structure 
protected by a ditch on each side, one towards the tovvai and the 
other towards the country. The interior was occupied by the 
troops left on guard, half of which consisted of Boeotians and the 
other half of Peloponnesians. In this manner the Platseans 
endured a blockade of two years, during which the Athenians 
attempted nothuig for their relief In the second year, however, 
about half the garrison effected their escape in the followmg bold 
and successful mamier. Provisions were beginning to nni short, 
and the Platsean commander exhorted the garrison to scale the 
wall by which they were blockaded. Only 212 men, however, 
were found bold enough to attempt this hazardous feat. Choos- 
ing a wet and stormy December night, they issued from their 
gates, hghtly armed and carrying with them ladders accurately 
adapted to the height of the wall. These were fixed against it 
in the space between two towers occupied by the guard, and the 
first company having mounted, sIcav, without creating alarm, 
the sentinels on duty. Already a great part of the Plataeans had 
gained the summit, when the noise of a tile kicked down by 
one of the party betrayed what was passing. The whole guard 
immediately turned out, but in the darkness and confusion knew 
not whither to direct their blows, whilst the lighted torches M'hich 
they carried rendered them a conspicuous aim for the arrows and. 



B.C. 427. SURRENDER OF PLAT^EA. 29d 

javelins of those Platseans who had gained the other side of the 
walls. In this manner the little band succeeded in effecting 
their escape with the exception of one man, who was captured, 
and of a lew who lost their courage and returned to Platea. 

^11. But though the provisions of the garrison were hus- 
banded by this diminution in their number, all the means of 
subsistence were at length exhausted, and starvation began to 
stare them in the face. The Lacedaemonian commander had 
long been in a condition to take the town by storm, but he had 
been directed by express orders from home to reduce it to a 
voluntary capitulation, in order that at the conclusion of a peace, 
Sparta might not be forced to give it up, as she would be in case 
of a forcible capture. Knowing the distressed state of the gar- 
rison, the Lacedaemonians sent in a herald with a summons to 
surrender and submit themselves to their disposal, at the same 
time promising that only the guilty should be punished. The 
besieged had no alternative and submitted. This took place in 
B.C. 427, after the blockade had lasted two years. 

The whole garrison, consisting of 200 Plataeans and 25 Athe- 
nians, were now arraigned before five judges sent from Sparta. 
Their indictment was framed in a way which precluded the possi- 
bility of escape. They were simply asked " Whether during the 
present war they had rendered any assistance to the Lacedaemo- 
nians or their allies ?" So preposterous a question at once re- 
vealed to the prisoners that they could expect neither justice nor 
mercy. Nevertheless, they asked and obtained permission to plead 
their cause. Their orators, by recalling the services which Plataea 
had rendered to Greece in general in the Persian war, and to Sparta 
in particular, by aiding to suppress the revolt of the Helots, seem- 
ed to have produced such an impression on their judges that the 
Thebans present found it necessary to reply. Their speech does 
not appear to have contained any very cogent arguments, but it 
was successful. The Platseans were mercilessly sacrificed for 
reasons of state policy. Each man, including the 25 Athenians, 
was called up separately before the judgment seat, and the same 
question having been put to him, and of course answered in the 
negative, he was immediately led away to execution. The town 
of Plataea, together v/ith its territory, was transferred to the 
Thebans, who, a few months afterwards, levelled all the private 
houses to the ground, and with the materials erected a sort of 
vast barrack around the Heraeum, or temple of Hera, both for the 
accommodation of visitors, and to serve as an abode for those to 
whom they let out the land. Thus was Plataea blotted out from 
the map of Greece. 




statue of Theseus, from the Pediment of the Partlieuon. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED FROM THE SIEGE OF PLAT^A 

TO THE SEDITION AT CORCYRA. 



§ 1. General character of the war. § 2. Military and naval operations 
of the third year. Attempt of the Peloponnesians to surprise Piraeus. 
§ 3. Fourth year. Revolt of Mytilene. § 4. Fifth year. Surrenderor 
Mytilene. § 5. Debates of the Athenian assembly respecting the My- 
tileneans. Cleon and the Athenian demagogues. § 6. Bloody de<iree 
against the Mytileneans. § 7. Second debate. Reversal of the decreo. 
Lesbos colonized by Athenians. § 8. Civil dissensions at Corcyra. 
§ 9. Picture of the times by Thucydides. 

§ 1. In recording the fall of Plataea, we have anticipated the 
order of chronology. The investment of that town formed, as 
we have related, the first incident in the third year of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. The subsequent operations of that war down to 
the eleventh year of it, or the year b.c. 421 — when a short and 
hollow peace, or rather truce, called the peace of Nicias, was 
patched up between the Lacedaemonians and Athenians — wero 
not of a decisive character. There was, indeed, much mutua) 
injury inflicted, but none of those great events which brinp 
a war to a close by disabling either one or both parties from 
continuing it. The towns captured were, moreover, restored 



B.C. 429. NAVAL VICTORIES OF PHORMIO. 297 

at the peace ; by which, consequently, Athens and Sparta were 
placed much in the same state as when the war broke out. 
It would be tedious to detail at length all the little engagements 
which occurred, and which the reader could with difficulty re- 
member ; and we shall therefore content ourselves with a sketch 
of the more important events, especially those which display the 
general character of the period, the actions of the more remark- 
able men who flourished in it, and the motives, views, and dis- 
positions of the contending parties. 

§ 2. Except the siege of Plataea, the operations by land in the 
third year of the war were unimportant. The Athenians failed 
in an attempt to reduce the town of Spartolus in Chaicidice ; 
nor M^ere the efforts of their new ally Sitalces more succtt tful in 
that quarter. According to the ancient myth of Tereus, L-italces 
considered himself a kinsman of the Athenians ; but some well 
applied bribes Avere probably a more efficacious inducement for 
him to undertake the reduction of Chaicidice, and the dethrone- 
ment of Perdiccas, king of Macedonia, The sway of Sitalces 
over the barbarous tribes of Thrace was very extensive. He 
was able to collect an army estimated at 150,000 men, one-third 
of which was cavalr}^ With this multitudinous, but wild and 
disorderly host, he penetrated far into the dominions of Perdiccas. 
and compelled the Macedonians, who did not venture to meet 
him in the open field, to shut themselves up in their fortresses. 
He also detached a force to reduce the Chalcidians and Bot- 
tiseans. But his expedition was undertaken at too late a period 
of the year, seemingly about the end of November or beginning 
of December ; and as the winter proved very severe, and the 
Athenians neglected to send any araiament to his assistance; 
Sitalces was compelled to relinquish his conquests after a cani- 
paign, or rather foray, of thirty days. 

In the same year the naval superiority of the Athenians was 
strikingly exhibited by the victories of Phormio in the Co- 
rinthian gulf. The Lacedaemonians had planned an expedition 
against Acamania, and had sent a fleet of ibrty-seven sail, under 
the command of Cnemus, to carry this project into effect. 
Phormio was stationed at Naupactus with only twenty Athe- 
nian ships ; but notwithstanding his numerical inferiority, Lo 
gained a briUiant victory over the Peloponnesian fleet. But 
this was not all. The Spartans lost no lime in collecting an- 
other fleet, amounting to seventy-seven sail. Meantime Phormio 
had received no reinforcements ; but such was his confidence in 
the skill of his seamen, that he ventured to meet even these 
overpowering immbers, and though this victory was not so 
decisive as the previous one, the Peloponnesians relinquished 



298 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXVIL 

all further operations and sailed back to Corinth. The Pelo- 
ponnesian commanders tried to compensate for these losses by 
surprising the harbour of Piraeus, which was unprotected by a 
guard, or even by a chain. Having marched overland from Co- 
rinth to the Megarian port of Nisaea, they embarked their men 
in forty old triremes, which, however, were in a sufficient state 
of repair for so short an expedition. But either their courage 
failed them at the very moment of executing their project, or 
.else, as they gave out, the wind proved adverse. Instead of 
attempting Piraeus they proceeded to the opposite island of Sa- 
lamis. Here they landed in the night, captured three guard- 
ships, ravaged the island, and succeeded in retreating with their 
booty before the alarmed and enraged Athenians could come up 
with them. The Athenians, however, took warning from this 
insult, and were more careful in future in guarding their har- 
bours. ^ 

§ 3. The fourth year of the war (b.c, 428) was marked by the 
usual invasion of Attica on the part of the Peloponnesians. It 
was accompanied by the alarming news of the revolt of Myti- 
lene, the capital of Lesbos, and of the greater part of that island. 
This revolt had been long meditated ; but though the Athenians 
had before received some intimation of it, their reduced condi- 
tion from the war and from the plague had prevented them frcm 
taking any measures to arrest it. An embassy which they now 
sent to the Mytileneans, to persuade them to remain in their 
duty, having failed, the Athenian commander Cleippides, who 
was on the point of sailing to the Peloponnesus with a fleet of 
40 triremes, was ordered to proceed directly to Mytilene. 

It Was one of the disadvantages of the Athenian constitution, 
so far at least as the foreign relations of Athens were concerned, 
that the executive power lay with the people, and that thus all 
their debates and resolutions being public, it w^as impossible to 
keep them concealed from those who were the subjects of them. 
The Mytileneans having received information of the intended 
expedition through a spy, postponed the festival of Apollo, 
during which the Athenians had expected to surprise them, 
and made every preparation to receive the hostile fleet. But 
being still inferior in strength they pretended to enter into ne- 
gotiations with Cleippides, who fell into the snare ; and in the 
mean time secretly despatched envoys to Sparta to implore im- 
mediate assistance. The embassy which the Mytileneans had 
sent to Athens with the ostensible purpose of negotiating, 
having, as might be expected, failed, Cleippides, who had been 
reinforced by several vessels from the allied islands, as well as 
by 1000 Athenian hoplites under Paches, commenced hostilities. 



B.C. 428. REVOLT OF MYTILENK 299 

and by the beginning of October succeeded in blockading Myti- 
lene both by sea and land. 

The Mytilenean envoys despatched to Sparta arrived during 
the celebration of the Olympic festival, where most of the mem- 
bers of the Peloponnesian alliance were present. After the 
festival was concluded they set forth the grounds of their com- 
plaints against Athens, which were chiefly two, namely : — their 
fear of being reduced to the condition of the other subject-allies 
of Athens, and their repugnance to assist that state in her ambi- 
tious policy, which was generally offensive to the states of G-reece. 
Their application was of course favourably received by their Pe- 
loponnesian auditors. They were promised assistance, and were 
formally received into the Peloponnesian alliance. Not only 
was a second invasion of Attica ordered, but it was also pro- 
posed to transport on trucks, across the isthmus, from the har- 
bour of Lechseum into the Saronic gulf, the ships which had 
fought against Phormio, and to employ them against Athens. 

A very general impression seems at this time to have pre- 
vailed among the allies that the plague and war combined had 
nearly exhausted the resources of the Athenians. Nor was 
this opinion altogether without foundation. The fund which 
they possessedmt the beginning of the war was now exhausted, 
with the exception of the reserve of 1000 talents put by to 
meet a naval invasion. The numbers of their soldiers, and 
<3sp3cially of their able seamen, had also no doubt been consider- 
ably reduced by the war and pestilence. But there were still 
ample means, and above all an indomitable spirit, among the 
Athenians, to supply the deficiencies thus created. A higher 
class both of citizens and metics than those who had hitherto 
engaged in the naval service was ordered on board the fleet, 
from which duty only the two highest classes, namely, the Pen- 
tacosiomedimni, and the Hippeis, or Knights, were now exempted. 
And, in order to replenish the public treasury, the Athenians 
were for the first time subjected to a direct contribution or in- 
come tax, by which a sum of 200 talents was raised. 

By these efforts the Athenians manned a fleet of 100 
triremes, which suddenly and unexpectedly appeared off the 
isthmus, and made descents at various points. At the same 
time the Lacedaemonians assembled there were surprised by 
the news that another Athenian fleet of 30 triremes, which had 
been previously despatched under Asopius, the son of Phormio, 
was committing devastations on the coast of Laconia. These 
energetic proceedings arrested the projected enterprise of the La- 
cedaemonians, especially as their allies were engaged in gathering 
the harvest, and had therefore assembled only in small numbers. 



SOO HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXVIL 

Accordingly they returned home, and contented themselves with 
preparing a fleet of forty triremes for the relief of Mytilene. 

§ 4. This armament, however, could not be got ready till the 
spring of the following year (b.c. 427). Meanwhile Salsethus, a 
Lacedaemouian envoy, proceeded to Lesbos, and having contrived 
to enter Mytilene, encouraged the citizens to hold out till the 
arrival of the promised succours. In the course of April the Pe- 
loponnesian fleet, consisting of 42 triremes under Alcidas, actu- 
ally sailed; and at the same time, in order to create a diversion,, 
the allied army again invaded Attica. 

But week after week passed away, and Alcidas did not appear 
before Mytilene. The provisions of the town were exhausted, 
the populaco was growing impatient, and even SalsBthus himself 
began to despair of the arrival of the fleet. It was therefore 
resolved as a last desperate expedient, to make a sally, and 
endeavour to raise the blockade. With this view even the men 
of the lower classes were armed with the full armour of the 
hoplites. But this step produced a very difierent result from 
what Salsethus had expected or intended. The great mass of 
the Mytileneans were not adverse to the Athenian dominion ; 
but they regarded their own oligarchical government with suspi- 
cion, accused it of starving the citizens whilst it possessed stores 
of concealed provisions for the use of the higher classes ; and 
being now strengthened by the arms which had been distributed 
to them, threatened that, unless their demands were complied 
with, they would surrender the city to the Athenians. In this 
desperate emergency the Mytilenean government perceived that 
their only chance of safety lay in anticipating the people in this 
step. They accordingly opened a negotiation w^ith Paches, and 
a capitulation v/as agreed upon by which the city was to be sur- 
rendered, and the fate of its inhabitants to be decided by the 
Athenian Assembly. It was stipulated, however, that they were 
to be permitted to send envoys to Athens to plead their cause ; 
and Paches engaged that meanwhile nobody should be impri- 
soned or sold into slaver}^ When Paches entered the city, those 
Mytileneans who had been the chief instigators of the revolt 
took refuge at the altars ; but he induced them by his assurances 
to quit their places of refuge, and placed them in Tenedos. 

Scarcely had this capitulation been concluded, when, to the 
surprise of the Mytileneans, the Peloponnesian fleet appeai-ed off 
the coast of Ionia. Alcidas, overawed by the maritime reputation 
of Athens, had neglected to discharge his duty with the energy 
required by the crisis ; and, finding that he had arrived too Jato 
to save Mytilene, he sailed back to Pelopomiesus, without at- 
tempting any thing further. 



RC. 427. CLEON. SCI 

^ 5. Paches being now vmdisputeil master of Lesbos, de- 
spatched to Athens those Mytileneans who had been deposited 
at Tenedos, together with others impUcated in the late revolt, 
and likewise Salaethus the Lacedsemonian envoy, who had been 
detected in a place of concealment in the city. The Athenians 
assembled to decide on the fate of these prisoners, amounting 
in number to more than a thousand. Salajthus was at once put 
to death. The disposal of the other prisoners caused some de- 
bate. It was on this occasion that the demagogue, Cleon, whom 
we have already noticed as an opponent of Pericles, first comes 
prominently forwards in Athenian affairs. The effects of the 
extensive commerce of Athens, and more particularly of the po- 
litical changes introduced by Pericles, were now beginning to 
show themselves. Down to the time of that statesman, the 
democracy of Athens had been govern-ed by aristocratic leaders 
alone. The personal qualities of Pericles, in spite of the growing 
feehng of democracy, secured his ascendency in the assembly ; 
but even during his lifetime men of a much lower rank than 
those who had formerly pretended to govern the people were 
beginning to step forward, and to claim a share of power. Such 
were Eucrates, the rope-maker, Lysicles, the sheep-dealer, and 
Hyperbolus, the lamp-maker. The humblest mechanic, if an 
Athenian citizen, was at liberty to address the assembly ; there 
was nothing to prevent him but disfranchisement for debt or 
crime. If he succeeded, his fortune was made ; for the influence 
thus acquired might be converted in various, but not over reput- 
able, ways into a source of profit. Success, however, demanded 
some peculiar qualifications. An Athenian audience was some- 
what fastidious ; but more especially the vastness of their assem- 
blies, and the noise and clamour with which they frequently 
abounded, demanded not only a considerable share of nerve, but 
also physical powers, especially a loud voice, which are not 
always found combined with the higher mental requisites of an 
orator. Hence those who possessed even a moderate share of 
ability, if endowed with audacity and a stentorian voice, stood a 
much better chance in the assembly than men of far higher 
talent, but deficient in those indispensable qualifications. If we 
may trust the picture drawn by Aristophanes, Cleon, the leather- 
seller, was a perfect model of that new class of low-born orators 
just alluded to ; a noisy brawler, loud in his criminations, insolent 
in his gestures, corrupt and venal in his principles ; extorting 
money by threats of accusations, a persecutor of rank and merit, 
a base flatterer and sycophant of the populace. In this portrait 
much allowance must no doubt be made not only for comic 
lic^ence and exaggeration, but also for party feeling and pereonal 



302 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXVIL 

pique. Aristophanes was on the aristocratic side in poHtics, and 
was moreover engaged in a private quarrel with Cleon, caused 
by the latter having complained to the senate of his comedy of 
the Babylonians. Thucydides, indeed,* in his account of Cleon, 
goes very far to confirm the description of Aristophanes. But 
here too we must be somewhat on our guard respecting the tes- 
timony of an historian otherwise remarkable for his impartiality ; 
for it was to Cleon that Thucydides owed his banishment. 
Still, after making all due allowance for the operation of these 
causes, we cannot refrain from thinking that the character of 
Cleon conveyed to us by these two writers is, in its main fea- 
tures, correct. Even a caricature must have some grounds of 
truth for its basis ; nor would Aristophanes, out of mere regard 
for his poetical reputation, have ventured to produce before an 
Athenian audience a character of their well-known demagogue 
so unlike the truth as not to be easily recognized. The actions 
of Cleon, which are undisputed, show him cruel and cowardly ; 
characteristics which may lead us to infer any degree of baseness 
in a man. Along with his impudence and othqr bad qualities 
he must however no doubt have possessed a certain share of 
ability, since, at the period of which we are now speaking, he 
possessed more influence than any other orator in the Athenian 
assembly. It was he who took the lead in the debate respecting 
the disposal of the Mytileneans, and made the savage and hor- 
rible proposal to put to death not only the prisoners who had 
been sent to Athens, but the wliole male population of Mytilene 
of military age — including therefore those who had not partici- 
pated in, or were even opposed to the revolt — and to sell the 
women and children into slavery. This motion he succeeded in 
carrying, notwithstanding the opposition of Diodotus and others ; 
und in order seemingly that no room might be left for cooler 
reflection, a trireme was immediately despatched to Mytilene, 
conveying orders to Paches to put the bloody decree into exe- 
cution. 

k 6. The barbarous laws of ancient warfare justified atrocities 
which in modern times would be regarded with horror and de- 
testation; and we have already described the Lacedaemonians 
as exercising those laws with the most revolting severity in the 
case of the garrison of Platsea ; — an event, however, which took 
place a little after the time of which we are now speaking. The 
conduct of the Lacedsemonians on that occasion admits of no ex- 
cuse. But this decree of the Athenians was infinitely worse, not 
only on account of the much greater number of persons whom 
it devoted to death, but also and principally because it made 
no discrimination between the innocent and the guilty. One 



^0\KJ 



B.C. 42Y. DECREE AGAINST THE MYTILENEANS. 803 

night's reflection convinced the better part of the Athenians of 
the enormity which they had sanctioned. Ordinary experience 
shows that bodies of men will perpetrate acts which the indivi- 
duals composing them would shrink from with horror : and this 
tendency was one of the worst evils springing from the multitu- 
dinous and purely democratic al composition of the Athenian as- 
semblies. On the morrow so general a feeling prevailed of the 
horrible injustice that had been committed, that the Strategi 
acceded to ihe prayer of the Mytilenean envoys and called a 
fresh assembly ; though by so doing they committed an illegal 
act and exposed themselves to impeachment. 

^ 7. Cleon, however, had not changed his opinion. In the 
second assembly he repeated his arguments against the Mytile- 
neans, and clamoured for what he called "justice" against them. 
He denounced the folly and mischief of reversing on one day 
what had been done on the preceding ; and, though himself the 
very type and model of a demagogue, had the impudence to cha- 
racterize his opponents as guilty and ambitious orators, who 
sacrificed the good of the republic either to their interests or 
their vanity I His opponent, Diodotus, very wisely abstained 
from appealing to the Itumanity of an assembly which had passed 
the decree of the previous day. He confined himself entirely to 
the policy of the question, and concluded by recommending that 
the Mytileneans already in custody should be put upon their 
trial, but that the remainder of the population should be spared. 
This amendment having been carried by a small majority, a 
second trireme was immediately despatched to Mytilene, with 
orders to Paches to arrest the execution. The utmost diligence 
was needful. The former trireme had a start of four and twenty 
hours, and nothing but exertions almost superhuman would en- 
able the second to reach Mytilene early enough to avert the 
tragical catastrophe. The oarsmen were allowed by turns only 
short intervals of rest, and took their food, consisting of barley- 
meal steeped in wine and oil, as they sat at the oar. Happily 
the weather proved favourable ; and the crew, who had been 
promised large rewards in case they arrived in time, exerted 
themselves to deliver the reprieve, whilst the crew of the pre- 
ceding vessel had conveyed the order ibr execution with slowness 
and reluctance. Yet even so the countermand came only just 
in time. The mandate was already in the hands of Paches, who 
was taking measures for its execution. "With regard to the pri- 
soners at Athens, the motion of Cleon to put them to death was 
carried, and they were slain to the number of more than a thou- 
sand. The fortifications of Mytilene were razed, and her fleet 
delivered up to the Athenians. The whole island, with the ex- 



804 HISTORY OF GREEOR Chap. XYIL 

ception of Methymna, which had remained faithful, was divided 
into 3000 lots, 300 of which were set apart for the gods, and the 
remainder assigned to Athenian cleruchs. 

The fate of Paches, the Athenian commander at Mytilene, must 
not he passed over in silence. On his return to Athens, he was 
aiTaigned before the dicastery for the dishonour of two Mytile- 
nean women, whose husbands he had slain; and such was the 
feeling of indignation excited by this case among the susceptible 
Athenians, that Paches, without waiting for his sentence, killed 
himself with his sword in open court. 

^ 8. The fate of the Plataeans and Mytileneans affords a fearful 
illustration of the maimers of the age ; but these horrors soon 
found a parallel in Corcpa. It has been already related that, 
after the sea-fight off that island, the Corinthians carried home 
many of the principal Corcyraeans as prisoners. These men were 
treated with the greatest indulgence ; and while Mytilene was 
under blockade, were sent back to Corcyra, nominally under 
the heavy ransom of 800 talents, but in realit)^ with the \^ew 
of withdrawing the island from the Athenian alliance. Being 
joined by the rest of the oligarchical citizens on their return, 
they assassinated the leaders of the democratical party in the 
Benate-house, and then carried a resolution in the assembly of 
the people, that the Corc}T£eans should for the future observe a 
strict neutrality between the contending parties. But they did 
not stop here. They determined on putting down the demo- 
cratical party by force, and with this view seized the principal 
harbour, together with the arsenal and market-place. The people, 
however, got possession of the higher parts of the town, together 
with the Acropolis ; and having been reinforced by slaves from the 
interior, whom they promised to emancipate, they renewed the 
combat on the following day. The oligarchs, driven to extremity, 
adopted the desperate expedient of setting fire to the town, and 
thus destroyed a great deal of property near the docks ; but an 
adverse wind fortunately prevented it from extending to the re- 
mainder of the city. 

The Athenians had been informed of the state of tilings at 
Corcyra, and at this juncture an Athenian squadron of twelve 
triremes, under the command of Nicostratus, arrived from Nau- 
pactus. Nicostratus behaved with great moderation, and did his 
best to restore peace between the parties. He had apparently 
succeeded in this object, when the position cf affairs was sud- 
denly changed by the arrival of a Peloponnesian fleet of 53 gal- 
leys under the command of Alcidas. Nicostratus succeeded, by 
skilful manopuvres, in keeping the enemy at bay with his small 
fleet but was obliged at last to retreat, which he did in good 



B.C. 42Y. 



REVOLUTIONS AT CORCYRA. 



305 



order, and without losing any of his vessels. Alcidas, however, 
with his usual slowness, neglected to make use of the oppor- 
tunity, and attack the capital at once, though Brasidas strongly 
advised him to do so. He lost a day in ravaging the country, 
and in the following night iire-signais upon the island of Leucas 
telegraphed the approach of an Athenian fleet of 60 triremes 
under Eurymedon. Alcidas noAv only thought of making his 
escape, which he effected before daybreak, leaving the Corcyraean 
oligarchs to their fate. 

Another vicissitude thus rendered the popular party in Cor- 
cyra again triumphant. The vengeance which they took on their 
opponents was fearful. The most sacred sanctuaries afforded no 
protection ; the nearest ties of blood and kindred were sacrificed 
to civil hatred. In one case a father slew even his owii son. 
These scenes of horror lasted for seven days, during which death 
in every conceivable form was busily at work. Yet the Athenian 
admiral did not once interpose to put a stop to these atrocities. 
About 500 of the oligarchical party, however, effected their 
escape, and fortified themselves on Mount Istone, not far from 
the capital. 

§ 9. Thucydides in drawing this bloody picture of domestic 
dissensions, traces the causes of it to the war. In peace and pros- 
perity, when men are not overmastered by an irresistable neces- 
sit}^ the feelings both of states and individuals are mild and 
humane. But a war under the auspices of Sparta and Athens — 
one the representative of the aristocratic, the other of the demo- 
cratic, principle — became a war of opinion, and embittered the 
feelings of political parties, by offering to each the means and 
opportunity of enforcing its views through an alliance with 
one or the other of the two leading cities. The example of 
Corcyra was soon followed in other Hellenic states. Not only 
were the dispositions of men altered by these causes, but even 
the very names of things were changed. Daring rashness was 
honoured with the name of bravery, wliilst considerate delay 
was denounced as the mere pretext of timidity. Wisdom was 
regarded as equivalent to cowardice, and the weighing of every- 
thing as a pretext for attempting nothing. The simplicity 
which generally characterises virtue was ridiculed as dulness and 
stupidity ; whilst he was regarded as the cleverest who excelled 
in cunning and treachery, and especially if he employed his arts 
to the destruction of his nearest, and therefore unsuspecting 
friends and relatives. 





1^ 


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^^^r^ 


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^P 


^^H 



From the Frieze of the Parthenon. Panathenaic Procession. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR, CONTINUED. FROM THE SEDITION AT COR- 

CYRA TO THE PEACE OF NICIAS. 



§ 1. Sixtli year of the war. Return of the plague, Purifieation of Delos. 
§ 2. Seventh year. Fortification of Pylus. § 3. Attempts of the 
Lacedaemonians to recover Pylus. § 4. Arrival and victory of the 
Athenian fleet. Blockade of Sphacteria. § 6. The Lacedaemonians sue 
for peace at Athens. Extravagant demands of Cleon. § 6. Renewal of 
hostilities. § 7. Debates in the Assembly. Cleon elected general. §8. 
Capture of Sphacteria. §9. Advantages of the victory. §10. Proceed- 
ings at Corcyra. Slaughter of the oligarchs. § 11. Eighth year of the 
war. Capture of Cythera. § 12. Invasion of the Megarid and Boeotia 
by the Athenians. Capture of Nissea, the port of Megara. Defeat of 
the Athenians at the battle of Delium. § 13. Brasidas in Thrace. 
Takes Amphipolis. Banishment of Thucydides. § 14. Ninth year of 
the war. A truce between Sparta and Athens. The war continued in 
Thrace. § 15. Tenth year of the war. Cleon proceeds to Amphi- 
polis. His defeat and death. Death of Brasidas. § 16. Eleventh 
year of the war. Fifty years' peace between Athens and Sparta. 

k 1 The beginning of the sixth year of the war (b.c. 426) was 
marked by natural calamities which seemed to present a counter- 
part to the raioral disturbances which were agitating G-reece. 
Floods and earthquakes of unusual violence and frequency oc- 
curred in various parts ; and the Lacedaemonians, alarmed at 
these portents, abstained from their intended invasion of Attica. 
The military operations of the Athenians were unimportant. 



B.C. 425. THE ATHENIANS SEIZE PYLUS. 307 

The plague which had reappeared at Athens towards the close 
of the preceding year, was now making fearful ravages. This 
scourge was attributed to the anger of Apollo ; and in order, 
as it seems, to propitiate that deity, a complete purification of 
Delos was performed in the autumn. All the bodies interred 
there were exhumed and reburied in the neighbouring island of 
Rhenea ; whilst tor the future it was ordered that no deaths 
or births should be suffered to take place on the sacred island. 
At the same time the celebration of the Delian festival, to be 
renewed every fourth year, was revived with extraordinary splen- 
dour ; and thus in some measure compensated the Athenians for 
their exclusion, through the war, from the Olympic and Pythiaa 
games. 

§ 2. In the seventh year of the war (b. c. 425) the Lacedaemo- 
nian army under Agis, after a stay of only 15 days in the Attic 
territory, was recalled by the news that the Athenians had esta- 
blished a military post at Pylus in Messenia. In consequence 
of circumstances to which we shall have occasion to allude here- 
after, the Athenians had sent a fleet of forty ships to Sicily, 
under the command of Eurymedon and Sophocles ; but on their 
way thither these officers were directed to stop at Corcyra, and 
to assist the people against the oligarchs, who, as already related, 
had fortified themselves at Mount Istone, and were annoying 
the capital. Demosthenes, who had acquired great glory by a 
campaign against the Ambracians, had also embarked in the 
same fleet, with a kind of roving commission to make descents 
on the Peloponnesian coasts. Pylus, on the modern bay of Na- 
varino, struck him as an eligible spot on which to establish some of 
the Messenians from Naupactus, since it was a strong position, from 
which they might annoy the Laceda3monians, and excite revolt 
among their Helot kinsmen. As the Peloponnesian fleet, how- 
ever, was announced to have arrived at Corcyra, Eurymedon and 
Sophocles were averse to the delay which the scheme of Demos- 
thenes would occasion. But an accident caused its accomplish- 
rnant. The fleet had scarcely passed Pylus, when it was driven 
back to that spot by a violent storm ; and as the bad weather 
continued for some time, the soldiers on board amused them- 
selves, under the directions of Demosthenes, in constructing a 
sort of rude fortification. The nature of the gromid was favour- 
able for the work, and in five or six days a wall was thrown up 
sufficient for the purposes of defence. Demosthenes undertook 
to garrison the place. Five ships and 200 hoplites were left 
behind with him ; and, being afterwards joined by some Messe- 
nian privateers, he appears altogether to have possessed a force 
of about 1000 men. 



308 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXVUL 

§ 3. This insult to the Lacedaemonian territory caused great 
alarm and indignation at Sparta. The Peloponnesian fleet, 
under Thrasymelidas, was ordered from Corcyra to Pylus ; and 
at the same time Agis evacuated Attica, and marched towards 
the same place. So vast a force, both naval and mihtary, seemed 
to threaten destruction to the little garrison. Thrasymehdas, 
on arriving with the fleet immediately occupied the small unin- 
habited and densely wooded island of Sphacteria, which, with 
the exception of two narrow channels on the north and south, 
almost blocked up the entrance of the bay. Between the island 
and the mainland was a spacious basin, in which Thrasymelidas 
stationed his ships. 

It was on this side that Demosthenes anticipated the most 
dangerous attack. The Lacedaemonians were notoriously un- 
skilful in besieging walls, and on the landside a few imperfectly 
armed troops would suffice to keep their whole army at bay. 
But towards the sea was a small open space which remained un- 
fortified. Here, therefore, Demosthenes, after hauling his three 
remaining triremes ashore — for on the approach of the enemy he 
had despatched two to Eurymedon, to solicit assistance — took 
post himself with 60 chosen hoplites. 

The assault from the sea was led by Brasidas, one of the 
bravest and most distinguished commanders that Sparta ever 
produced. The narrowness of the landing-place admitted only 
a few triremes to approach at once. Brasidas stood on the prow 
of the foremost, animatmg his men by his words and gestures ; 
but he was soon disabled by numerous wounds, and fell back- 
wards into his vessel, fainting with loss of blood. After repeated 
attempts on this and the following day, the Lacedaemonians were 
unable to effect a landing ; whilst the Athenians considered their 
success decisive enough to justify the erection of a trophy, the 
chief ornament of w^hich was the shield of Brasidas, which had 
dropped into the water. 

^ 4. Whilst the Lacedaemonians were preparing for another 
assault, they were surprised by the appearance of the Athenian 
fleet. They had strangely neglected to secure the entrances 
into the bay : and, although the Athenian admiral spent the 
first day in reconnoitring, they were still either so inconceivably 
slow, or so paralysed by surprise and terror, that, when on the 
morrow the Athenian ships came sailing through both the un- 
defended channels, many of their triremes were still moored, 
and part of their crews ashore. The battle which ensued was 
desperate. Both sides fought with extraordinary valour ; but 
victory at length declared for the Athenians. Five Pelopomie- 
sian ships were captured ; the rest were saved only by running 



B.C. 425. 



SPARTA SUES FOR PEACK 



S09 



them ashore, where they were protected by the Lacedoemonian 
armv. 








A. Island of Sphart«riN. 



Bav of Pvlus. 



. Pylns. C. The modem Navarino. 

E. Promonton- of Coryphasiuni. 



D D. Bay of Pyliu. 



The Athenians, thus masters of the sea, were enabled to 
blockade the island of Sphacteria, in which the flower of the 
Lacedaemonian army was shut up, many of them native Spartans 
of the highest families. In so grave an emergency messengers 
were sent to Sparta for advice. The Ephors themselves imme- 
diately repaired to the spot ; and so desponding was their view 
of the matter, that they saw no issue from it but a peace. They 
therefore proposed and obtained an armistice for the purpose of 
opening negotiations at Athens. They agreed to surrender their 
whole fleet, and to abstain from all attacks upon Pylus till the 
return of the envoys, when their ships were to be restored. 
Meanwhile, the Athenians were to continue the blockade of 
Sphacteria, but not to commit any acts of hostility against it ; 
whilst the Laccda3moiuans were to be allowed to supply the 



SIO HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXYIIL 

besieged with provisions enough for their subsistence during the 
armistice. 

^ 5. Great was the sensation excited at Athens by beholding 
the pride of Sparta thus humbled and her envoys suing for 
peace. Cleon availed himself of the elation of the moment to 
insist on extravagant demands. Nothing less would satisfy him 
than the restoration of those places which Athens had ceded 
fourteen years before, when the Thirty Years' truce was con- 
cluded ; namely, Nisaea, Pegae, Trcezen, and Achaia ; and his 
influence in the assembly induced it to adopt his views. The 
LacedsBmonian envoys, perceiving that nothing could be hoped 
from the assembly, proposed a private negotiation with a lew 
chosen individuals. But Cleon would not hear of this arrange- 
ment, and when the envoys attempted to remonstrate, he com- 
pletely bullied and silenced them by his violence, and caused 
them to be sent back to Pylus, as they had come, m an Athe- 
nian trireme. 

§ 6. When the envoys returned, the Lacedaemonians demanded 
the restoration of their fleet, according to agreement ; but Eury- 
medon refused to comply, under the, apparently, false pretext 
that the Lacedaemonians had violated the armistice by an at- 
ten\pt to surprise Pylus. Hostilities were now resumed, but 
without any docisive result. The blockade of Sphacteria began 
to grow tedious and harassing. The force upon it continually 
received supplies of provisions either from swimmers, who towed 
skins filled with linseed and poppy-seed mixed with honey, or 
from Helots, who, induced by the promise of emancipation and 
large rewards, eluded the blockading squadron during dark and 
stormy nights, and landed cargoes on the back of the island. 
The summer, moreover, was fast wearing away, and the storms 
of winter might probably necessitate the raising of the blockade 
altogether. Under these circumstances, Demosthenes began to 
contemplate a descent upon the island ; with which view he 
collected reinforcements from Zacynthus and Naupactus, and 
also sent a message to Athens to explain the unfavourable state 
of the blockade, and to request further assistance. 

§ 7. These tidings were very distasteful to the Athenians, who 
had looked upon Sphacteria as their certain prey. They began 
to regret having let slip the favourable opportunity for making 
a peace, and to vent their displeasure upon Cleon, the director 
of their conduct on that occasion. But Cleon put on a face 
of brass. He charged the messengers from Pylus with having 
misrepresented the facts of the case ; and when that position 
proved untenable, began to abuse the strategi. His political 
opponent, Nicias, was then one of those officers, a man of quiet 



B.C. 425. 



CLEON ELECTED GENERAL. 



sn 



disposition and moderate abilities, but — a peculiar distinction in 
those days — thoroughly honest and incorruptible, pure in his 
morals and sincerely rehgious. Him Cleon now singled out for 
his vituperation, and pointing at him with his finger, exclaimed 
— " It would be easy enough to take the island if our generals 
were Tuen. If I were Strategus, I would do it at once I" This 
burst of the tanner made the assembly laugh. He was saluted 
with cries of "Why don't you go, then?" and !Nicias, thinking 
probably to catch his opponent in his own trap, seconded th^ 
voice of the assembly by ollering to place at his disposal what> 
ever force he might deem, necessary for the enterprise. Cleon 
at first endeavoured to avoid the dangerous honour thus thrust 
upon him. But the more he drew back the louder were the as- 
sembly in calling upon him to accept the office ; and as Nicias 
seriously repeated his proposition, he adopted wuth a good grace 
what there was no longer any possibility of evading. Is ay, he 
even declined the assistance of the regular Athenian hoplites, 
and engaged, with some heavy-armed Lemnian and Imbrian 
troops, together with some Thracian peltasts and 400 bowmen, 
in addition to the soldiers already at Pylus, to take Sphacteria 
within twenty days, and either kill all the Lacedaemonians upon 
it, or bring them prisoners to Athens. 

§ 8. Never did general set out upon an enterprise under 
circumstances more singular ; but, what was «6till more extra- 
ordinary, fortune enabled him to make his promise good. Id 
fact, as we have seen, Demosthenes had already resolved op 
attacking the island. Cleon procured that general to be named 
his second in command, and thus stepped in, with a nominal 
authority, to intercept the honours which were in reahty due to 
another. On the other hand, Nicias is not free from blame on 
this occasion. He seems to have given the command to Cleon, 
whom he deemed totally incompetent for it, merely with the view 
of ruining a political opponent, and to have left the interests of 
Athens wholly out of sight. 

When Cleon arrived at Pylus he found everything prepared 
for the attack. Accident favoured the enter^irise. A fire 
kindled by some Athenian sailors, who had landed for the pur- 
pose of cooking their dumer, caught and destroyed the woods 
with which the island was overgrown, and thus deprived the 
Lacedaemonians of one of their principal defences. Nevertheless, 
such was the awe inspired by the reputation of the Spartan arms, 
that Demosthenes considered it necessary to land about 10,000 
soldiers of diflerent descriptions, among whom were 600 Athc 
nian hoplites, although the Lacedaemonian force consisted of 
only about 420 men. Their commander, Epitadas, was poBtdd 



S12 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXVIII. 

with the main body in the centre of the island. An outpost of 
30 hophtes defended the extremity farthest from Pylus. The 
end of the island facing that place, steep and rugged by nature, 
was rendered still stronger by a circuit of rude stones, of an- 
cient and unknown origin, which answered the purpose of a fort. 
The Athenians, having landed before daybreak, surprised and 
cut to pieces the advanced guard of 30 hoplites. Then De- 
mosthenes, having divided his light-armed troops into bodies of 
about 200 men each, which were to hover round and annoy the 
enemy, drew up his 800 hoplites in battle array near the spot 
where he had landed. Epitadas had therefore to advance against 
him with his main body, about 360 in number, over ground ob- 
structed by the ashes and stumps of the burnt wood, and amidst 
a shower of missiles from the light troops on his flanks and rear. 
At length, distressed by a species of warfare which he had no 
means of repelling, and almost blinded by the dust and ashes, 
Epitadas ordered his men to retreat to the stone fort at the ex- 
tremity of the island, whither they were followed by the Athe- 
nian hoplites. Here, however, having the advantage of the 
ground, and being able to use their spears and swords in close 
combat, the Lacedaemonians for a long while kept their assailants 
at bay ; till some Messenians, stealing round by the sea-shore, 
over crags and cliffs which the LacedaBmonians had deemed im- 
practicable, suddenly appeared on the high ground which over- 
hung their rear. They now began to give way, and would soon 
have been all slain ; but Cleon and Demosthenes, being anxious 
to carry them prisoners to Athens, called off their men from 
the pursuit, and sent a herald to summon the Lacedaemonians 
to surrender. The latter, in token of compliance, dropped their 
shields, and waved their hands above their heads. They re- 
quested, however, permission to communicate with their coun- 
trymen on the mainland ; who, after two or three communica- 
tions, sent them a final message — " to take counsel for themselves, 
but to do nothing disgraceful." The sui-vivors then surrendered. 
They were 292 in number, 120 of whom were native Spartans 
belonging to the first families. By this surrender the prestige 
of the Spartan arms was in a great degree destroyed. The 
Spartans were not, indeed, deemed invincible ; but their pre- 
vious feats, especially at Thermopylae, had inspired the notion 
that they would rather die than yield ; an opinion which could 
now no longer be entertained. 

^ 9. Cleon had thus performed his promise. On the day after 
the victory, he and Demosthenes started with the prisoners for 
Athens, where they arrived within 20 days from the time of 
Oleon's departure. Altogether, this afliiir was one of the most 



B.C. 425. 



CAPTURE OF P^LUa 



313 



favourable for the Athenians that had occurred during the war. 
The prisoners would serve not only for a guarantee against fu- 
ture invasions, which might be averted by threatening to put 
them to death, but also as a means for extorting advantageous 
conditions whenever a peace should be concluded. Nay, the 
victory ?.tself was of considerable importance, since it enabled 
the Athenians to place Pylus in a better posture of defence, and, 
by garrisoning it with Messenians from Naupactus, to create a 
stronghold whence Laconia might be overrun and ravaged at 
pleasure. The Lacedaemonians themselves were so sensible of these 
things, that they sent repeated messages to Athens to propose a 
peace, but which the Athenians altogether disregarded. 

§ 10. Meanwhile, after the victory at Sphacteria, Eurj'medon 
and Sophocles proceeded with the Athenian fleet to Corcyra, 
where, in conjunction with the people, they took by stcim the 
post of the oligarchs on Mount Istone. The latter at first retired 
to an inaccessible peak, but subsequently surrendered them- 
selves on condition of being sent to Athens to be judged by the 
Athenian assembly. Eurj-medon, the same man it will be ob- 
served, who had before abandoned the Corcyrseans to all the 
fury of civil discord, assented to these conditions, and caused 
the prisoners to be secured in the small adjoining island of 
Ptychia. But he took not the slightest pains to carry out the 
agreement ; nay, he even connived at the artifices of the Cor- 
crysean democracy to entrap the prisoners into a breach of the 
capitulation, and thus procure a pretext for their destruction. 
For this purpose emissaries in the guise of friends were sent 
over to Ptycliia to persuade the prisoners that Eur}'medon in- 
tended to hand them over to their enemies, and thus succeeded 
in inducing some of them to escape in a boat provided for that 
purpose. The boat was seized in the act, and Eurjmedon now 
delivered up the prisoners to the democratical party. They 
were at first confined in a large building, whence, chained two 
and two together, they were led out to execution in companies 
of twenty. They advanced through a road lined with aim.ed 
men, who singled out their private enemies, and struck and 
wounded them till they perished. " These scenes," says a great 
historian, " are real prototypes of the September massacres at 
Paris : all the prisoners, just as at Paris, were led from the prison 
between two rows of armed men, and cut to pieces."^ "What, 
however, renders this scene still more disgusting than the Pa- 
risian massacres, is, that a third party — Eurj-medon, with his 
Athenians — looked on m cold blood, and saw these atrocities 



Niebuhr, 



Lectures ou Ancient History,' vol. ii. p 
P 



oy. 



314 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXVIIl 

perpetrated without making the shghtest attempt to prcTent 
them. After three companies had been destroyed the remaining 
prisoners refused to quit the building, or to allow any one to 
enter it ; at the same time piteously imploring the Athenians to 
kill them, rather than abandon them to the cruelties of their 
comitrymen. But Eurymedon was inexorable. The people now 
unroofed part of the building, and assailed the prisoners with 
showers of tiles and arrows, till in order to escape this lingering 
fate, they were driven to commit suicide. The work of death 
proceeded through the night. At daybreak the people entered 
the building with carts, and piling upon them the dead bodies, 
in number about 300, carried them out of the city, 

^11. The eighth year of the war (b.c. 424) opened with bril- 
liant prospects for the Athenians. But their good fortune had 
now reached its culminating point ; and before the year closed, 
their defeat at the battle of Delium and the loss of their empire 
in Thrace more than counterbalanced all the advantages they 
had previously gained. At first, however, success still attended 
their arms. Nicias reduced the important island of Cythera, at 
the southern extremity of Laconia, and placed garrisons in the 
towns of Cythera and Scandeia. He then proceeded to the 
coasts of Laconia, "which he ravaged in various places. Among 
his conquests here was the town of Thp-ea, Avhere the Laceda;- 
monians had allowed the ^Eginetans to settle after their expul- 
sion from their own island. Thyrea was destroyed, and the sur- 
viving ^Eginetans canied to Athens and put to death. Among 
the horrors which the great liistorian of the Peloponnesian war 
has noted as characterizing the times, the murder of 2000 Helots 
by the LacedsBmonians stands conspicuous. Alarmed for their 
own safety since the establishment of an Athenian and Messe- 
nian force at Pylus, the Lacedaemonians about this time pro- 
claimed that those Helots who had distinguished themselves by 
their services during the war should come forward and claim 
their liberty. A large body appeared, out of whom 2000 were 
selected as worthy of emancipation. Crowned with garlands, 
and honoured with all the imposing ceremonies of religion, the 
unhappy Helots paid with their lives for the liberty thus so- 
lemnly acquired. In a short time they all disappeared, no man 
knew how, by secret orders from the Ephors, who took this per- 
fidious and detestable method to rid themselves of formidable 
enemies. 

§ 12. Elate with their continued good fortune, the Athenians 
aimed at nothing less than the recovery of all the possessions 
which they had held before the Thirty Years' truce. For this 
purpose they planned two important expeditions, one against 



B.a 424. BATTLE OF DELIUM. 315 

Megara and the other against Bceotia. In the former they were 
partially successful. They seized Nisasa, the port of Megara, 
which they permanently occupied with an Athenian garrison ; 
but they were prevented from obtaining possession of Megara 
itself by the energy of Brasidas, who was at that time in tho 
neighbourhood of Corinth, collecting troops for his Thracian 
expedition. Receiving intelligence of the danger of Megara, ho 
immediately marched to the assistance of the city with a consi- 
derable force, Avhich the Athenians did not venture to attack. 

The expedition against Ba3otia was attended with the most 
disastrous results. Some Boeotian exiles, and other malcontent 
citizens, had formed a plan to betray Siphcfi, on the gulf of Co- 
rinth, and Chseronea, on the borders of Phocis, into the hands of 
the Athenians, who were on the same day to invade Boeotia from 
the south, and to seize the temple of Apollo at Delium, a place 
about five miles from Tanagra, strongly situated upon the clilis 
on the eastern coast. It was anticipated that these simultaneous 
attacks at various points would divide the Boeotian forces, and 
render the enterprise easy of execution. But the scheme was be- 
trayed, and miscarried. Demosthenes, who was to attack Siphse 
and Cha3ronea, found those places preoccupied by a foraiidable 
Boeotian force, which rendered vain all hopes of surprising them. 
Hippocrates, who commanded the army of invasion from the south, 
proceeded to execute his part in the arrangement, and marched to 
Delium with the very large force of 7000 Athenian hoplites, toge- 
ther with 25,000 light armed troops and several hundred cavalry. 
A day's march brought him to Delium, where he immediately 
fortified the sanctuary of Apollo with a rampart and ditch, besides 
other works. When these were completed, a garrison Avas left in 
the place, and the army commenced its homeward march. On 
arriving at the heights between Delium and the plain of Oropus, 
they were encountered by the Boeotians, who had assembled in 
great force at Tanagra. Their army consisted of about 7000 
Boeotian hoplites, some of whom were the very flower of the 
Theban warriors, 10,000 light armed troops, 500 peltasts, and 
1000 horse. They were led by the eleven Boeotarchs then at the 
head of the Boeotian confederacy, though the supreme command 
seems to have been vested, probably alternately, in the two 
Boeotarchs of Thebes, Pagondas and Aranthides. All the Boeot- 
archs, with the exception of Pagondas, were of opinion that, as 
the Athenians seemed to be in full retreat,.they should be suflered 
to retire unmolested. But that commander, disregarding the 
opinion of his colleagues, appealed to the patriotic and religious 
feelings of the soldiers. He painted in strong colours the danger 
of suflbring this insult to their territory to pass unpunished, and 



816 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXVHL 

pointed out that the sacrifices were favourable for an attack, 
whilst, on the other hand, the Athenians had incurred the anger 
of Apollo by violating his temple. Having by these representa- 
tions persuaded the Boeotians to hazard an engagement, he drew 
up the army in order of battle under the brow of a hill which 
concealed them from the Athenians. Hippocrates, on his side, 
hastened to prepare his troops for the battle. His hoplites were 
drawn up in a line of eight deep, having the light armed troops 
and cavalry on the flanks. The heavy Boeotian phalanx, on the 
contrary, was twenty-five deep ; the Theban hoplites occupying 
the right, with the other heavy-armed Boeotians on the left and 
in the centre. The light-aiTiied troops and cavalry were ranged, 
as in the Athenian line, upon the flanks. The Boeotians, ascend- 
ing the hill in this array, as soon as they came in sight of the 
Athenians, raised the war-shout and charged, before Hippocrates 
had finished addressing his men. Ravines at both extremities 
of the line prevented the light troops from engaging ; but the 
serried ranks of the hoplites met in desperate conflict. The left 
wing of the Boeotians was repulsed ; but on the right the skill 
and valour of the chosen Theban warriors who led the van, as 
well as the superior weight of the deep and densely compacted 
phalanx bore down all resistance. At the same time Pagondas, 
having gent round his cavalry to attack the Athenian right, 
restored the fortune of the day on that side also. The rout of 
the Athenians was now complete. Some fled back to Delium, 
some to Oropus, others to the heights of Barnes. Hippocrates 
himself fell in the engagement, together with 1000 hoplites; a J|' 

loss about double that of the Boeotians. Fortunately for the i 

Athenians, the battle had commenced late in the day, and they 
were thus rescued by the friendly shades of night from the pur- 
suit and massacre which would otherwise have overtaken them. 
When on the morrow an Athenian herald asked the cus- 
tomary permission to bury the slain, the Boeotians reproached 
the Athenians with the violation of Apollo's sanctuary, and re- 
fused the sacred rites of sepulture till the sacrilege should be 
expiated, and Delium evacuated. They immediately invested 
that place, which surrendered after a siege of seventeen days. 
The greater part of the garrison, however, succeeded in escaping 
by sea, but about 200 prisoners fell into the hands of the 
Boeotians. Altogether the battle of Delium was the greatest 
and most decisive fought during the first period of the war. An 
interesting feature of the battle is that both Socrates and his 
pupil Alcibiades were engaged in it, the former among the 
hoplites, the latter in the cavalry. Socrates distinguished him- 
self by his bravery, and was one of those who, instead of throw- 



B.C. 424. 



BRASIDAS IN THRACE. 



817 



ing down their arms, kept together in a compact body, and re- 
pulsed the attacks of the pursuing horse. His retreat was also 
protected by Alcibiades. 

k 13. This disastrous battle was speedily followed by the 
overthrow of the Athenian empire in Thrace. At the request 
of Perdiecas, king of Macedonia, and of the Chalcidian towns, 
who had sued for help against the Athenians, Brasidas was 
sent by the Lacedaemonian government into Thrace, at the 
head of 700 Helot hoplites and such others as he could succeed 
in raising in Greece. While engaged in levying troops in 
the neighbourhood of Corinth, he saved Megara from falling 
into the hands of the Athenians, as has been already related. 
Having obtained 1000 Peloponnesian hoplites, in addition to 
the 700 mentioned above, he succeeded, by a rapid and dex- 
terous march through the hostile country of Thessaly, in effecting 
a junction with Perdiecas, with whom he marched into Thrace. 
Here he proclaimed that he was come to deliver the Grecian 
cities from the tyrannous yoke of Athens. His bravery, his 
kind and conciliating demeanour, his probity, moderation, and 
good faith, soon gained him the respect and love of the allies of 
Athens in that quarter ; whose defection was likewise promoted 
by the news of the Athenian reverses. Acanthus and Stagirus 
hastened to open their gates to him ; and early in the ensuing 
winter, by means of forced marches, he suddenly and unex- 




Plan oflhc iiuighbourhood ol Aniphipoli 



1. Site of Amphipolis. 
9. Sitt* of Eion 

S. Kidce rrmiierting; Ampliipolia with 
Mount Fiiiiga-iia. 



6. Lnke CercinitiR. 
1. Mdunt Cenh lium. 
8. Mount i'ikti|::iL-us. 



818 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXYIIL 

pectedly appeared before the important Athenian colony of 
Amphipohs on the Strymon. In that town the Athenian party 
was the stronger, and sent a message for assistance to Thucy- 
dides, the historian, who, in conjunction with Eucles, was then 
general in those parts. Thucydides hastened with seven ships 
from Thasos, and succeeded in securing Eion at the mouth of 
the Str}^mon ; hut Amphipolis, which lay a little higher up the 
river, allured hy the favourable terms offered, had already sur- 
rendered to Brasidas. For his want of vigilance on this occasion, 
Thucydides was, on the motion of Cleon, sentenced to banish- 
ment, and spent the following twenty years of his life in exile. 
From Amphipolis Brasidas proceeded to the easternmost penin- 
sula of Chalcidice, where most of the towns hastened to surrender. 
At Torone, on the Sithonian peninsula, the gates were opened 
by an anti-Athenian party. The Athenian garrison fled to a 
neighbouring fort ; but Brasidas took the place by storm, and 
put all the prisoners to the sword. 

04. The Athenians were so much depressed by their defeat 
at Delium, that they neglected to take vigorous measures for 
arresting the progress of Brasidas. They now began to think 
seriously of peace, and to entertain the proposals of the Lacedae- 
monians, Y/ho were on their side solicitous about their prisoners 
still in custody at Athens. Early in B.C. 423, the ninth year of 
the war, a truce was concluded for a year, with a view to the 
subsequent adjustment of a definitive and permanent peace. 
The negotiations for that purpose were, however, suddenly inter- 
rupted by the news that Scione had revolted to Brasidas. This 
revolt appears to have taken place two days after the conclusion 
of the truce ; and as one of the conditions was that every thing 
should remain in statu quo till peace was definitively concluded, 
the Athenians demanded that the town should be restored. 
With this demand Brasidas refused to comply. Excited by the 
speeches of Cleon, the Athenians would not listen to any pro- 
posals for arbitration, and sent an armament against Scione, 
with orders that every man in the place should be put to death. 

The war was thus revived in those distant regions, but 
nearer home the truce was observed. Brasidas, who had been 
deserted by the faithless Perdiccas, threw himself into Torone 
on the approach of the Athenians. Nicias and Nicostratus, who 
had arrived in Chalcidice with 50 triremes and a large body of 
troops, commenced operations against Mende, which had also 
revolted. The town was surrendered by a party among the 
citizens : the Lacedsemonian garrison contrived to escape to 
Scione, which town the Athenians proceeded to invest ; and 
when Nicias had completely blockaded it, he returned to Athena. 



B.C. 422. DEATH OF BRASIDAS AND CLEON. 819 

^15. Things remained in this stale till the beginning of the 
year b.c. 422, when the tnice expired. Early in August, Clcon 
having been appointed to the command, proceeded against 
Scione, with a fleet of 30 triremes, carrying 1200 hoplites, 300 
cavaliy, and a large force cf subsidiary troops. In the absence 
of Brasidas he succeeded in taking Torone and Galepsus, but 
failed in an attempt upon Stagirus. He then lay for some time 
inactive at Eion, till the murmurs of his troops compelled him 
to proceed against Amphipolis. Thither Brasidas had also 
directed liis m.arch, with an army of 2000 hoplites, 300 Greek 
cavalry, and a large body of light armed Thracians. He encamped 
on the heights of Cerdylium on the western bank of the river, 
whence he could survey all the movements of the enemy ; but, 
on the approach of Cleon, he threw all his troops into the town. 
I'hat general encamped on a rising ground on the eastern side of 
A.niphipolis. Having deserted the peaceful art of dressing hides 
for the more hazardous trade of war, in which he was almost 
totally inexperienced, and having now no Demosthenes to direct 
his movements, Cleon was thrown completely oft" his guard by a 
very ordinary stratagem on the part cf Brasidas, who contrived 
to give the to\^^l quite a deserted and peaceful appearance. 
Oleon suliered his troops to fall into disorder, till he was sud- 
deidy surprised by the astounding news that Brasidas was j^re- 
paring lor a sally. Cleon at once resolved to retreat. But his 
ekill was equal to his valour. He had no conception that he 
could be attacked till Brasidas had drawn out his men and 
formed them, as if they were on parade, in regular order. He 
therefore conducted his retreat in the most disorderly manner. 
Mis left wing had already filed off', and his centre with straggling 
ranks was in the act of followuig, when Brasidas ordered the 
gates of the town to be flung open, and rushing cut at the head 
cf only 150 chosen soldiers, charged the retreating columns in 
flank. They were immediately routed ; but as Brasidas was 
hastening to attack the Athenian right, which was only just 
breaking ground, and where Cleon himself was posted, he re- 
ceived a mortal wound and was carried off the field. Though 
his men were forming on the hill, Cleon fled as fast as he could 
on the approach of the enemy, but was pursued and slain by a 
Thracian peltast. In spite, however of the disgraceful flight cf 
their general, the right wing maintained their ground for a con- 
siderable time, till some cavalry and peltasts issuing from Am- 
phipolis attacked them in flank and rear, and compelled them to 
fly. On assembling again at Eion it was found that half the 
Athenian hoplites had been slain. Brasidas was carried into 
Amphipolis, and lived long enough to receive the tidings of his 



520 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



Chap. XXVIU 



victory. He was interred within the walls with great military 
pomp in the centre of what thenceforth became the chief agora ; 
he was proclaimed cecist, or founder of the town ; and was wor- 
shipped as a hero with annual games and sacrifices. 

§ 16. By the death of Brasidas and Cleon, the two chief ob- 
stacles to a peace were removed ; for the former loved war for the 
sake of its glory, the latter for the handle which it aflorded for 
agitation and for attacking his political opponents. The Athenian 
Nicias, and the Spartan king Pleistoanax, zealously forwarded 
the negotiations, and in the spring of the year b.c. 421, a peace 
for 50 years, commonly called the peace of Nicias, was concluded 
on the basis of a mutual restitution of prisoners and places cap- 
tured during the war. The Thebans, however, retained Platsea 
on the plea that it had been voluntarily surrendered, and on the 
same grounds Athens was allowed to hold Nissea, Anactorium, 
and Sollium. Neutral towns were to remain independent, and 
pay only the assessment of Aristides. By this treaty Sparta 
sacrificed the interests of her allies in favour of her own. Her 
confederates viewed it with jealousy and distrust, and four of 
them, namely, the Boeotians, Corinthians, Eleans, and Megarians, 
positively refused to ratify it. Alarmed at this circumstance, as 
well as at the expiration of her Thirty Years' Truce with Argos, 
Sparta soon afterwards concluded an offensive and defensive 
alliance with Athens, with the stipulation that each might in- 
crease or diminish at pleasure the number of its allies and 
subjects. 




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Centaur from the Metopes of the Parthenon. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED. FROM THE PEACE OF NICIAS 
TO THE EXPEDITION OF THE ATHENIANS TO SICILY, 



§ 1. League of Argos, Corinth, Elea, Mantinea, and Chalcidice. § 2. Trans- 
actions between Sparta and Athens. § 3. Policy and character of Alci- 
biades. §4. Headvocatesaleague with Argos. Resorts to a stratagem 
to procure it. § 5. Alcibiades victor at Olyrapia. His magnificence. 
§ 6. He proceeds to Peloponnesus. § 7. Proceedings of the Lacedaemo- 
nians. Battle of Mantinea. § 8. Revolutions at Argos. A democracy 
established. §9. Conquest of Melos by the Athenians. § 10. Interven- 
tion of the Athenians inSicily. § 11. Embassy of the Egestffians. They 
deceive the Athenians respecting their wealth. § 12. The Athenians 
resolve on an expedition to Sicily. § 13. Preparations at Athens. 
Popular delusion. § 14. Mutilation of the Hermse. Accusation of 
Alcibiades. § 15. Depai'ture of the Athenian fleet for Sicily. 

M. It has been mentioned that several of the allies of Sparta 
were dissatisfied with the peace which she had concluded ; and 
soon afterwards some of them detennined to revive the ancient 
pretensions of Argos, and to make her the head of a new con- 
federacy, which should include all Greece, with the exception of 
Sparta and Athens. The movement was begun by the Corin- 



322 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXIX. 

thians, who felt themselves aggrieved because the Lacedsemonians 
had allowed Athens to retain Sollium and Anactorium. The 
league was soon joined by the E leans, the Mantineans, and the 
Chalcidians. But they in vain endeavoured to persuade the 
powerful city of Tegea to unite with them ; whilst the oligar- 
chical governments of Bceotia and Megara also stood aloof. 

§ 2. Between Sparta and Athens themselves matters were far 
from being on a satisfactory footing. Sparta confessed her in- 
abihty to compel the Boeotians and Corinthians to accede to the 
peace, or even to restore the town of Amphipolis. After the 
death of Brasidas, Clearidas had succeeded to the command of 
Amphipolis ; and he now pretended that he was not strong 
enough to surrender it against the will of the inhabitants. 
However, he withdrew with his garrison from the place ; and 
the Athenians do not appear to have made any attempt to take 
possession of it. All that they effected in that quarter was to 
reduce Scione, when the bloody decree of Cleon was carried into 
execution. Athens consequently refused to evacuate Pylus, 
though she removed the Helots and Messenians from it. 

§ 3. In the negotiations which ensued respecting the surrender 
of Pylus, Alcibiades took a prominent part. This extraordinary 
man had already obtained immense mfluence at Athens. Young, 
rich, handsome, profligate, and clever, Alcibiades was the very 
model of an Athenian man of fashion. In lineage he was a striking 
contrast to the plebeian orators of the day. The Athenian public, 
in spite of its excessive democracy, was anything but insensible 
to the prestige of high birth ; and Alcibiades traced his paternal 
descent from the ^acid heroes Euiysaces and Ajax, whilst on 
his mother's side he claimed relationship with the AlcmseonidsB, 
and consequently with Pericles. On the death of his father 
Clinias, Pericles had become his guardian. From early j'outh 
the conduct of Alcibiades was marked by violence, reck- 
lessness, and vanity. He dehghted in astonishing the more 
sober portion of the citizens by his capricious and extravagant 
leats. Nothing, not even the sacredness of the laws, was secui*e 
from his petulance. Sometimes we find him beating a school- 
master for not having a copy of Homer in his school, or inter- 
rupting the performances of the theatre by striking his fellow 
choregus ; and on one occasion he effaces with his own hand an 
indictment published against a Thasian poet, and defies both 
prosecutor and magistrate to proceed with it. His beauty, his 
wit, and his escapades, had made him the darling of all the 
Athenian ladies, nor did the men regard him with less admira- 
tion. But he was utterly destitute of morality, whether public 
or private. The "lion's whelp," as he is termed by Aristo- 



B.C. 421. CHARACTER OF ALCIBIADES. 323 

phanes, was even suspected, in his boundless ambition, of a 
design to enslave his fellow-citizens. His vices, however, were 
partly redeemed by some brilliant qualities. He possessed both 
boldness of design and vigour of action ; and though scarcely 
more than thirty at the time of which we are now speaking, he 
had already on several occasions distinguished himself by his 
bravery. His more serious studies were made subservient to 
the purposes of his ambition, for which some skill as an orator 
was necessary. In order to attain it he frequented the schools 
of the sophists, and exercised himself in the dialectics of Pro- 
dicus, Protagoras, and above all of Socrates. As an orator he 
seems to have attained a respectable, but not a first, raiili:. He 
had not the rapid and spontaneous flow of ideas and words 
which characterised the eloquence of Pericles. He would fre- 
quently hesitate in order to cull the most choice and elegant 
phrase ; and a lisp, whether natural or afiected, which turned 
ail the r's into Z's, must have been a serious drawback to his 
oratory. 

§ 4. Such was the man who now opposed the appHcation of 
the LacedEemonian ambassadors. It is characteristic of him that 
personal pique was the motive of his opposition. The politics 
of his ancestors had been democratic, and his grandfather was a 
violent opponent of the Pisistratidee. But he himself on his first 
entrance into public life, a little before the peace of Nicias, had 
manifested oligarcliical sentiments, and even endeavoured to 
renew an ancient tie of hospitality Avhich had formerly connected 
his family with Sparta. With the view of becoming the Spartan 
proxenus at Athens, he had been assiduous in his attentions 
towards the Spartan prisoners, and had taken an active part in 
forwarding the peace. But the Spartan government rejected 
his advances, and even sneered at the idea of intrusting their 
political interests to a youth known only by his insolence and 
profligacy. The petulant Alcibiades was not the man to brook 
such an affront. He immediately threw himself, with all the 
restless energ}- of his character, into the party opposed to Sparta, 
now deprived of its most conspicuous leader by the death of 
Cleon. He began to advocate a league with Argos, in Avhich 
city the democratic party at that time prcdomuiated, and sent 
a private message to his friends there advising them to despatch 
ambassadors to negotiate the admission of Argos among the 
allies of Athens. A joint embassy was accordingly sent from 
Argos, Elea, and Mantinea. The Lacedaemonians endeavoured 
to defeat this negotiation by sending three of their most popular 
citizens to Athens, to make another attempt to procure the 
cession of Pylus. Their reception was so favourable, that Alci- 



324 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXIX. 

biades, alarmed at the prospect of their success, resorted to a 
trick in order to defeat it. He called -apon the Lacedsemonian 
Giivcys, one of v/hom happened to he his personal friend ; and 
pretending to have resumed his predilections for Sparta, he ad- 
vised them not to tell the Assemhl^^ that they were furnished 
with full powers, as in that case the people would bully them 
into extravagant concessions, but rather to say that they were 
merely come to discuss and report ; promising, if they did so, to 
speak in their favour, and induce the Assembly to grant the 
restitution of Pylus, to which he himself had hitherto been the 
chief obstacle. Accordingly, on the next day, when the ambas- 
sadors were introduced into the Assembly, Alcibiades, assuming 
his blandest tone and most winning smile, asked them on what 
footing they came, and what were their powers ? In reply to 
these questions, the ambassadors, who only a day or two before 
had told Nicias and the Senate that they were come as plenipo- 
tentiaries, now publicly declared in the face of the assembly, 
that they were not authorized to conclude, but only to negotiate 
and discuss. At this announcement, those who had heard their 
previous declaration could scarcely believe" their ears. A 
universal burst of indignation broke ibrth at this exhibition 
of Spartan duplicity ; whilst to wind up the scene, Alcibiades, 
affecting to be more surprised than any, distinguished himself 
by being the loudest and bitterest in his invectives against 
the perfidy of the Lacedeemonians. Taking advantage of the 
moment, he proposed that the Argive ambassadors should be 
called in, and an alliance instantly concluded with Argos. The 
motion, however, was defeated for the present by an earth- 
quake which occurred, and which caused the assembly to be 
adjourned. This delay procured Nicias the opportunity of pro- 
ceeding to Sparta, and making another attempt at adjustment. 
It proved, however, unsuccessful. Nicias was obliged to make 
the mortifying confession of his failure before the assembly ; and 
Alcibiades thereupon procured the comj)letion of a treaty of 
alliance for 100 years with Argos, Elis, and Mantinea. This 
took place in the year 420 B.C. Thus were the Grecian states 
involved in a complicity of separate and often apparently oppo- 
site alliances. It was evident that allies so heterogeneous could 
not long hold together ; nevertheless, nominally at least, peace 
was at first observed. 

§ 5. In the July which followed the treaty with Argos, the 
Olympic games, which recurred every fourth year, were to be 
celebrated. The Athenians had been shut out by the war from 
the two previous celebrations ; but now Elean heralds came with 
the usual forms to invite their attendance. Curiosity was ex> 



B.C. 418. WAR IN PELOPONNESUS. 325 

cited throughout Greece to see what figure Athens would make 
at this great Pan-Hellenic festival. War, it was surmised, must 
have exhausted her resources, and would thus prevent her from 
appearing with becoming splendour. But from this reproach 
she was rescued by the wealth and vanity, if not by the patri- 
otism of Alcibiades. By his care, the Athenian deputies exhi- 
bited the richest display of golden ewers, censers, and other 
plate to be used in the public sacrifice and procession ; whilst 
lor the games he entered in his own name no fewer than the un- 
heard of number of seven four-horsed chariots, of which one 
gained the first, and another the second prize. Alcibiades was 
consequently twice croA\Tied with the olive, and twice proclaimed 
victor by the herald. In his private tent his victory was cele- 
brated by a mag-nificent banquet. It is not improbable, how- 
ever, that on this occasion he was assisted by the Athenian 
allies ; for the whole Ionic race was interested in appearing with 
due honour at this grand national festival. 

§ 6. The growing ambition and success of Alcibiades prompted 
him to carry his schemes against Sparta into the ver}"" heart of 
Pelopomiesus, without, however, openly violating the peace. For 
the first time an Athenian general was beheld traversing the 
peninsula, and busymg himself wath the domestic afiairs of 
several of its states. He persuaded the citizens of Patrae in 
Achaia to ally themselves with Athens ; and proceeded with 
the few troops he had brought with him to assist the Argives in 
an attack upon Epidaurus, a city conveniently situated for facili- 
tating the intercourse between Argos and Athens. The territory 
of Epidaurus was ravaged ; and late in the autumn, the Lacedce- 
monians sent 300 men by sea to the assistance of that city ; but 
nothing decisive took place. 

^ 7. The Lacedaemonians now found it necessary to act with 
more vigour ; and accordingly in B.C. 418, they assembled a very 
large army, consisting both of their allies and of their own troops, 
and invaded the territory of Argos in tlu'ee divisions. Their 
operations were judiciously planned. The Spartan king, Agis, 
succeeded in surrounding the Argive army in such a manner 
that he might easily have cut it to pieces ; but at the moment 
when an engagement was on the point of commencing, two of 
the Argive leaders proceeded to Agis, and by undertaking to 
procure a satisfactory alliance between Argos and Sparta, in- 
duced him to grant a truce of four months. Shortly after this 
truce had been concluded the Athenians came to the assistance 
of the Argives with a force of 1000 hoplitcs and 400 cavalry. 
They were accompanied by Alcibiades, who seems, however, to 
have come in a civil capacity. He now persuaded the Argives 



326 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXIX. 

to march with these troops and other alUes against the town of 
Orchomenos in Arcadia. Having reduced Orchomenos, they 
proceeded against Tegea, hoping to become masters of it through 
the treachery of a party among the citizens. Tliese proceedings, 
however, roused the Lacedaemonians, who entered the territory 
of Mantinea with a large force. Agis, who had incurred the just 
indignation of his countrymen by the improvident truce before 
mentioned, was nevertheless intrusted with the command of 
this army ; but only in consideration of his having promised to 
wipe out his former disgrace by performing some great exploit. 
He marched into the territory of Mantinea, and took up a posi- 
tion near the Heracleum, or temple of Hercules, whence he laid 
waste the surrounding country. The Argives and their allies 
marched forth from Mantinea, and, posting themselves on very 
rugged and advantageous ground, olFered the Lacedaemonians 
battle. Anxious to retrieve his honour, Agis was hastening to 
attack them even at this disadvantage, and had already arrived 
within javelin-throw, when an aged warrior exclaimed that he 
was now about "to heal one mischief by another." Strnck by 
this remark Agis drew off his men, and, with the view of enticing 
the Argives from their position, commenced a retrograde march 
over the plain ; intending also to block up a watercourse situated 
at some distance, and annoy the Mantineans by flooding their 
lands. Finding, however, this project to be impracticable, he 
returned upon his steps the following day, when his columns 
suddenly found themselves in presence of the enemy, drawn up 
in order of battle upon the plain. But, though taken somewhat 
by surprise, the admirable discipline of the Lacedcemonians, 
ensured by a continvious subordination of officers, as well as by 
constant drill, enabled Agis to form his line speedily and without 
confusion in the face of the enemy. Instead of charging before 
his troops were formed, the Argive generals were wasting the 
time in haranguing their men. The Spartans, who were soldiers 
by profession, needed no such encouragement, and trusted 
rather to discipline and valour than to fine speeches. Instead 
of these, the inspiriting war-song resounded through their ranks ; 
whilst the slow and steady regularity of their march was go- 
verned by the musical time of their pipers. Their opponents on 
the contrary came rushing on at a furious pace. From the 
natural tendency of Greek armies to advance somewhat towards 
the right, in order to keep their left or shielded side as much as 
possible towards the enemy, the left wing of Agis was outflanked 
by the right of the allies, in which fought a chosen body of 1000 
Argive hoplites, formed of the flower and aristocracy of the city, 
and maintained and drilled at the public expense. On this side 



B.C. 418. BATTLE OF MANTINEA. 32Y 

the LacedsBmonians were routed ; but Agis nevertheless pushed 
on with his centre and right, and gained a complete victory. 
The loss of the allies was computed at 1100 among whom were 
200 Athenians and both their generals, Laches and Nicostratus. 
Of the Lacedaemonians about 300 were slain. This battle, called 
the battle of Mantinea, which was fought in June, 418 B.C., had 
great effect in restoring the somewhat tarnished lustre of the 
Spartan arms. From the renown of the nations engaged in it, 
though not in point of numbers, it was a more important battle 
even than that of Delium. 

^ 8. This defeat strengthened the oligarchical party at Argos, 
which now entered into a conspiracy to bring about an alliance 
with Sparta. To assist their views the Laceda3monians marched 
in great force to Tegea, and offered Argos the alternative of an 
alliance or war ; and in spite of all the efforts of Alcibiades to 
counteract it, a treaty was eventually concluded between the two 
states. This was followed by a revolution at Argos. The demo- 
cratical leaders were slain, and an oligarchical government esta- 
blished by means of their thousand chosen hoplites. But the 
oligarchs abused their power, and the brutal tyranny of Bryas, 
the commander of the chosen Thousand, produced a counter- 
revolution. A bride of the humbler class, whom he had ravished 
from the very midst of a wedding procession, and carried to his 
house, put out the eyes of the tyrant during the night with the 
pin of her brooch, and having thus effected her escape, roused 
by her tale of woe the indignation of the people. The latter, 
takiag advantage of the Lacedaemonians being engaged in the 
festival of the Gymnopsedia, rose against the aristocrats, ob- 
tained possession of the city, and renewed the alliance with 
Athens. An attempt to construct long walls from Argos to the 
sea, a distance of four or five miles, was defeated by the Lacedae- 
monians ; but in the spring of b.c. 416 Alcibiades arrived to 
support the Argive democracy with an Athenian armament, 
aud 20 triremes. Nevertheless, the peace between Sparta and 
Atheus continued to be nominally observed, although the gar- 
rison of Pylus were committing ravages in Laconia, and the 
Lacedaemonians, by way of reprisal, infested the Athenian com- 
merce with their privateers. 

^ 9. It was in the same year that the Athenians attacked and 
conquered Melos, which island and Thera were the only islands in 
the iEgean not subject to the Athenian supremacy. Their arma- 
ment consisted of 38 triremes and a considerable force of hoplites. 
The Melians having rejected all the Athenian overtures for a 
voluntary submission, their capital was blockaded by sea and 
land, and after a siege of some months surrendered. On the pro- 



328 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. XXIX. 

posal, as it appears, of Alcibiades, all the adult males were put to 
death, the women and children sold into slavery, and the island 
colonized afresh by 500 Athenians. This horrible proceeding 
was the more indefensible, as the Athenians, having attacked the 
Melians in full peace, could not pretend that they were justified 
by the custom of war in slaying the prisoners. It was the 
crowning act of insolence and cruelty displayed during their 
[empire, which from this period began rapidly to decline. 
' MO. The event destined to produce that catastrophe — the 
-■ intervention of the Athenians in the affairs of Sicily — was already 
in progress. The feuds of race had been kindled in that island, 
as in the rest of Greece, by the Peloponnesian war. Eleven or 
twelve years before the period of which we are now speaking 
the Dorian cities of Sicily (with the exception of Camarina), to- 
gether with the Locrians of Italy, had, under the headship of 
Syracuse, joined the Peloponnesian confederacy, and declared 
war against Leontini, Camarina, and their ally, the city of Rhe- 
gium in Italy. 

In the year 427 B.C., the Leontines sent an embassy to Athens, 
to crave the assistance of the Athenians. At the head of it was 
the rhetorician, Gorgias, the novelty of whose brilliant eloquence 
took the Athenians by surprise, and is said to have chiefly con- 
tributed to the success of the application. However that may 
be, an Athenian squadron of twenty ships was despatched to the 
assistance of the Leontines, and also with a view to ascertain the 
possibihty of reducing all Sicily, of whose size the Athenians 
seem to have had very vague and imperfect notions, to the 
obedience of Athens. A subsequent expedition in 425 e.g., con- 
sisting of forty triremes, under the command of Eurymedon and 
Sophocles, has been already mentioned. =^ The selfish and am- 
bitious designs of Athens had however become so evident that' 
in the spring of the following year a congress of the Sicilian 
cities met at Gela ; where the Syracusan, Hermocrates, in an 
able and patriotic speech, succeeded in persuading them to lay 
aside their dissensions, and to unite in defeating the schemes of 
Athens. The Athenians were so disappointed at this failure, 
that when Eurymedon, and his colleagues Sophocles and Pytho- 
dorus, returned, they were indicted and convicted of having 
taken bribes to accede to the peace. Eurymedon was sen- 
tenced to pay a fine, and his fellow commanders were banished. 

Ml- In the year 422 B.C., another application for assistance 
was made to the Athenians by the Leontine democracy, who 
had been expelled by the aristocrats ; but the Athenians, then 

* See above, p. 30Y. 



B.C. 416. AFFAIRS OF THE SICILIAN GREEKS. 329 

smarting under their recent losses, and having just concluded a 
truce with Sparta, could not be persuaded to grant any eflcctual 
succour. In the spring of 416 B.C., however, an embassy from 
the Sicilian town of Egesta was more successful. A quarrel had 
broken out between Egesta and Selinus, both which cities were 
seated near the western extremity of Sicily ; and Selinus, having 
obtained the aid of Syracuse, was pressing very hard upon the 
Egestseans. The latter appealed to the interests of the Athe- 
nians rather than to their sympathies. They represented how 
great a blow it would be to Athens if tJie Dorians became pre- 
dominant in Sicily, and joined the Peloponnesian confederacy ; 
and they undertook, if the Athenians would send an armament 
to their assistance, to provide the necessary funds for the pro- 
secution of the war. Their application was supported by the 
Leontine exiles still resident at Athens. But their most power- 
ful advocate was Alcibiades, whose ambitious views are said to 
have extended even to the conquest of Carthage. In these 
distant expeditions he beheld a means of gratifying his passion 
for adventure and glory, and at the same time of retrieving his 
fortune, which had been dilapidated by his profligate expendi- 
ture. The quieter and more prudent Nicias and his party threw 
their weight into the opposite scale ; and at their instance it was 
resolved, before an expedition was undertaken, to ascertain 
whether the Egestseans were really able to perform the promises 
they had made. For this purpose commissioners were despatched 
to Egesta, whom, however, the cunning Egestseans completely 
deceived. In the splendid temple of Aphrodite, on Mount Eryx, 
a magnificent display of offerings was set out, consisting of 
vessels which the Egestseans passed off for solid gold, though 
only silver gilt. In the private houses, where they were invited 
to banquet after banquet, the Athenian envoys were astonished 
at the profusion of plate under which the sideboards groaned, 
but which was slily transferred for the occasion from one house 
to another. Sixty talents of silver, placed in their hands as 
earnest-money, completed the delusion ; and the commissioners, 
who were, perhaps, not unwilling to be deceived, returned to 
Athens with magnificent accounts of the wealth of Egesta. 

H2. Dazzled by the idea of so splendid an enterprise, the 
means for accomplishing which seemed ready provided, the 
Athenian assembly at once decided on despatching a fleet of 
gixty triremes, under Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus, with the 
design of assisting Egesta, of restoring the Leontine democracy, 
and lastly of establishing the influence of Athens throughout 
Sicily, by whatever means might be found practicable. Nicias, 
though named as one of the commanders of the expedition, 



330 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXIX. 

entirely disapproved of it, and denomiced it in the assembly 
as springing li'om the vain glory and ambition of Alcibiadcc. 
The latter repelled these not unmerited attacks in a violent 
speech, and persuaded the assembly to ratify their former deci- 
sion. Another attempt of JSTicias to deter the Athenians from 
the enterprise by representing the enormous force which it 
would require, had an effect exactly contrary to what he had 
intended ; for the assembly, taking him at his word, decreed a 
fleet of 100 instead of 60 triremes, together with a proportionate 
increase in the land forpes. 

§ 13. For the next three months the preparations for the un- 
dertaking were pressed on with the greatest ardour. Young and 
old, rich and poor, all vied with one another to obtain a share in 
the expedition. Oracles and prophecies predictmg success were 
circulated through the city, and greedily listened to. So great 
was the throng of volunteers, that the care of the generals was 
restricted to the task of selection. The trierarchs contended 
which should produce his vessel not only in the most efficient, 
but in the most ornamental state of equipment. Five years of 
comparative peace had accumulated a fresh supply both of men 
and money ; and the merchants of Athens embarked in the 
enterprise as in a trading expedition. It was only a few of the 
wisest heads that escaped the general fever of excitement. Me- 
ton, the astronomer, and Socrates, the philosopher, are said not 
to have shared in the universal enthusiasm ; the latter warned, 
perhaps, by that familiar demon to whose whispered wisdom his 
ears were ever open. 

^14. And now the magnificent armament is on the point of 
sailing. The brilliant city is alive with hope, and pride, and ex- 
pectation, when a sudden and mysterious event converts all these 
exulting feelings mto gloomy foreboding. 

At every door in Athens, at the corners of streets, in the 
market-place, before temples, gymnasia, and other public places, 
stood Hermae, or statues of the god Hermes, consisting of a 
bust of that deity surmounting a quadrangular pillar of marble 
about the height of the human figure. ^Mien the Athenians 
rose one morning towards the end of May, 4 lo B.C., it was found 
that all these figures had been mutilated during the night, and 
reduced by unknown hands to a shapeless mass. We may partly 
realize the feelings excited by this occun-ence, by picturing to 
ourselves some Roman Catholic town, in which all the statues of 
the Virgin should have been suddenly defaced. But the act in- 
spired political, as well as religious, alarm. It seemed to indicate 
a wide spread conspiracy, for so sudden and general a mutilation 
must have been the work of many hands. Athens, like other 



B.C. 415. MUTILATION OF THE HERM^. 331 

Grecian states, abounded with clubs, which, Hke our societies of 
freemasons, offered facihties for secret and extensive combina- 
tions. This will probably aflbrd the most natural explanation 
of the fear which now pervaded Athens ; for the sacrilege might 
only be a preliminary attempt of some powerful citizen to seize 
the despotism, and suspicion pointed its finger at Alcibiades. 
Active measures were taken and large rewards oflered for the 
discovery of the perpetrators. A public board was appointed to 
examine witnesses, which did not, indeed, succeed in eliciting 
any facts bearing on the actual subject of inquiry, but which 
obtained evidence respecting similar acts of impiety committed 
at previous times in drunken frolics. In these Alcibiades him- 
self was implicated ; and though the fleet was on the very eve of 
departure, Pythonicus rose in the assembly and accused him of 
having profaned the Eleusinian mysteries by giving a represen- 
tation of them in a private house, producing in evidence the 
testimony of a slave. Pythonicus also charged him with being 
privy to the mutilation of the Hermse, but without bringing for- 
ward the slightest proof. Alcibiades denied the accusation, and 
implored the people to have it investigated at once. His enemies, 
however, had sufficient influence to get the inquiry postponed 
till his return ; thus keeping the charge hanging over his head, 
and gaining time to poison the public mind against him. 

§ 15. The day had arrived for the sailing of the fleet. Corcyra 
was appointed for the rendezvous of the allies ; but even the de- 
parture of the Athenian armament was a spectacle imposing in 
the extreme. Of the hmidred triremes, sixty were equipped as 
men of war, the rest as transports. Fifteen hundred chosen 
Athenian hoplites, 700 of the class of Thetes to act as marines, 
together with 500 Argive and 250 Mantinean hophtes, marched 
at daybreak to embark at the Piraeus, accompanied by nearly the 
whole of the population. As the ships were preparing to slip 
their moorings, the sound of the trumpet enjoined silence, and 
the voice of the herald, accompanied by that of the people, was 
lifted up in prayer. Then followed the chanting of the psean, 
whilst the officers on the decks of their respective vessels made 
libations of wine to the gods from gold and silver goblets. At 
length at a given signal the whole fleet started from Pira:us, 
each crew striving as in a nautical contest to arrive first at the 
island of ^Egina. The people who fined the beach watched the 
vessels till they were out of sight, and then returned to the <iily 
with heavy hearts and ominous misgivings. 




Bust of Alcibiades. 



CHAPTEE, XXX. 



PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED. THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION. 

§ 1. Armament mustered at Corcyra. § 2. Its reception in Italy. Pro- 
ceedings at Syracuse. § 3. Plans of the Athenian generals. § 4. The 
advice of Alcibiades adopted. He gains over Naxos and Catana. 
§ 5. Proceedings at Athens respecting the mutilation of the Hermse, 
and the profanation of the mysteries. § 6. Alcibiades accused, and 
ordered to return to Athens. § 7. Proceedings of Nicias in Sicily. 
§ 8. Preparations of the Sicilians for defence. § 9. Nicias laj^s siege 
to Syracuse. § 10. He seizes Epipolse and constructs a fort at Syke. 
Attempt of the Syracusans against it. § 11. Arrival of the Spartan 
general Gylippus. Change ia the Athenian prospects. § 12. Inva- 
sion of Attica by the Lacedaemonians. They fortify Deceleia. § 13. 
The Syracusans defeat the Athenians at sea. § 14. Demosthenes and 
Eurymedon arrive in Sicily with reinforcements. Eeverses. The 
Athenians resolve to retreat. § 15. Naval engagement in the Great 
Harbour. Victory of the Syracusans. § 1 6. Its effects. Disastrous 
retreat of the Athenians. Surrender of Demosthenes. § 17. Sur- 
render of Mcias. Treatment of the prisoners. Death of IS'icias and 
Demosthenes. § 18. Their characters. 



\ 1 . The Athenian fleet destined for Sicily was joined at Cor- 
cyra by the other allies in the month of July, 415 b.c. The 
whole armament when mustered consisted of 134 triremes and 
two Rhodian penteconters, and had on board 5100 hoplites, 480 
bowmen, of whom 80 were Cretans, 700 E-hodian slingers, and 



3.C. 415. THE ATHENIANS IN SICILY. 833 

120 Megarian exiles, who served as light-armed troops. The 
fleet was accompanied by no fewer than 500 transports, carrying 
provisions, warhke stores, and artificers, as well as by a great 
many private trading vessels. Three fast-sailing triremes were 
sent ahead to ascertain the disposition of the Italian and Sicilian 
towns, and to notify to the Egestseans the approach of assistance. 
The fleet then made for the lapygian promontory, in three divi- 
sions, commanded by Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus. 

§ 2. Their reception in Italy was far from encourging. The 
utmost they could obtain was permission to take in water, and 
even this was refused by the Tarentines, and by the Epize- 
phyrian Locrians. At E,hegium, however, they were alloAved to 
land and to purchase provisions ; but they were not permitted 
to enter the town, and the citizens refused to join or assist 
them. Here, therefore, they awaited the return of the thr§e 
exploring vessels. 

Rumours of the intended expedition prevailed at Syracuse, 
but were treated as incredible. Hermocrates, however, was better 
informed than his fellow-citizens. He urged them to summon 
their allies and to prepare for defence, and even exhorted them 
to sail at once to the friendly harbour of Tarentum, and from 
thence to ofier battle to the Athenian fleet in the Ionian gulf. 
But the demagogue Athenagoras treated the whole matter as a 
fiction invented to serve the interests of the oligarchical party. 
At last one of the generals put an end to the debate by under- 
taking to place the city in a posture of defence. 

^ 3. Meantime the three vessels which had been sent to 
Egesta returned to Rhegium, with the discouraging news that 
the accounts respecting the wealth of Egesta were entirely fic- 
titious, and that the sum of thirty talents was all the assistance 
that could be hoped for from that quarter. A council of war 
was now held. It appears that the Athenian generals had pro- 
ceeded thus far without having formed any definite plan, and 
each now proposed a different one. Nicias was of opinion that, 
since no effectual help could be expected from the Egestseans, 
the objects of the expedition should be confined to the narrowest 
possible limits, and with that view that they should sail at once 
against the Sehnuntines, obtain from them the best terms pos- 
sible, and then return home. Alcibiades, whose hopes of glory 
and profit would have been ruined by this plan, proposed to gain 
as many allies as they could among the Greek cities in Sicily, 
and, having thus ascertained what assistance they could rely 
upon, to attack Syracuse and Sehnus. Lamachus was for bolder 
measures. He recommended an immediate attack upon Syracuse, 
whilst it was yet unpre])ared lor defence. The terror of the 



354 HISTOEY OF GREECR Chap. XXX- 

Syracusans would probably cause them to surrender, and the 
capture of their city would determine the conduct of the rest of 
Sicily ; but, if they lingered, negotiated, and did nothing, they 
would first be regarded with indifference and then with con- 
tempt. 

f 4. The advice of Lamachus was the most soldierlike, and, 
though seemingly the boldest, would undoubtedly have been the 
safest and most prudent in the end. But neither of his colleagues 
approved of it, and, as Lamachus was poor, and possessed no great 
political interest, he was obhged to give way. The counsel of Alci- 
biades was adopted as a mean between the other two. Messana 
refused his solicitations, but Naxos cordially joined the Athenians. 
Alcibiades then sailed southwards with a considerable portion of 
the fleet, and, passing Syracuse, despatched ten triremes into the 
Great Harbour, for the purpose of surveying its docks and foi ti- 
fications. Nothing further was attempted ; but as they sailed 
back the Athenians obtained possession by surprise of the im- 
portant city of Catana, which was now made the head-quarters 
of the armament. 

§ 5. An unwelcome message greeted Alcibiades at Catana. 
After his departure from Athens fresh inquiries v/ere instituted 
respecting the mutilation of the Hermse, and the ofier of large 
rewards brought forward additional evidence. The public agita- 
tion and anxiety were kept alive by the demagogues Pisander 
and Charicles, two of the commissioners of inquiry, who de- 
nounced the affair not only as a sacrilege, but also as a con- 
spiracy for putting down the democracy and establishing a 
tyranny. Numerous arrests were made, and citizens of the 
highest character were thrown into prison on the testimony of 
hireling wretches. Terror reigned in the cit^', and the fear of 
being informed against rose to such a pitch that the convocation 
of the senate by the herald was a signal to the crowd M'hich filled 
the market-place to disperse. Among the persons arrested was 
Andocides, the orator, who was induced by his fellow-prisoners 
to come forward and state what he knew of the afiair. He was 
a young man of rank, and his evidence was implicitly believed, 
especially as it was confirmed by his slaves, who were put to the 
torture. Those whom he denounced were executed. He saved 
his own life by turning mformer, but the hatred he incurred 
was such that he was obliged to leave the city. His evidence 
was most probably false, and the whole affair has ever remained 
involved in mystery. 

^ 6. The execution of the supposed criminals had the effect 
of tranquillizing the city respecting the mutilation of the Hermae ; 
but the profanation of the Eleusinian mysteries, a rite regarded 



B.C. 415. THE ATHENIANS IN SICILY. 335 

with the deepest reverence at Athens, still remained unexpiated. 
The EumolpidsB, and other great families who held hereditary 
offices in the celebration of the mysteries, looked upon them- 
selves as personally insulted. The public excitement was in- 
creased by the appearance of a Lacedaemonian force on the 
frontier, which, it was suspected, might be coimected with some 
internal conspiracy. Both oligarchs and democrats were loud in 
demanding the arrest of Alcibiades ; and Thessalus, the son of 
Cimon, who belonged to the former party, preferred an indict- 
ment against him. In pursuance of this step the Salaminian 
trireme was despatched to Sicily, carrying the decree of the 
assembly for Alcibiades to come home and take his trial, and 
which met him, as before related, on his arrival at Catana, The 
commander of the Salaminia was, however, instructed not to 
seize his person, but to allow him to sail in his own trireme. 
Alcibiades availed himself of this privilege to effect his escape. 
When the ships arrived at Thurii in Italy, he absconded, and 
contrived to elude the search that was made after him. Never- 
theless, though absent, he was arraigned at Athens, and con- 
demned to death ; his property was confiscated, and the Eumol- 
pids pronounced upon him the curses of th^ gods. On hearmg 
of his sentence Alcibiades is said to have exclaimed, " I will 
show them that I am still alive." 

^ 7. Three months had now been frittered away in Sicily, 
during which the Athenians had done little or nothing, if wo 
except the acquisition of Naxos and Catana. The Syracusans 
began to look upon them with contempt. They even meditated 
an attack upon the Athenians at Catana ; and Syracusan horse- 
men rode up and insulted them in their camp. Nicias was thus 
absolutely shamed into undertaking something, and resolved to 
make an attempt upon Syracuse. By a false message that the 
Catanseans were ready to assist in expelling the Athenians, he 
induced the Syracusans to proceed thither in great force, and he 
availed himself of their absence to sail with his w^iole fleet into 
the Great Harbour of Syracuse, where he landed near the mouth 
of the Anapus, in the neighbourhood of the temple of the Olym- 
pian Jove. Here he intrenched himself in a strong position, on 
the right bank of the Anapus, breaking down the bridge over 
the river. The Syracusans, when they found that they had been 
deceived at Catana, marched back and offered Nicias battle in 
his new position. The latter accepted it, and gained the vic- 
tory ; after which he retired to Catana, and subsequently to 
Naxos into winter quarters. He then sent messages to Athens 
for fresh supplies of cavalry and money, and to his Sicilian allies 
for reinforcements. 



336 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXX. 

§ 8. The Syracusans employed the winter in preparations for 
defence. They built a new wall, covering both their inner and 
outer town to the westward (See Plan, Gr, H, I), and rendering 
any attempt at circumvallation more difficult. They fortified 
and garrisoned the temple and grove of the Olympian Jove, in 
the neighbourhood of the city. They despatched envoys to 
Corinth and Sparta to solicit assistance, in the latter of which 
towns they found an unexpected advocate. Alcibiades, having 
crossed from Thurii to Cyllene in Peloponnesus, received a 
special invitation to proceed to Sparta. Here he revealed all tho 
plans of Athens, and exhorted the Lacedaemonians to frustrate 
them. For this purpose he advised them to send an army into 
Sicily, under the command of a Spartan general, and by way 
of causing a diversion, to establish a fortified post at Decelea in 
the Attic territories. The Spartans fell in with these views, 
and resolved to send a force to the assistance of Syracuse in the 
spring, under the command of G-ylippus. 

§ 9. Nicias, having received a reinforcement of cavalry from. 
Athens, as well as 300 talents in money, recommenced hostilities 
as soon as the season allowed of it, and resolved on besieging . 
Syracuse. That town consisted of two parts — the inner and the 
outer city. The former of these — the original settlement — was 
comprised in the island of Ortygia ; the latter, afterwards known 
by the name of Achradina, covered the high ground of the pen- 
insula north of Ortygia, and was completely separate from the 
inner city. The island of Ortygia, to which the modern city is 
now confined, is of an oblong shape, about two miles in circum- 
ference, lying between the Great Harbour on the west, and the 
Little Harbour on the east, and separated from the mainland by 
a narrow channel. The Great Harbour is a splendid bay, about 
five miles in circumference, the entrance of which is protected 
on the left hand by the promontory Plemmyrium, and on the 
right hand by a projecting cape of the island of Ortygia. The 
httle port, also called Laccius, which lay between Ortygia and the 
outer city, was spacious enough to receive a large fleet of ships of 
war. The outer city was surrounded on the north and east by the 
sea, and by sea-walls which rendered an assault on that side almost 
impracticable. On the land side it was defended by a wall, 
and partly also by the nature of the gromid, which in some parts 
was very steep. The low ground between the outer city and 
Ortygia seems not to have been included in the fortifications of 
either, but was employed partly as a burial ground, partly for 
games and religious processions. West and north-west of the 
wall of the outer city stood two unfortified suburbs, which wero 
at a later time included within the walls of Syracuse under tho 



B.C. 414. 



DESCRIPTION OF SYRACUSE. 



337 



names of Tyche and Neapolis. At the time of which we are 
speaking, the latter was called Temenites, from having within it 
the statue and consecrated ground of Apollo Temenites. Be- 
tween these two suburbs the ground rose in a gentle acclivity to 
the summit of the ranges of hills called Epipolae. 

§ 10. It was from the high ground of Epipolse that Syracuse 
was most exposed to attack. The Syracusan generals had 
hitherto neglected this important position, and were on the 
point of occupying it, when they were anticipated by Nicias. 
Landing at Leon, a place upon the bay of Thapsus, at the dis- 
tance of only six or seven stadia from Epipola), the Athenian 



BAY OF 
THAPSUS 




Plan of Syracuse. (From Grote's Greece ) 



A, B 





D. 




K, 


F. 


G 


,H 


, I. 
K. 


K, 


I^, 


M. 




N 


0. 




V 


Q. 




K 


K. 


8 


T 


U. 
V. 


Y, 


w, 


T. 



Wall of the Outer Cily of Syracuse at time of the arrival of Nicias in Sicily. 

Wall of Ortypia, or the Inner City of Syracuse, at the same time. 

Additional fortification built by the Syracusans in the winter of 416—414 b.c. 

Athenian fortification at Syke. 

Southern portion of tho Athenian circumvallalion from Syke to the Great Harbouf. 

First counter-work erected by the Syracusans. 

Second counfer-work constructed by the Syracusans. 

Intended, but unfinislipd, circunivallationof the Atlienians from tho northern sid* 

of Syke to the outer 5f a nt Trogilus. 
Third Syracusan counter-wall. 
Outer fort constructi'd by Clyllppua. 
WaU of junctiou b«t.w«en tliis outer fort and tho third Syracusan counter-work. 

a 



838 HISTORY OF GREECE. CnAP. XXX. 

troops reached the summit just as the Syracusans were march- 
ing towards the heights. They made, however, an attempt to 
dislodge the Athenians, which was repulsed ; and on the follow- 
ing morning, Nicias and Lamachus marched their troops down 
the ridge and offered battle, which was declined by the Syra- 
cusans. On the summit of Epipolae Nicias constructed a fort 
called Labdalum ; and then coming farther down the hill towards 
Syracuse, he built another fort of a circular form and of con- 
siderable size at a place called Syke. From the latter point 
he commenced his line of circumvallation, one wall extending 
southwards from Syke to the G-reat Harbour, and the other wall 
running northwards from the same fortress to the outer sea at 
Trogilus (See Plan, K, L, M). While the Athenians were busy 
upon their lines towards the north, the Syracusans ran a counter 
wall from their own lines up the slope of" the Epipolse (See Plan, 
N, 0), but after a sharp conflict it w^as taken by the Athenians 
and destroyed. Not disheartened by this failure, the Syracusans 
commenced a second counter- work, and succeeded in constructing 
a ditch and stockade, which extended again from their own lines 
across the marsh to the Anapus (See Plan, P, Q,). From this 
new position they were also dislodged by the Athenians ; but in 
the assault, which was led by Lamachus, this gallant ofhcer was 
slain. At the same time the Athenian fleet entered the Great 
Harbour, where it was henceforth permanently established. 

The Syracusans offered no further opposition to the progress 
of the circumvallation, which was at length completed towards 
the south. It consisted of two distinct walls, with a space be- 
tween them, which was perhaps partly roofed over, in order to 
afford shelter for the troops. The northern wall towards Trogilus 
was never completed, and through the passage thus left open 
the besieged continued to obtain provisions. 

Nicias, who, by the death of Lamachus, had become sole com- 
mander, seemed now on the point of succeeding. The Syracusans 
were so sensible of their inferiority in the field that they no 
longer ventured to show themselves outside the walls. They 
began to contemplate surrender, and even sent messages to 
Nicias to treat of the terms. This caused the Athenian com- 
mander to indulge in a false confidence of success, and conse- 
quent apathy ; and the army having lost the active and ener- 
getic Lamachus, operations were no longer carried on with the 
requisite activity. 

§ 11. It was in this state of affairs that the Spartan commander 
Gylippus passed over into Italy with a little squadron of four 
ships — two Lacedaemonian and two Corinthian — with the view 
merely of preserving the Greek cities in that country, supposing 



B.C. 414. ARRIVAL OF GYLIPPUS. 839 

that Syracuse, and, with her, the other Greek cities in Sicily 
were irretrievably lost. As he proceeded southwards along the 
Italian coast, a violent storm drove him into Tarentum. Nicias, 
though informed of his arrival, regarded his little squadron with 
contempt, and took no measures to interrupt his progress. From 
the Epizephyrian Locrians Gylippus learned to his great sur- 
prise and satisfaction that the Athenian wall of circumvallation. 
at Syracuse had not yet been completed on the northern side. 
He now sailed through the straits of Messana, which were left 
completely unguarded, and arrived safely at Himera on the north 
coast of Sicily. Here he amiounced himself as the forerunner 
of larger succours, and began to levy an army, which the magic 
of the Spartan name soon enabled him to eilect ; and in a few 
days he was in a condition to march towards Syracuse with 
about 3000 men. His approach had been already aruiounced by 
Gongylus, a Corinthian, who had been sent forwards from the 
Corinthian fleet then assembled at Leucas. The Syracusans now 
dismissed all thoughts of surrender, and went out boldly to meet 
Gylippus, who marched into Syracuse over the heights of Epi- 
polse, which the supineness of Nicias had left unguarded. Upon 
arriving in the city, Gylippus sent a message to the Athenians 
allowing them a five days' truce to collect their efiects and eva- 
cuate the island. Nicias returned no answer to this insulting 
proposal ; but the operations of Gylippus scon showed that the 
tide of affairs was really turned. His first exploit was to cap- 
ture the Athenian fort at Labdalum, which made him master 
of Epipolee. He next commenced constructing a counter-wall 
to intersect the Athenian lines on the northern side. This third 
counter- work of the Syracusans extended from their city-wall to 
the northern cliff of Epipolse, and was brought to a successful 
completion. (See Plan, S, U.) Gylippus subsequently built a 
fort (V) upon Epipolse ; and from this ibrt carried another wall 
which joined at right angles the counter- work already erected 
(See Plan, V, W, U). This turn of aflairs induced those Sicilian 
cities, which had hitherto hesitated, to embrace the side of Syra- 
cuse. Gylippus was also reinforced by the arrival of thirty tri- 
remes from Corinth, Leucas, and Ambracia. Nicias now felt 
that the attempt to blockade Syracuse with his present force 
was hopeless. He therefore resolved to occupy the headland of 
Plemmyrium, the southernmost point of the entrance to the 
Great Harbour, which would be a convenient station for watch- 
ing the enemy, as well as for facilitating the introduction of 
supplies. Here he accordingly erected three forts and formed a 
naval station. Some slight afiairs occurred in which the balance 
of advantage was in favour of the Syracusans. By their chaiigo 



340 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXX. 

of station, the Athenians were now a besieged rather than a 
besieging force. Their triremes were becoming leaky, and their 
soldiers and sailors were constantly deserting. Nicias himself 
had fallen into a bad state of health ; and in this discouraging 
posture of affairs he wrote to Athens requesting to be recalled, 
and insisting strongly on the necessity of sending reinforce- 
ments. 

§ 12. The Athenians refused to recall Nicias, but they deter- 
mined on sending a large reinforcement to Sicily, under the joint 
command of Demosthenes and Eurymedon. The news of these 
fresh and extensive preparations incited the Lacedaemonians to 
more vigorous action. The peace, if such it can be called, had 
been violated in the year 414 e.g., when the Lacedaemonians in- 
vaded and ravaged the Argive territories, whilst the Athenians 
assisted the Argives with a fleet of thirty triremes, and laid waste 
Epidaurus, and some neighbouring places. But in the spring 
of 413 B.C., the Lacedaemonians, under king Agis, invaded Attica 
itself, and following the advice of Alcibiades, estabhshed them- 
selves permanently at Decelea, a place situated on the ridge of 
Mount Fames, about 14 miles north of Athens, and command- 
ing the Athenian plain. The city was thus placed in a state of 
siege. Scarcity began to be felt within the walls ; the revenues 
were faUing oil', whilst on the other hand expenses were increas- 
ing. Yet even under these circumstances the Athenians had 
no thoughts of abandoning their ambitious enterprises. It was 
resolved not only to send reinforcements to Sicily, but also to 
insult the coasts of Laconia. For this purpose Charicles was 
sent thither with a fleet of thirty triremes ; and being assisted 
by Demosthenes with the armament which he was conducting 
to Sicily, Charicles succeeded in establishing himself on the coast 
of Laconia, at a spot opposite to the island of Cythera, in a 
maimer somewhat similar to the Athenian fort at Pylus. 

§ 13. Meanwhile in Sicily the Syracusans had gained such 
confidence that they even ventured on a naval engagement with 
the Athenians. A battle was fought at the mouth of the Great 
Harbour, in which the Athenians were, indeed, victorious ; but 
when they sailed back to their station at Plemmyrium, they 
found that Gylippus had taken advantage of this diversion to 
attack and take their forts there, and that a great quantity of 
stores and provisions had fallen into his hands. Moreover, the 
Syracusans were not discouraged by their defeat from venturing 
on another naval engagement. They had greatly improved the 
construction of their vessels by strengthening their bows, and 
had learnt how to meet or evade the nautical manoeuvres of the 
Athenians, which were also considerably impeded by the nartow 



B.C. 413. THE ATHENIAN" FLEET DEFEATED. 841 

limits of the Great Harbour, now the scene of conflict. The 
second battle lasted two days, and ended in the defeat of the 
Athenians, who were now obliged to haul up their ships in the 
iiniermost part of the Great Harbour, under the lines of their 
fortified camp. A still more serious disaster than the loss of 
the battle was the loss of their naval reputation. It was evident 
that the Athenians had ceased to te invincible on the sea ; and 
the Syracusans no longer despaired of overcoming them on their 
own element. 

§14. Such was the state of affairs when, to the astonishment 
of the S}Tacusans, a fresh Athenian fleet of 75 triremes, under 
Demosthenes and Eurymedon, entered the Great Harbour with 
all the pomp and circumstance of war. It had on board a force 
of 5000 hoplites, of whom about a quarter were Athenians, and 
a great number of light armed troops. The active and enter- 
prising character of Demosthenes led him to adopt more vigor- 
ous measures than those which had been hitherto pursued. He 
saw at once that whilst Epipolaj remained in the possession of 
the Syracusans there was no hope of taking their city, and he 
therelbre directed all his efforts to the recapture of that position. 
But all his attempts were unavailing. He was defeated not only 
in an open assault upon the Syracusan wall, but in a nocturnal 
attempt to carry it by surprise. These reverses were aggra- 
vated by the breaking out of sickness among the troops. De- 
mosthenes now proposed to return home and assist in expelling 
the Lacedaemonians from Attica, instead of pursuing an enter- 
prise which seemed to be hopeless. But Nicias, who feared to 
return to Athens with the stigma of failure, refused to give his 
consent to this step. Demosthenes then urged Nicias at least 
to sail immediately out of the Great Harbour, and take up their 
position either at Thapsus or Catana, where they could obtain 
abundant supplies of provisions, and would have an open sea for 
the manoeuvres of their fleet. But even to this proposal Nicias 
would not consent ; and the army and navy remained in their 
former position. Soon afterwards, however, Gylippus received 
such large reinforcements, that Nicias found it necessary to 
adopt the advice of his colleague. Preparations were secretly 
made for their departure, the enemy appear to have had no sus- 
picion of their intention, and they were on the point of quitting 
their ill-fated quarters on the following morning, when on the 
very night before (27 Aug. 413 B.C.) an eclipse of the moon took 
place. The soothsayers who were consulted, said that the army 
must wait thrice nine days, a full circle of the moon, before it 
could quit its present position ; and the devout and superstitious 
Nicias forthwith resolved to abide by this decision. 



342 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXX. 

Meanwhile the intention of the Athenians became known to 
the Syracusans, who determined to strike a blow before their 
enemy escaped. They accordingly attacked the Athenian station 
both by sea and land. On land the attack of Gylippus was re- 
pulsed; but at sea the Athenian fleet was completely defeated, 
and Eurymedon, who commanded the right division, was slain. 

The spirits of the Syracusans rose with their victories, and 
though they would formerly have been content with the mere 
retreat of the Athenians, they now resolved on effecting their 
utter destruction. With this view they blocked up the entrance 
of the Great Harbour with a line of vessels moored across it. 
All hope seemed now to be cut off from the Athenians, unless 
they could succeed in forcing this line and thus effecting their 
escape. The Athenian fleet still numbered 110 triremes, which 
Nicias furnished with grappling-irons, in order to bring the 
enemy to close quarters, and then caused a large proportion of 
his land-force to embark. Before they set off, Nicias addressed 
the most earnest and touching appeals both to the crews and to 
the individual commanders to fight with bravery, since not only 
their own fate, but that of Athens itself, depended on the issue 
of that day's combat. He himself remained on shore, where the 
army was drawn np to witness the conflict. 

^15. Never perhaps was a battle fought under circumstances 
of such intense interest, or witnessed by so many spectators 
vitally concerned in the result. The basin of the Great Harbour, 
about 5 miles in circumference, in which nearly 200 ships, each 
with crews of more than 200 men, were about to engage, was 
lined with spectators ; whilst the walls of Ortygia, overhanging 
the water, were crowded with old men, women, and children, 
anxious to behold a conflict which was to decide the fate of their 
enemies, if not their own. The surface of the water swarmed 
with Syracusan small craft, many of them manned by youthful 
volunteers of the best families, ready to direct their services 
wherever they might be wanted. The whole scene, except in its 
terrible reality, and the momentous interests depending on it, 
resembled on a large scale the naumachise exhibited by the Ro- 
man emperors for the amusement of their subjects. The Syra- 
cusan fleet, consisting of 76 triremes, was the first to leave the 
shore. A considerable portion was detached to guard the barrier 
at the mouth of the harbour. Hither the first and most impe- 
tuous attack of the Athenians was directed, who sought to break 
through the narrow opening which had been left for the passage 
of merchant vessels. Their onse" was repulsed, and the battle 
then became general. The should of the combatants, and the 
crash of the iron heads of the vessels as they were driven to- 



B.C. 413. FIGHT IN THE GREAT HARBOUR. 843 

gether, resounded over the water, and were answered on shore 
by the cheers or wailings of the spectators as their friends were 
victorious or vanquished. For a long time the battle was main- 
tained with heroic courage and dubious result. At length as 
the Athenian vessels began to yield and make back towards the 
shore, a universal shriek of horror and despair arose from the 
Athenian army, whilst shouts of joy and victory were raised from 
the pursuing vessels, and were echoed back from the Syracusans 
on land. As the Athenian vessels neared the shore their crews 
leaped out, and made for the camp, whilst the boldest of the 
land army rushed forward to protect the ships from being seized 
by the enemy. The Athenians succeeded in saving only 60 
ships, or about half their fleet. The Syracusan fleet, however, 
had been reduced to 50 ships ; and on the same afternoon, Nicias 
and Demosthenes, as a last hope of escape, exhorted their men 
to make another attempt to break the enemy's line, and force 
their way out of the harbour. But the courage of the crews 
was so completely damped that they positively refused to re- 
embark. 

H6. The Athenian army still numbered 40,000 men ; and as 
all chance of escape by sea was now hopeless, it was resolved to 
retreat by land to some friendly city, and there defend them- 
selves against the attacks of the Syracusans. This Hermocrates 
was determined to prevent. The day on which the battle was 
fought happened to be sacred to Hercules, and a festival among 
the Syracusans. This circumstance, in addition to the joy and 
elation naturally resulting from so great a victory, had thrown 
the city into a state of feasting and intoxication ; and had 
the Athenians taken their departure that night, nobody would 
have been found to oppose them. Hermocrates, therefore, when 
darkness had set in, sent down some men to the Athenian wall, 
who, pretending to come from the secret correspondents of 
Nicias in Syracuse, warned him not to decamp that night, as all 
the roads were beset by the Syracusans. Nicias fell into the 
snare, and thus, by another fatal mistake, really afibrded the 
Syracusans an opportunity for obstructing his retreat. 

It was not till the next day but one after the battle that the 
Athenian army began to move. Never were men in so complete 
a state of prostration. Their vessels were abandoned to the 
enemy without an attempt to save them. As the soldiers turned 
to quit that fatal encampment, the sense of their own woes was 
for a moment suspended by the sight of their unburied com- 
rades, who seemed to reproach them with the neglect of a sacred 
duty ; but still more by the wailings and entreaties of the 
wounded, who clung around their knees, and implored not 



344 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXx. 

to be abandoned to certain destruction. Amidst this scene of 
universal woe and dejection, a fresh and unwonted spirit of 
energy and heroism seemed to be infused into Nicias. Though 
suffering under an incurable complaint, he was everywhere seen 
marshalling his troops, and encouraging them by his exhorta- 
tions. The march was directed towards the territory of the 
Sicels in the interior of the island. The army was formed into 
a hollow square with the baggage in the middle ; Nicias leading 
the van, and Demosthenes bringing up the rear. Having forced 
the passage of the river Anapus, they marched on the first day 
about five miles to the w^estward, on the second day about half 
that distance, and encamped on a cultivated plain. From this 
place the road ascended by a sort of ravine over a steep hill 
called the Acrsean clifi, on which the Syracusans had fortified 
themselves. After spending two days in vain attempts to force 
this position, Nicias and Demosthenes resolved during the night 
to strike ofi' to the left towards the sea. Nicias, with the 
van, succeeded in reaching the coast ; but Demosthenes, who 
had lost his way, was overtaken by the Syracusans at noon 
on the following day, and surrounded in a narrow pass. Many 
of his troops had disbanded during the night march, and many 
fell in the conflict which now ensued, till being reduced to the 
number of 6000, they surrendered, on condition of their fives 
being spared. 

^17. Meanwhile Nicias, with the van, had pursued his march, 
and crossed the river Erineus. On the following day, however, 
Gyhppus overtook him, and, having informed him of the fate of 
his colleague, summoned him to surrender. But Nicias was in- 
credulous, and pursued his march amidst the harassing attacks 
of the Spacusans. The attempt to cross the river Asinarus 
decided the fate cf his army. The men rushed into the water 
in the greatest disorder, partly to escape the enemy, but chiefly 
from a desire to quench the burning thirst with which they were 
tormented. Hundreds were pressed forwards dov^n the steep 
banks of the river, and were either trodden under fcot, or im- 
paled on the spears of those below, or carried away by the 
stream. Yet others from beliind still kept pressing on, anxious 
to partake of the now turbid and bloody water. The troops 
thus became so completely disorganised that all further resist- 
ance was hopeless, and Nicias surrendered at discretion. 

Out of the 40,000 who started from the camp only 10,000 at 
the utmost were left at the end of the sixth day's march, the 
rest had either deserted or been slain. The prisoners were sent 
to work in the stone-quarries of Achradina and Epipola3. Here 
they were crowded together without any shelter, and with scarcely 



B.C. 413. DEATH OF NICIAS A^^D DEMOSTHENES. 345 

provisions enough to sustain life. The numerous bodies of those 
who died were left to putrefy where they had fallen, till at length 
the place became such an intolerable centre of stench and in- 
fection that, at the end of seventy days, the Syracusans, for their 
own comfort and safety, were obliged to remove the survivors. 
All but the Athenians and the Italian and Sicilian Greeks were 
sold into slavery. What became of the Athenians we are not 
informed, but they were probably employed as slaves by the 
J richer Syracusans, since the story runs that many succeeded in 
winning the affection and pity of their masters by reciting por- 
tions of the dramas of Euripides. JSTicias and Demosthenes were 
condemned to death in spite of all the efforts of Gylippus and 
Hermocrates to save them. The latter contrived to spare them 
the humiliation of a public execution by providing them with 
the means of committing suicide. 

§ 18. Such was the end of two of the largest and best appointed 
armaments that had ever gone forth from Athens. JNicias, as 
we have seen, was from the first opposed to the expedition in 
which they were employed, as pregnant with the most dangerous 
consequences to Athens ; and, though, it must be admitted that 
in this respect his views were sound, it cannot at the same time 
be concealed, that his own want of energy, and his incompetence 
as a general, were the chief causes of the failure of the under- 
taking. Possessing much fortitude but little enterprise, respect- 
able, in private life, punctual in the performance of his religious 
duties, not deficient in a certain kind of political wisdom, which, 
however, derived its colour rather from timidity and over-caution 
than from that happy mixture of boldness and prudence which 
characterises the true statesman, Nicias had by these quaUties 
obtained far more than his just share of political reputation and 
influence, and had thus been named to the command of an expe- 
dition for which he was qualified neither by military skill nor 
by that enthusiasm and confidence of success which it so pecu- 
liarly demanded. His mistakes involved the fall of Demosthenes, 
an ofiGicer of far greater resolution and ability than himself, and 
who, had his counsels been followed, would in all probability 
have conducted the enterprise to a safe termination, though 
there was no longer room to hope for success. The career of 
Demosthenes marks him as one of the first generals of the age, 
but unfortunately he held only a subordinate rank in Sicily. 
The Athenians became sensible when too late of the difierence 
between the two commanders. On the pillar erected to the me- 
mory of the warriors who fell in Sicily the name of Demosthenes 
found a place, whilst that of Nicias was omitted. 




Street of the Tripods at Athens, from a bas relieC 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

FROM THE END OF THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION TO THE OVERTHROW 
OF THE FOUR HUNDRED AT ATHENS. 

§ 1. Consternation and hardships at Athens. § 2. Measures for defence. 
§ 3. Revolt of Chios, Erythraj, and Clazomense. § 4. Spread' of the 
revolt. Defection of Teos, Lesbos, and Miletus. Revolution atSamos, 
■which becomes the head-quarters of the Athenian fleet. § 5. Recovery 
of Lesbos by the Athenians. Dissatisfaction of the Lacedaemonians 
with Tissaphernes. § 6. Schemes of Alcibiades. § 1. He proposes a 
league between the Athenians and Persians, and the establishment of 
an oligarchy at Athens. § 8. Agitation for an oligarchy at Athens. 
§ 9. Conference of Pisander with Alcibiades. Artifices of the latter. 
Fresh treaty between Tissaphernes and the Lacedaemonians. § 10. Pro- 
gress of the oligarchical conspiracy at Athens and Samos. § 11. Es- 
tablishment of the Four Hundred. § 12. Their proceedings. § 13. Pro- 
ceedings at Samos. Alcibiades joins the democracy there. § 14. The 
Athenian envoys at Samos. § 15, Dissensions among the Four Hun- 
dred. They negotiate with Sparta. § 16. Counter revolution at 
Athens. Defeat of the Athenian fleet and capture of Euboea by tho 
Lacedaemonians. § 17. The Four Hundred deposed and democracy 
re-established at Athens. 



§ 1 . The first intelligence of the destruction of the Sicilian arma- 
ment is said to have been communicated by a stranger, in a 
barber's shop in the Pirseus. Big with the eventful news, the 
unfortunate barber hastened up to Athens to communicate it to 
the archons anJ the public ; but he was treated as a tale-bearer 
and impostor ; ,ind being unable to corroborate his stor}', in 
consequence of the disappearance of his informant, he was put 
to the torture. The tidings were, however, soon confirmed by 
the arrival of fugitives who had managed to escape iiom the 



B.C. 413. DISMAY CF THE ATIlEIs'lANS. 347 

disastrous scene. Athens was now filled with affliction and dis- 
may. To private grief for the loss of friends was added despair 
of the public safety. There seemed to be no means of prevent- 
ing the city from falling into the hands of the Lacedaemonians. 
The popular fury vented itself in abusmg the orators who had 
recommended the expedition, and the soothsayers who had fore- 
told its success. 

The affairs of the Athenians wore indeed a most threatening 
aspect. The Lacedaemonian post at Decelea was a constant 
source of annoyance. No part of Attica escaped the forays 
which were made from thence. All the cattle w^ere destroyed, 
and the most valuable slaves began to desert in great numbers 
to the enemy. Athens was almost in a state of siege. The 
fatigue of guarding the large extent of wall became very cnerous 
on the reduced number of citizens. The knights or horsemen 
were on constant duty in order to repress the enemy's ma- 
rauders ; but their horses were soon lamed and rendered ineffi- 
cient by the hard and stony nature of the soil. But what chiefly 
excited the despondency of the Athenians was the visible decline 
of their naval superiority. An engagement with the Corinthian 
fleet near Naupactus, in the summer of 413 B.C., had ended with 
neither side gaining the advantage, though the forces were 
nearly equal ; but to the Athenians the moral effects were equi- 
valent to a defeat. 

^ 2. Yet that cheerfulness and energy under misfortune which 
form such striking and excellent traits in the character of the 
Athenians, did not long desert them. After the first movements 
of rage and despair, they began to contemplate their condition 
more calmly, and to take the necessaiy measures for defence. 
A board of elders was appointed, mider the name of Probiili,* 
to watch over the public safety. The splendour of the public 
ceremonies was curtailed in order to raise funds for the neces- 
sities of the state ; the garrison recently estabhshed on the 
coast of Laconia was recalled ; the building of a new fleet was 
commenced ; and Cape Sunium was fortified in order to ensure 
an uninterrupted communication between Piraeus and Euboea, 
from which island the Athenians principally drew their pro- 
visions. 

§ 3. Whilst the imperial city was thus driven to consult for 
her very existence, it seemed a chimerical hope that she could 
retain her widely scattered dependencies. Her situation in- 
spired her enemies with new vigour ; states hitherto neutral de- 
clared against her ; her subject-allies prepared to throw off the 

* TIq6(3ov2.oc. 



348 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XXXL 

yoke ; even the Persian satraps and the court of Susa bestirred 
themselves against her. The first blow to the Athenian empire 
was struck by the wealthy and populous island of Chios. This 
again was the work of Alcibiades, the implacable enemy of his 
native land. In the winter following the overthrow of the Athe- 
nian armament in Sicily, several of the most powerful allies of 
Athens, among whom were the Eubceans, Chians, and Lesbians, 
had solicited Sparta to assist them in throwing off the Athenian 
yoke. At the same time envoys appeared at Sparta from Tissa- 
phernes, the Persian satrap of Ionia, Caria, and the adjacent 
coasts, and from Pharnabazus, whose satrapy extended from the 
Euxine to the gulf of Elsea, inviting the Lacedaemonians to co- 
operate with them in destroying the Athenian empire in Asia, 
and promising to provide the necessary funds. 

By the advice of Alcibiades, the LacedsBmonians resolved that 
the Chians should have the preference, and that a fleet should 
be sent to their assistance. Impatient of delay, Alcibiades 
shortly afterwards crossed over to Chios with a Lacedsemionian 
squadron of five ships, under the command of Chalcideus. The 
oligarchical party at Chios had matured all their plans for the 
revolt, and the arrival of Alcibiades caused them to be put into 
execution. The people were taken by surprise, and were re- 
luctantly induced to renounce their alliance with Athens. Their 
example was almost immediately followed by Ery three and Cla- 
zomensB. 

^ 4. The reserve of 1000 talents, set apart by Pericles to meet 
the contingency of an actual invasion, still remained untouched ; 
but now by a unanimous vote the penalty of death, which forbad 
its appropriation to any other purpose, was abolished, and the 
fund applied in fitting out a fleet against Chios. Meantime, 
Alcibiades was indefatigable in fanning the flames of revolt, 
which now spread rapidly through the Athenian allies. Teos, 
Lesbos, and Miletus proclaimed their independence of Athens. 
At Miletus, Chalcideus, on the part of Sparta, concluded an in- 
famous treaty with Tissaphernes, stipulating that the Greek cities 
and territory formerly belonging to Persia should be restored to 
her ; that the Athenians should not be permitted to derive any 
revenue from them ; and that Persia and the Lacedaemonians 
should jointly carry on the war against Athens. To conclude 
the bargain, Miletus was handed over to Tissaphernes. 

Samos still remained faithful to the Athenians, and amidst 
the general defection of their Asiatic allies had become of the 
last importance to them. This island, like Chios, was governed 
by an oligarchy ; but warned by the revolution in that island, 
the Samians rose against the oligarchs, slew 200 of them, and 



4 



B.C. 412. REVOLUTION AT SAMOS. 849 

banished 400 more. The Athenians at once recognized the 
newly established democracy, and secured the adhesion of the 
Samians by putting them on the footing of equal and independ- 
ent allies. Samos became the head-quarters of the Athenian 
fleet, and the base of their operations during the remainder of 
the war. 

^ 5. The tide of success at length began to turn in favour of 
the Athenians. They had succeeded in collecting a considerable 
fleet at Samos, with which they recovered Lesbos and Clazome- 
nae, defeated the Chians, and laid waste their territory. They 
also gained a victory over the Peloponnesians at Miletus, but 
this powerful city still remained in the hands of Tissaphernes 
and the Peloponnesians. 

Towards the close of the year, Astyochus, the Lacedsemonian. 
commander, received large reinlbrcements from Peloponnesus, 
and was now at the head of so imposing an armament that he 
was enabled to modify the former treaty with Tissaphernes, of 
which the Lacedaemonians were heartily ashamed. The new 
treaty, however, differed from the previous one rather in terms 
than substance, and appears to have been far from giving satis- 
faction at Sparta. The conduct of Tissaphernes afforded another 
reason for discontent. He had given notice that he could no 
longer contmue the high rate of payment of a drachma per day 
for the seamen's wages, the sum agreed upon in the first treaty, 
without express instructions from the court of Susa ; and though 
he had reduced that sum by one half, it was very irregularly 
paid ; whilst his whole behaviour displayed a great want of 
hearty co-operation with the Lacedaemonians. Another Pelo- 
ponnesian squadron was therefore despatched to the coast of 
Asia, having on board Lichas and ten other Spartans, for thfe 
purpose of remonstrating with Tissaphernes and opening fresh 
negotiations. Having obtained an interview with Tissaphernes 
at C nidus, Lichas took exceptions to the two former treaties; of 
which the first expressly, the second by implication, recognized 
the claims of Persia not only to the islands of the JEgean, but 
even to Thessaly and BcEotia. Lichas, therefore, proposed a new 
treaty ; but Tissaphernes was so indignant at the proposition 
that he immediately broke off' the negotiation. 

§ G. The conduct of Tissaphernes towards the Lacedaimo- 
nians was the result of the counsels of Alcibiades, who was 
scheming to effect his return to Athens by means of his in- 
trigues with the Persian Satrap. In the course of a few months 
Alcibiades had completely forfeited the confidence of the Lace- 
da3monians. His ultra-Athenian temperament and maimers 
must have been as unwelcome to them as their own Blowness 



850 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chat. XXXL 

and gravity were to him. The Spartan King Agis, whose wife 
he had seduced, was his personal enemy ; and the Ephor Endius, 
his chief protector, went out of office in 412 B.C. To the pre- 
ceding causes for private dislike was now added the want of that 
rapid success which he had promised to the Lacedaemonians in 
the East. In a man whose character for deceit was notorious it 
is not surprising that this failure should excite a suspicion of 
treachery. After the defeat of the Peloponnesians at Miletus, 
King Agis denounced Alcibiades as a traitor, and persuaded the 
new Ephors to send out instructions to put him to death. Of 
this, however, he was infoiTned time enough to make his escape 
to Tissaphernes at Magnesia. Here he began to play an anti- 
Hellenic, instead of his former anti- Athenian game. He ingra- 
tiated himself into the confidence of the satrap, and persuaded 
him that it was not for the interest of Persia that either of the 
Grecian parties should be successful, but rather that they should 
wear each other out in their mutual struggles, v/hen Persia 
would in the end succeed in expelhng both. This advice was 
adopted by the satrap ; and in order to carry it into execution, 
steps were taken to secure the inactivity of the Pcloponnesian 
armament, which, if vigorously employed, was powerful enough 
to put a speedy end to the war. With this view the Lacede- 
monian commanders were first persuaded to await the arrival of 
the Phoenician fleet, which, however, was never intended to ap- 
pear. But as this was a pretext which could not be made 
available for any length of time, the next argument was in the 
more solid shape of pecuniary bribes administered to Astyochus 
and the other Spartan leaders. Spartan virtue, w^hich exists 
rather in imagination than reality, was not proof against this se- 
duction. The Syracusan, Hermocrates — for a Sicilian squadron 
was co-operating with the Pcloponnesian fleet — was alone found 
to be incorruptible. 

§ 7. Alcibiades, having thus in some degree detached Tissa- 
phernes from the Lacedaemonians, now endeavoured to persuade 
him that it was more for the Persian interest to conclude a 
league with Athens than with Sparta; since the former state 
sought only to retain her maritime dependencies, whilst Sparta 
had held out promises of liberty to every Grecian city, from 
which she could not consistently recede. The only part of his 
advice, however, which the satrap seems to have sincerely 
adopted was that of playing ofl' one party against the other. 
But about this Alcibiades did not at all concern himself It 
was enough for his views, which had merely the selfish aim of 
his own restoration to Athens, if he could make it appear 
that he possessed sufficient influence with Tissaphernes tf» 



B.C. 412. SCHEMES OF ALCIBIADES. 351 

procure his assistance for the Athenians ; and for this the 
intimate terms on which he Uved with the satrap seemed a 
sufficient guarantee. He therefore began to communicate with 
the Athenian generals at Samos, and held out the hope of a 
Persian alliance as the price of his restoration to his country. 
But as he both hated and feared the Athenian democracy, he 
coupled his offer with the condition that a revolution should be 
effected at Athens, and an oligarchy estabhshed. The Athenian 
generals greedily caught at the proposal ; and though the great 
mass of the soldiery were violently opposed to it, they were 
silenced, if not satisfied, when told that Athens could be saved 
only by means of Persia. The oligarchical conspirators formed 
themselves into a confederacy, and Pisander was sent to Athens 
to organize the clubs in the city. But the conspirators over- 
looked the fact that the word of Alcibiades was their only se- 
curity for the co-operation of Persia. Phi^nichus alone among 
the Athenian generals opposed the scheme ; not that he dis- 
liked oligarchy, but that he hated Alcibiades, and saw through 
his designs. 

^ 8. The proposition for an oligarchy which Pisander made in 
the Athenian assembly met with the most determined oppo- 
sition ; whilst the personal enemies of Alcibiades, especially the 
sacred families of the Eumolpida) and Ceryces, violently opposed 
the return of the man who had profaned the mysteries. The 
single but unanswerable reply of Pisander was, the necessities 
of the republic. A reluctant vote for a change of constitution 
was at length extorted from the people. Pisander and ten others 
were despatched to treat with Alcibiades and Tissaphernes. At 
the same time Phrynichus and his colleague Scironides were de- 
posed from their command at Samos, and their places supplied 
by Diomedon and Leon. Before his departure Pisander had 
brought all the oligarchical clubs in Athens into full activity. 
During his absence the same task was undertaken by Antiphon, 
the rhetorician. He was assisted by Theramenes, and subse- 
quently by Phrjmichus, who, after his arrival at Athens, had be- 
come a violent partisan of the oligarchy. 

^ 9. When Pisander and his colleagues arrived in Ionia, they 
informed Alcibiades that measures had been taken for establish- 
ing an oligarchical form of government at Athens, and required 
him to fulfil his part of the engagement by procuring the aid 
and alliance of Persia. But Alcibiades knew that he had under- 
taken what he could not perform, and now resolved to escape 
from the dilemma by one of his habitual artifices. He received 
the Athenian deputation in the presence of Tissaphernes him- 
self, and made such extravagant demands on behalf of the satrap 



352 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXL 

that Pisander and his colleagues indignantly broke off the con- 
ference. They attributed, however, the duplicity of Alcibiades 
to his want of will, and not to his want of power, to serve them ; 
and they now began to suspect that his oligarchical scheme was 
a mere trick, and that in reality he desired the democracy to 
remain, and to procure his restoration to its bosom. 

Tissaphemes, who did not wish absolutely to break "wdth the 
Lacedaemonians, now began to fear that he was pushing matters 
too far ; and, as they already felt the pinch of want, he furnished 
them with some pay, and concluded a new treaty with them, by 
which they agreed to abandon aU the continent of Asia, and 
consequently the Greek cities in that quarter. To this treaty 
Pharnabazus was also a party. Persia did not waive her claim 
to the islands, but nothing was stipulated respecting them. On 
these conditions the aid of a PhoBnician fleet was promised to 
the Peloponnesians. 

MO. Notwithstanding the conduct of Alcibiades the oligarchi- 
cal conspirators proceeded with the revolution at Athens, in 
which they had gone too far to recede. Pisander, with five of 
the envoys, returned to Athens to complete the work they had 
begun ; the rest were sent to establish oligarchies among the 
allies. The leaders of the army at Samos began a similar move- 
ment in that island. Their first step was the gratuitous murder 
of Hyperbolus, an Athenian demagogue who had been ostracised 
some years before, and who was now residing at Samos, though 
apparently without possessing any influence there. But the new 
commanders, Diomedon and Leon, were favourable to the de- 
mocracy, and they found by personal inquiry that the great 
majority of the crews, and especially that of the public trireme 
called the Paralus, were ready to support the ancient constitu- 
tion. Accordingly, when the oligarchs rose they were over- 
powered by superior numbers ; thirty of them were killed in the 
contest, and three were subsequently indicted and banished. 

Meanwliile at Athens, after the departure of Pisander, the 
council of Probiili, as well as many leading citizens, had joined 
the oligarchs. Their attacks upon the democracy were not open, 
but were conducted by means of depreciating speeches respect- 
ing its costliness, through the pay given to the dicasts and others 
discharging civil offices, which, it was represented, the state could 
no longer afford. They did not venture to propose the entire 
abolition of the democracy, but merely a modification of it, by 
restricting the number of those entitled to the franchise to 5000. 
But even this proposition was never intended to be carried into 
execution. Those who stood forward to oppose the scheme were 
privately assassinated. A reign of terror now commenced. Citi- 



B.C. 411. THE FOUR HUNDRED AT ATHENS. 353 

zens were continually falling ; yet no man could tell whose hand 
struck the blow, or whose turn might come next. 

§ 11. The return of Pisander was the signal for consummating 
the revolution. He proposed in the assembly, and carried a 
resolution, that a committee of ten should be appointed to pre 
pare a new constitution, wliich was to be submitted to the ap- 
probation of the people. But when the day appointed for that 
purpose arrived, the assembly was not convened in the Pnyx, but 
in the temple of Poseidon at Colonus, a village upwards of a mile 
from Athens. Here the conspirators could plant their own par- 
tisans, and were less liable to be overawed by superior numbers. 
The G-raphe Paranomon, or action against those who proposed 
any unconstitutional measure, having first been repealed, Pisander 
obtained the assent of the meeting to the following revolutionary 
changes: — 1. The abolition of all the existing magistracies; 
2. The cessation of all payments for the discharge of civil func- 
tions ; 3. The appointment of a committee of five persons, who 
were to name ninety-five more ; each of the hundred thus con- 
stituted to choose three persons ; the body of Four Hundred thus 
formed to be an irresponsible government, holding its sittings in 
the senate house. The four hundred were to convene the select 
body of five thousand citizens whenever they thought proper. 
Nobody knew who these five thousand were, but they answered 
two purposes, namely, to give an air of greater popularity to the 
government, as well as to overawe the people by an exaggerated 
notion of its strength. 

^12. The government thus constituted proceeded to establish 
itself by force. A body of hoplites having been posted in the 
neighbourhood of the Senate House, the Four Hundred entered 
it, each with a dagger concealed under his garment, and followed 
by their body-guard of 120 youths, the instruments of the secret 
assassinations already mentioned. The ancient senate was dis- 
missed, but the pay due to the members was ofi^ered, and basely 
accepted. Thus perished the Athenian democracy, after an 
existence of nearly a century since its establislmfient by Clis- 
thenes. The revolution was begun from despair of the Ibreign 
relations of Athens, and from the hope of assistance from Persia ; 
but it was carried out through the machinations of Antiphon and 
his accomplices after that delusion had ceased. 

Having divided themselves into Prytanies or sections, and in- 
stalled themselves with sacrifice and prayer, the Four Hundred 
proceeded to put to death or imprison the most formidable of 
their political enemies. Their next step was to make overtures 
for peace to Agis. The Spartan king, however, believed that 
the revolution was not safely established, and preferrftd aa 



354 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXL 

attempt to capture the city during the dissensions by which he 
supposed it to be torn. But on marching up to the walls he 
found them carefully guarded, and his troops were repulsed by a 
sally of the besieged. A second application of the Four Hun- 
dred met with a better reception, and they were encouraged to 
send to Sparta. 

§ 13. The failure of the revolution at Samos was highly unfa- 
vourable to the success of the revolution at Athens ; but the 
Four Hundred despatched envoys to that island, with instruc- 
tions to make the matter as palatable as possible. These, how- 
ever, had been forestalled by Chsereas. Under the impression 
that the democracy still existed at Athens, Chsereas had been 
sent to the city from Samos in the Paralus with the news of the 
counter-revolution in the island. But when the Paralus arrived, 
the Four Hundred had already been installed ; whereupon some 
of her democratic crew were imprisoned, and the rest transferred 
to an ordinary trireme. Chssreas himself found means to escape, 
and returned to Samos, where he aggravated the proceedings at 
Athens by additions of his own, and filled the army with uncon- 
trollable wrath. At the instance of Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus, 
a meeting was called in w^hich the soldiers pledged themselves to 
maintain the democracy, to continue the war against Pelopon- 
nesus, and to put down the usurpers at Athens. The whole 
army, even those who had taken part in the oligarchical move- 
ments, were sworn to uphold these prmciples ; and to every 
male Samian of miilitary ago a similar oath was administered. 
Thus the Athenian democracy continued to exist at Samos alone. 
The soldiers, laying aside for awhile their military character, 
•constituted themselves into an assembly of the people, deposed 
several of their officers, and appointed others whom they could 
better trust. The meeting resounded with patriotic speeches. 
Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus were appointed to the chief com- 
mand ; the former of whom proposed the return of Alcibiades, 
who, it was believed, was now able and willing to aid the demo- 
cratic cause with the gold and forces of Persia. After consider- 
able opposition the proposal was agreed to ; Alcibiades was 
brought to Samos and introduced to the assembly, where by his 
magnificent promises, and extravagant boasts respecting his influ- 
ence with Tissaphernes, he once more succeeded in deceiving the 
Athenians. The accomplished traitor was elected one of the 
generals, and, in pursuance of his. artful policy, began to pass 
backwards and forw^ards between Samos and Magnesia, with the 
view of inspiring both the satrap and the Athenians with a reci- 
procal idea of his influence with either, and of instilling distrust 
of Tissaphernes into the minds of the Peloponnesians. 



B.C. 411. TROCEEDINGS AT SAMOS. 855 

§ 14. Such was the state of affairs at Samos when the envoys 
from the Four Hundred arrived. They were invited by the 
generals to make their communication to the assembled troops ; 
but so great was the antipathy manifested towards them, that 
they could hardly obtain a hearing. Their presence revived a 
proposition which had been started before, — to sail at once to 
Athens, and put down the oligarchy by force. By the advice of 
Alcibiades, seconded by Thrasybulus, this proposal M'as, how- 
ever, again discarded. The envoys were sent back to Athens 
with the answer that the army approved of the 5000, but that 
the Four hundred must resign and reinstate the ancient Senate 
of Five Hundred. 

^15. At the first news of the re-establishment of democracy 
at Samos, distrust and discord had broken out among the Four 
Hundred. Antiphon and Phrynicus, at the head of the ex- 
treme section of the oligarchical party, were for admitting a 
Lacedsemonian garrison ; and with a view to further that object, 
actually caused a fort to be erected at Eetionea, a tongue of land 
commanding the entrance to the harbour of the Pirseus. But 
others, discontented with their share of power, began to affect 
more popular sentiments. Conspicuous among these were The- 
ramenes and Aristocrates, the former of whom began to insist 
on the necessity for calling the shadowy body of 5000 into a real 
existence. As the answer from Samos very much strengthened 
this party, their opponents found that no time was to be lost ; 
and Antiphon, Phrynicus, and ten others, proceeded in all haste 
to Sparta, with ofiers to put the Lacedaemonians in possession of 
the Piraeus. The latter, however, with their usual slowness, or 
perhaps from a suspicion of treachery, let slip the golden oppor- 
tunity. All they could be induced to promise was, that a fieet 
of 42 triremes should hover near the Piraeus, and watch a favour- 
able occasion for seizing it. The failure of this mission was an- 
other blow to the party of Phrynicus; and shortly afterwards 
that leader himself was assassinated in open daylight whilst 
leaving the Senate House. Some hoplites, of the same tribe as 
Aristocrates, now seized the fort at Eetionea. Theramenes gave 
his sanction to the demolition of the fort, which was forthwith 
accomplished ; whilst the inability of the Four Hundred to pre- 
vent it, betrayed the extent of their power, or rather of their 
weakness. 

M6. The Four Hundred now appear to have taken some steps 
to call the 5000 into existence. But it was too late. The leadere 
of the counter-revolution entering armed into the theatre of 
Dionysus at the Piraeus, formed a democratic assembly under 
the old forms, which adjourned to the Anaceum, or temple of 



856 HISTORY OF GEEECE. Chap. XXXI. 

the Dioscuri, immediately under the AcropoHs. Here the Four 
Hundred sent deputies to negotiate with them, and another 
assembly was appointed to be held in the theatre of Dionysus ; 
but just as they were meeting the news arrived that the Lace- 
daemonian fleet was approaching the Piraeus. The Athenians 
were immediately on the alert, and the Lacedaemonian admiral, 
perceiving no signs of assistance from wdthin, doubled Cape 
Sunium and proceeded to Oropus. It was now plain that their 
object was to excite a revolt in Euboea. In all haste the Athe- 
nians launched an inadequate fleet of 36 triremes, manned by 
inexperienced crews. At Eretria in Euboea it was encountered 
by the Lacedaemonian fleet, and completely defeated with the 
loss of 22 ships. Euboea, supported by the Lacedaemonians and 
Boeotians, then revolted from Athens. 

§ 17. Great was the dismay of the Athenians on receiving this 
news. The loss of Euboea seemed a death blow. The Lacedae- 
monians might now easily blockade the ports of Athens and starve 
her into surrender ; whilst the partisans of the Four Hundred 
would doubtless co-operate with the enemy. But from this fate 
they were again saved by the characteristic slowness of the 
Lacedaemonians, who confined themselves to securing the con- 
quest of Euboea. Thus left unmolested, the Athenians convened 
an assembly in the Pnyx. Votes were passed for deposing the 
Four Hundred, and placing the government in the hands of the 
5000, of whom every citizen who could furnish a panoply might 
be a member. In short, the old constitution was restored, 
except that the franchise was restricted to 5000 citizens, and 
payment for the discharge of civil functions abolished. In sub- 
sequent assemblies, the Archons, the Senate, and other institu- 
tions were revived ; and a vote was passed to recall Alcibiades 
and some of his friends. The number of the 5000 was never 
exactly observed, and was soon enlarged into universal citizen- 
ship. Thus the Four Hundred were overthroviTi after a reign 
of four months. Theramenes stood forward and impeached the 
leaders of the extreme oligarchical party, on the ground of their 
embassy to Sparta. Most of them succeeded in making their 
escape from Athens; but Antiphon and Archiptolemus were 
apprehended, condemned and executed, in spite of the admira- 
tion excited by the speech of the former in his defence. The 
rest were arraigned in their absence and condemned, their 
houses razed, and their property confiscated. 




One of the Caryatides supporting tbe southern portico of the Erechtheam. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

FROM THE FALI. OF THE FOUR HUNDRED AT ATHENS TO THL 
BATTLE OF iEGOSPOTAMI. 



§ 1. State of the belligerents. § 2. Defeat of the Peloponnesians at Cynos- 
sema. § 3. Capture of Cyzicus by the Athenians, and second defeat of 
the Peloponnesians at Aoydus. § 4. Arrest of Alcibiades by Tissapher- 
nes, and his subsequent escape. Signal defeat of the Peloponnesians at 
Cyzicus. § 5. The Athenians masters of the Bosporus. The Lacedsemo- 
nfans propose a peace, which is rejected. § 6. Pharnabazus assists the 
Lacedaemonians. § 7. Capture of Chalcedon and Byzantium by the 
Athenians. § 8. Return of Alcibiades to Athens. § 9. He escorts the 
sacred procession to Eleusis. § 10. Cyrus comes down to the coast of 
Asia. Lysander appointed oommander of the Peloponnesian fleet. § 1 1. 
Interview between Cyrus and Lysander. § 12. Alcibiades at Samos. 
Defeat of Antiochus at Notium. S 13. Alcibiades is dismissed. §14. 
Lysander superseded by Callicratidas. Energetic measures of the lat- 
ter. § 15. Defeat of Conon at Mytilene, and investment of that town by 
Callicratidas. § 16. Excitement at Athens, and equipment of a largo 



358 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIL 

fleet. § 17. Battle of Arginiisffl. Defeat and death of Callicratidas. §18. 
Arraigameat and condemnation of the Athenian generals. § 19. Reap- 
pointment of Lysander as JVavarchus. § 20. Siege of Lampsacus, and 
battle of ^gospotami. 

§ 1. It is necessary now to revert to the war, and the state of 
the contending parties. The struggle had become wholly mari- 
time. Although the Lacedsemonians occupied at Decelea a 
strong post within sight of Athens, yet their want of skill in the 
art of besieging towns prevented them from making any regular 
attempt to capture that city. On the other hand, the great re- 
verses sustained by the Athenians in Sicily disabled them from, 
carrying the war, as they had formerly done, into the enemy's 
country. Yet they still possessed a tolerable fleet, with which 
they were endeavouring to maintain their power in the JEgeam 
and on the coasts and islands of Asia Minor. This was now 
become the vital point where they had to struggle for empire, 
and even for existence ; for, since the commencement of the war, 
the maritime power of the Spartans and their allies had become 
almost equal to the maritime power of Athens. They now put to 
sea with fleets generally larger than the fleets of the Athenians ; 
and their ships were handled, and naval mancEuvres executed, 
with a skill equal to that of their rivals. The great attention 
which the Lacedaemonians had bestowed on naval affairs is evinced 
by the importance into which the new office of the Navarchia^ 
had now risen amongst them. The Navarchus^ enjoyed a power 
even superior, whilst it lasted, to that of the Spartan kings, 
since he was wholly uncontrolled by the Ephors ; but his tenure 
of office was limited to a year. From this state of things it 
resulted that the remainder of the war had to be decided on the 
coasts of Asia ; and it will assist the memory to conceive it divided 
into four periods : 1 . The war on the Hellespont (which must be 
taken to include the Propontis, whither it was transferred soon 
after the oligarchical revolution at Athens) ; 2. From the Hel- 
lespont it was transferred to Ionia ; 3. From Ionia to Lesbos ; 
4. Back to the Hellespont, where it was finally decided. 

k 2. Mindarus, who now commanded the Peloponnesian fleet, 
disgusted at length by the often-broken promises of Tissaphernes, 
and the scanty and irregular pay which he furnished, set sail 
from Miletus and proceeded to the Hellespont, with the inten- 
tion of assisting the satrap Pharnabazus, and of effecting, if pos- 
sible, the revolt of the Athenian dependencies in that quarter. 
Hither he was pursued by the Athenian fleet under Thrasyllus. 
In a few days an engagement ensued (in August, 411 b.c), in the 
famous straits between Sestos and Abydos, in which the Athe- 



B.C. 411. NAVAL VICTORY AT CYKOSSEMA. 869 

nians, though with a smaller force, gained the victoiy, xind erected 
a trophy on the promontory of Cynossema, near the tomb and 
chapel of the Trojan queen, Hecuba. After this defeat Mindarus 
sent for the Pelopounesian fleet at Euboea, which, however, was 
overtaken by a violent storm near the headland ol' Mount Athos, 
and totally destroyed. But though this circumstance ailbrded 
some relief to Athens, by withdrawing an aimoying enemy from 
her shores, it did not enable her to regain possession of EubcEa. 
The Euboeans, assisted by the Boeotians, and by the inhabit ants 
of Chalcis and other cities, constructed a bridge across the nar- 
rowest part of the Euripus, aii.d thus deprived Euboea of its in- 
sular character. 

^ 3. The Athenians followed up their victory at Cynossema by 
the reduction of Cyzicus, which had revolted from them. A 
month or two afterwards another obstinate engagement tcck 
place between the Peloponnesian and Athenian fleets near Aby- 
dos, which lasted a whole day, and was at length decided in 
favour of the Athenians by the arrival of Alcibiades with his 
squadron of eighteen ships from Samos. The Peloponnesian ships 
were run ashore, where they were defended with great personal 
exertion, by Phamabazus and his trccps. 

s^ 4. Shortly after this battle Ti.ssaphemes arrived at the 
Hellespont with the view of conciliating the oflended Pelopon- 
nesians. He was not only jealous of the assistance M'hich the 
latter were now rendering to Pharnabazus, but it is also evident 
that liis temporizing policy had displeased the Persian court. 
This appears from his conduct en the present occasion, as well 
as from the subsequent appointment of Cyrus to the supreme 
command on the Asiatic coast, as we shall presently have to 
relate. When Alcibiades, who imagined that Tissaphernes was 
still favourable to the Athenian cause, waited on him with the 
customary presents, he was arrested by order of the satrap, and 
sent in custody to Sardis. At the end of a month, however, he 
contrived to escape to Clazomense, and again joined the Athenian 
fleet early in the spring of 410 B.C. Mindarus, with the assist- 
ance of Pharnabazus on the land side, was now engaged in the 
siege of Cyzicus, which the Athenian admirals determined to 
relieve. Having passed up the Hellespont in the night they 
assembled at the island of Proconnesus. Here Alcibiades ad- 
dressed the seamen, telling them that they had nothing further 
to expect from the Persians, and must be prepared to act with 
the greatest vigour both by sea and land. He then sailed out 
with his squadron towards Cyzicus, and by a pretended flight 
inveigled Mindarus to a distance from the harbour ; whilst the 
other two divisions of the Athenian fleet, under Thrasybulus and 



S60 HISTORY OF GEEECE. Chap. XXXIT. 

Thrasyllus, being favoured by hazy weather, stole between Min- 
darus and the harbour, and cut ofi his retreat. In these circum- 
stances the Spartan commander ran his vessels ashore, where, 
with the assistance of Phamabazus, he endeavoured to defend 
them agamst the attacks of the Athenians. Alcibiades having 
landed his men, a battle ensued, in which Mindarus was slain, 
the Lacedaemonians and Persians routed, and the whole Pelopon- 
nesian fleet captured, with the exception of the Syracusan ships, 
which Hermocrates caused to be burnt. The severity of this 
blow was pictured in the laconic epistle in which Hippocrates, 
the second in command,*' announced it to the Ephors : " Our 
good luck is gone ; Mindarus is slain ; the men are starving ; 
we know not what to do." 

§5. The results of this victory were most important. Perin- 
thus and Selymbria, as well as Cyzicus, were recovered ; and the 
Athenians, once more masters of the Propontis, fortified the town 
of Chrysopolis, over against Byzantium, at the entrance of the 
Bosporus ; re-estabhshed their toll of ten per cent, on all vessels 
passing from the Euxine ; and left a squadron to guard the strait 
and collect the dues. So great was the discouragement of the 
Lacedaemonians at the loss of their fleet that the Ephor Endius 
proceeded to Athens to treat for peace on the basis of both 
parties standing just as tliey were. The Athenian assembly wa« 
at this time led by the demagogue Cleophon, a lamp-maker, 
known to us by the later comedies of Aristophanes, ■•^eophon 
appears to have been a man of considerable ability ; bulrtne late 
victories had inspired him with too sanguine hopes, and he ad- 
vised the Athenians to reject the terms proposed by Endius. 
Athens thus threw away the golden opportunity of recruiting 
her shattered forces of which she stood so much in need ; and to 
this unfortunate advice must be ascribed the calamities which 
subsequently overtook her. 

§ 6. Meanwhile Pharnabazus was active in affording the Lace- 
daemonians all the assistance in his power. He clothed and 
armed their seamen, furnished them with provisions and pay for 
two months, opened to them the forests of Mount Ida for sup- 
plies of timber, and assisted them in building new ships at 
Antandros. He helped them to defend Chalcedon, now besieged 
by Alcibiades, and by his means that town Avas enabled to hold 
out for a long time. But the Athenians had already obtained 
their principal object. The possession of the Bosporus reopened 
to them the trade of the Euxine. From his lofty fortress at 
Decelea the Spartan king, Agis, could descry the corn-ships 

* Called ^pistolcus {'E7n(7To?ievg) or "Secretary" in theLacedsemonian 
fleet. 



1 



B.C. 407. ALCIBIADES RETURNS TO ATHENS. 36\ 

from the Euxine sailing into the harbour of the Piraeus, and 
felt how fruitless it was to occupy the fields of Attica, whilst 
such abundant supplies of provisions were continually finding 
their way to the city. 

^ 7. The year 409 b.c. was not marked by any memorable 
events ; but in the following year Chalcedon at length surren- 
dered to the combined Athenian forces, in spite of an attempt 
of Phamabazus to save it. Selymbria was also taken by Alci- 
biades about the same time. Byzantium fell next. After it had 
been besieged by Alcibiades for some months, the gates were 
opened to the Athenians towards the close of the year 408 B.C., 
through the treachery of a party among its inhabitants. 

§ 8. These great achievements of Alcibiades naturally paved 
the way for his return to Athens. In the spring of 407 B.C. he 
proceeded with the fleet to Samos, and from thence sailed to 
Piraeus. His reception was far more favourable than he had 
ventured to anticipate. The whole population of Athens flocked 
down to Piraeus to welcome him, and escorted him to the city. 
In the Senate and in the assembly he protested his innocence of 
the impieties imputed to him, and denounced the injustice of 
his enemies. His sentence was reversed without a dissentient 
voice ; his confiscated property restored ; the curse of the Eu- 
molpidae revoked, and the leaden plate on which it was engraven 
thrown into the sea. He seemed to be in the present juncture 
the only man capable of restoring the grandeur and the empire 
of Athens : he was accordingly named general with unlimited 
powers, and a force of 100 triremes, loOO hoplites, and 150 
cavalry placed at his disposal. 

§ 9. But whatever change eight years of exile and his recent 
achievements had produced in the public feeling towards Alci- 
biades, it was one of forgiveness rather than of love, and rested 
more on the hopes of the future than on the remembrance of the 
past. The wounds which he had inflicted on Athens in the 
affairs of Syracuse and Decelea, in the revolts of Chios and Mi- 
letus, and in the organization of the conspiracy of the Four 
Hundred, were too severe to be readily forgotten ; and he had 
still many enemies who, though silent amid the general applause, 
did not cease to whisper their secret condemnation. Alcibiades, 
however, disbelieved or disregarded their machinations, and 
yielded himself without reserve to the breeze of popular favour 
which once more filled his sails. Before his departure, he took 
an opportunity to atone for the impiety of which he had been 
suspected. Although his armament was in perfect readiness, ho 
delayed its sailing till after the celebration of the Eleusiniau 
mysteries at the beginning of September. For seven years tho 

R 



862 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIL 

customary procession across the Thriasian plain had been sus- 
pended, owmg to the occupation of Decelea by the enemy, which 
compelled the sacred troop to proceed by sea. Alcibiades now 
escorted them on their progress and return ^vith his forces, and 
thus succeeded in reconcilmg liimself with the offended god- 
desses and with their holy priests, the Eumolpidse. 

S^ 10. Meanwliile, a great change had been going on in the 
state of affairs m the East. We have already seen that the 
Great King was displeased with the vacillating policy of Tissa- 
phernes, and had determined to adopt more energetic measures 
against the Athenians. During the absence of Alcibiades, Cyrus, 
the younger son of Darius, a prince of a bold and enterprising 
spirit, and animated with a lively hatred of Athens, had arrived 
-^t the coast for the purpose of carrying out the altered policy of 
the Persian court ; and with that view had been invested A\dth 
the satrapies of Lydia, the Greater Phrygia, and Cappadocia, as 
well as with the military conunand of all those forces which 
mustered at Castolus. The arrival of Cyrus opens the last 
phase of the Peloponnesian war. Another event, ui the highest 
degree unfavourable to the Athenian cause, was the accession of 
Lysander, as Navarchus, to the command of the Peloponnesian 
fleet. Lysander was the third of the remarkable men whom 
Sparta produced during the war. In ability, energ)'', and suc- 
cess he may be compared with Brasidas and Gyhppus, though 
mimeasurably mferior to the former in every moral qualit)^ 
He was born of poor parents, and was by descent a motJiax, 
or one of those Lacedsemonians who could never enjoy the 
full rights of Spartan citizenship. The allurements of money 
and of pleasure had no influence over liim ; but his ambition 
was boundless, and he was wholly unscrupulous about the means 
which he employed to gratify it. In pursuit of his objects he 
hesitated at neither deceit, nor perjury, nor cruelty, and he is 
reported to have laid it do\^ai as one of liis maxims in life to 
avail liimself of the fox's skin where the lion's failed, 

S^ 11 . Lysander had taken up his station at Ephesus, with the 
Lacedaemonian fleet of 70 triremes ; and when Cyrus arrived at 
Sardis, in the spring of 407 e.g., he hastened to pay his court 
to the young prince, and was received with exery mark of fa- 
vour. A vigorous line of action was resolved on. Cjtus at 
once offered 500 talents, and affirmed that if more were needed, 
he was prepared to devote his private funds to the cause, and 
even to coin mto money the very throne of gold and silver on 
which he sat. In a banquet which ensued Cyrus drank to the 
health of Lysander, and desired him to name any wish which 
he could gratify. Lysander immediately requested an addition 



B.C. 407. ARRIVAL OF CYRUS ON THE COAST. 363 

of an obolus to the daily pay of the seamen. Cyrus was sur- 
prised at so disinterested a demand, and from that day conceived 
a high degree of respect and confidence for the Spartan com- 
mander. Lysander on his return to Ephesus employed himself 
in refitting his fleet, and in organizing clubs in the Spartan in- 
terest in the cities of Asia. 

§ 12. Alcibiades set sail from Athens in September. He first 
proceeded to Andros, now occupied by a Lacedaemonian force ; 
but, meeting with a stouter resistance than he expected, he left 
Conon with 20 ships to prosecute the siege, and proceeded with 
the remainder to Samos. It was here that he first learnt the 
altered state of the Athenian relations with Persia. Being ill 
provided with funds for carrying on the war, he was driven to 
make predatory excursions for the purpose of raising money. He 
attempted to levy contributions on Cyme, an unoffending Athe- 
nian dependency, and being repulsed, ravaged its territory ; an 
act which caused loud complaints agamst him to be lodged at 
Athens. During his absence on this expedition he intrusted the 
bulk of the fleet at Samos to his pilot, Antiochus, with strict 
injunctions not to venture on an action. Notwithstanding these 
orders, however, Antiochus sailed out and brought the Pelo- 
ponnesian fleet to an engagement off" Notium, in which the 
Athenians were defeated with the loss of 15 ships, and An- 
tiochus himself was slam. Among the Athenian armament 
itself great dissatisfaction was growing up against Alcibiades. 
Though at the head of a splendid force, he had in three months' 
time accomplished literally nothmg. His debaucheries and dis- 
solute conduct on shore were charged against him, as well as 
his selecting for confidential posts not the men best fitted for 
them, but those who, like Antiochus, were the boon companions 
and the chosen associates of his revels. 

s^ 13. These accusations forwarded to Athens, strengthened by 
complaints from Cyme, and fomented by his secret enemies, 
soon produced an entire revulsion in the public feeling towards 
Alcibiades. It was seen that he was still the same man, and 
that he had relapsed into all his former habits, in the confidence 
that his success and two or three years of good behaviour had 
succeeded in recovering for him the favour and esteem of his 
countrymen. The Athenians voted that he should be dismissed 
from his command, and appointed in his place ten new generals, 
with Conon at their head. . 

§ 14. The year of Lysander's command expired about the same 
time as the appointment of Conon to the Athenian command. 
Through the intrigues of Lysander, his successor Callicratidas 
was received with dissatisfaction both by the Lacedaemoiiian sea- 



364 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXIL 

men and by Cyrus. Loud complaints were raised of the im- 
policy of an annual change of commanders. Lysander threw 
all sorts of difficulties into the way of his successor, to whom 
he handed over an empty chest, having first repaid to Cyrus 
all the money in his possession, under the pretence that it was 
a private loan. The straightforward conduct of Calhcratidas, 
however, who summoned the Lacedaemonian commanders, and 
after a dignified remonstrance, plainly put the question whether 
he should return home or remain, silenced all opposition. But 
he was sorely embarrassed for funds. Cyrus treated him with 
haughtmess ; and when he .waited on that prince at Sardis, he 
was dismissed not only without money, but even without an 
audience. Callicratidas, however, had too much energy to be 
daunted by such obstacles. Sailing wdth his fleet from Ephesus 
to Miletus, lie laid before the assembly of that city, in a spirited 
address, all the ills they had sufiered at the hands of the Per- 
sians, and exhorted them to bestir themselves and dispense with 
their alhance. He succeeded in persuading the Milesians to 
ra.ake him a large grant of money, whilst the leading men even 
came forward with private subscriptions. By means of tliis 
assistance he was enabled to add 50 triremes to the 90 delivered 
to him by Lysander ; and the Chians further provided him with 
ten days' pay for the seamen. He now sailed for Lesbos, and 
taking the town of Methymna by storm, delivered it over to be 
plundered by his men. He likewise caused all the slaves to be 
sold for their benefit, but he nobly refused to follow the example 
of his predecessors, in selling the Athenian garrison and Methym.- 
nsean citizens as slaves ; declaring, that so long as he held the 
command, no G-reek should ever be reduced to slavery. 

^ 15. The fleet of Callicratidas was now double that of Conon. 
Like the doge of Venice in modern times, he claimed the sea as 
his lawful bride, and warned Conon by a message to abstain from 
his adulterous intercourse. The latter, who had ventured to ap- 
proach Methymna, was compelled to nm before the superior 
force of Callicratidas. Both fleets entered the harbour of My- 
telene at the same time, where a battle ensued in which Conon 
lost 30 ships, but he saved the remaining 40 by hauling them 
ashore under the walls of the town. Callicratidas then blockaded 
Mytilene both by sea and land ; whilst Cjtus, on learning his 
success, immediately furnished him with supplies of money. Co- 
non, however, contrived to despatch a trireme to Athens with 
the news of his desperate position. 

^16. As soon as the Athenians received intelligence of the 
blockade of Mytilene, vast efibrts were made for its relief; and 
we learn with surprise that in thirty days a fleet of 110 triremes 



B.a 406. BATTLE OF ARGINUS^. 365 

was eqiiippea and despatched from Pirseus. The armament 
assembled at Samos, where it was reinforced by scattered Athe- 
nian ships, and by contingents from the alhes to the extent of 40 
vessels. The whole fleet of 150 sail then proceeded to the 
srnall islands of Arginusse, near the coast of Asia, and facing 
Malea, the south-eastern cape of Lesbos. Callicratidas, who went 
out to meet them, took up his station at the latter point, leaving 
Eteonicus with 50 ships to maintain the blockade of Mytilene. 
He had thus only 120 ships to oppose to the 150 of the Athe- 
nians, and liis pilot, Hermon, advised him to retire before the 
superior force of the enemy. But Callicratidas replied that he 
would not disgrace himself by flight, and that if he should perish, 
Sparta would not feel his loss. 

§ 17. The greatest precautions were taken in drawing up the 
Athenian fleet. The main strength was thrown into the wings, 
each of which consisted of 60 Athenian ships, divided into four 
squadrons of 15 each, ranged in a double line. The Pelopon- 
nesian fleet, on the contrar}^ was drawn up in a single extended 
line ; a circumstance displaying great confidence of superiority, 
and which denoted a vast change in the relative naval skill of the 
parties ; for at the begiim.ing of the war their tactics had been 
precisely the reverse. It must, however, be borne in mind, that 
the far greater part of the Athenian fleet was on this occasion 
manned by hastily raised crews, who had never been to sea 
before ; wliilst the Peloponnesian sailors had been well trained 
by several years' experience. 

The battle was long and obstinate. All order was speedily 
lost, and the ships fought singly with one another. In one of 
these contests, Callicratidas, who stood on the prow of his vessel 
ready to board the enemy, was thrown overboard by the shock 
of the vessels as they met, and perished. At length victory 
began to declare for the Athenians. The Lacedaemonians, aiter 
losing 77 vessels, retreated with the remainder to Chios and 
Phocsea. The loss of the Athenians was 25 vessels. 

Eteonicus was now in jeopardy at Mytilene. "When infoimed 
of the defeat of his countrymen, he directed the vessel which 
brought the news to put to sea again, and to return with wreaths 
and shouts of triumph ; whilst, taking advantage of the false im- 
pression thus raised in the minds of the Athenians, he hastily 
got ready for sea, and reached Chios in safety. At the same 
time the blockading army was withdrawn to Methymna. Conon, 
thus unexpectedly liberated, put to sea, and the united fleet took 
up their station at Samos. 

^ 18. The battle of Arginusaeled to a deplorable event, which 
has for ever sullied the pages of Athenian history. At least a 



366 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XXXIL 

dozen Athenian vessels were left floating about in a disabled 
condition after the battle ; but, owing to a violent storm that 
ensued, no attempt was made to rescue the survivors, or to 
collect the bodies of the dead for burial. Eight of the ten 
generals were summoned home to answer for this conduct ; 
Conon, by his situation at Mytilene, was of course exculpated, 
and Archestratus had died. Six of the generals obeyed the 
summons, and were denounced in the Assembly by Theramenes, 
formerly one of the Four Hundred, for neglect of duty. The 
generals replied that they had commissioned Theramenes him- 
self and Thrasybulus, each of whom commanded a trireme in 
the engagement, to undertake the duty, and had assigned 48 
ships to them for that purpose. This, however, was denied by 
Theramenes ; and unluckily the generals, from a feeling of kind- 
ness towards the latter, had made no mention of the circum- 
stance in their public despatches, but had attributed the aban- 
donment of the foundering vessels solely to the violence of the 
storm. There are discrepancies in the evidence, and we have 
no materials for deciding positively which statement was true ; 
but probability inclines to the side of the generals. Public feel- 
ing, however, ran very strongly against them, and was increased 
by an incident which occurred during their trial. After a day's 
debate the question was adjourned; and in the interval the 
festival of the Apaturia was celebrated, in which, according to 
annual custom, the citizens met together according to their 
families and phratries. Those who had perished at Arginusse 
were naturally missed on such an occasion ; and the usually 
cheerful character of the festival was deformed and rendered 
melancholy by the relatives of the deceased appearing in black 
clothes and with shaven heads. The passions of the people 
were violently roused. At the next meeting of the Assembly, 
Callixenus, a senator, proposed that the people should at once 
proceed to pass its verdict on the generals, though they had 
been only partially heard in their defence ; and, moreover, that 
they should all be included in one sentence, though it was con- 
trary to a rule of Attic law, known as the psephisma of Can- 
nonus, to indict citizens otherwise than individually. Callixenus 
carried his motion in spite of the threat of Eur}^ptolemus to 
indict him for an illegal proceeding under the Graplie Faranommi. 
The Prytanes, or senators of the presiding tribe, at first refused 
to put the question to the Assembly in this illegal way ; but 
their opposition was at length overawed by clamour and vio- 
lence. There was, however, one honourable exception. The 
philosopher Socrates, who was one of the Prytans, refused to 
withdraw his protest. But his opposition was disregarded, and 



1 



B.C. 406. EXECUTION" OF THE GENERALS. Z&1 

the proposal of Callixenus was carried. The generals were con- 
demned, delivered over to the Eleven for execution, and com- 
pelled to drnik the fatal hemlock. Among them was Pericles, 
the son of the celebrated statesman. The Athenians aftci-wards 
repented of their rash precipitation, and decreed that Callixenus 
and his accomplices should in their turn be brought to trial ; 
but before the appointed day they managed to escape. 

H9. After the battle of Arginusse the Athenian fleet seems 
to have remained inactive at Samos during the rest of the year. 
Through the influence of Cyrus, and the other allies of Sparta, 
Lysander agahi obtained the command of the Peloponnesian fleet 
at the commencement of the year 405 e.g. ; though nominally 
under Aracus as admiral ; since it was contrary to Spartan usage 
that the same man should be twice Navarchus.^ His return to 
power was marked by more vigorous measures. Fresh funds 
were obtained from Cyrus ; the arrears due to the seamen were 
paid up ; and new triremes were put upon the stocks at Antan- 
drus. Oligarchical revolutions were effected in Miletus and 
other towns. Summoned to visit liis sick father in Media, 
Cyrus even delegated to Lysander the management of his satrapy 
and revenues during his absence. Lysander was thus placed in 
possession of power never before realized by any Lacedaemonian 
commander. But the Athenian fleet under Conon and his coad- 
jutors was still superior in numbers, and Lysander carefully 
avoided an engagement. He contrived, however, to elude the 
Athenian fleet, and to cross the ^Egean to the coast of Attica, 
where he had an interview with Agis ; and, proceeding thence 
to the Hellespont, which Conon had left unguarded, he took up 
his station at Abydos. 

k 20. The Athenians were at this time engaged in ravaging 
Chios ; but when they heard of this movement, and that Ly- 
sander had commenced the siege of Lampsacus, they imme- 
diately sailed for the Hellespont. They arrived too late to save 
the town, but they proceeded up the strait and took post at yEgos- 
potami, or the "Goat's River;" a place which had nothing to 
recommend it, except its vicinity to Lampsacus, from which it 
was separated by a channel somewhat less than two miles broad. 
It was a mere desolate beach, without houses or inhabitants, so 
that all the supplies had to be fetched from Sestos, or from the 
surrounding country, and the seamen were compelled to leave 
their ships in order to obtain their meals. Under these circum- 
stances the Athenians were very desirous of bringing Lysander 
to an engagement. But the Spartan commander, who was in a 

* Lysander recolved the title of Epistolexis. See note on p. 3G0. 



368 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XXXIl 

strong position, and abundantly furnished with provisions, was 
in no hurry to run any risks. In vain did the Athenians sail 
over several days in succession to offer him battle ; they always 
found his ships ready manned, and drawn up in too strong a 
position to warrant an attack ; nor could they by all their ma- 
iiceuvres succeed in enticing him out to combat. This cowardice, 
as they deemed it, on the part of the Lacedaemonians, begat a 
corresponding negligence on theirs ; disciphne was neglected and 
the men allowed to straggle almost at will. It was in vain that 
Alcibiades, who since his dismissal resided in a fortress in that 
neighbourhood, remonstrated with the Athenian generals on the 
exposed nature of the station they had chosen, and advised 
them to proceed to Sestos, His counsels were received with 
taunts and insults. At length on the fifth day, Lysander, having 
watched an opportunity when the Athenian seamen had gone on 
shore and were dispersed over the country, rowed swiftly across 
the strait with all his ships. He found the Athenian fleet, with 
the exception of 10 or 12 vessels, totally unprepared, and suc- 
ceeded in capturing nearly the whole of it, without having occa- 
sion to strike a single blow. Of the 180 ships which composed 
the fleet, only the trireme of Conon himself, the Paralus, and 8 
or 10 other vessels succeeded in escaping. Conon was afraid 
to return to Athens after so signal a disaster, and took refuge 
with Evagoras, prmce of Salamis in Cyprus. All the Athenian 
prisoners, amounting to 3000 or 4000, together wdth the generals, 
were put to death by order of Lysander, in retaliation for the 
cruelty with which the Athenians had treated the prisoners they 
had lately made. 

By this momentous victor}'', which was suspected to have been 
achieved through the corrupt comiivance of some of the Athe- 
nian generals, the contest on the Hellespont, and virtually the 
Peloponnesian war, was brought to an end. The closing scene 
of the catastrophe was enacted at Athens itself; but the fate of 
the imperial city must be reserved for another chapter. 



Bust of the roet Euripides. 




View of Phyie. 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 

FROM THE BATTLE OF ^GOSPOTA^^ TO THE OVERTHROW OF THE 
THIRTY TYRANTS AND THE RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF DEMOCRACY 
AT ATHENS. 



§ 1. Alarm at Athens. § 2. Proceedings of Lysander. Capture of the 
Athenian dependencies. § 3. Measures of the Athenians. Athens in- 
vested. § 4. Embassy of Theramenes, Conditions of capitulation. 
§ 5. Lysander takes possession of Athens. Destruction of the long 
walls, <fec. § 6. Return of the oligarchical exiles. Establishment of 
the Thirty. § 7. Surrender of Samos and triumph of Lj'sander. § 8. Pro' 
ceedings of the Thirty at Athens. § 9. Opposition of Theramenes. 
§ 10. Proscriptions. Death of Theramenes. § 11. Suppression of in- 
tellectual culture. Socrates. § 12. Death of Alcibiades. § 13. Jealousy 
of the Grecian states towards Sparta and Lysander, § 14. Thrasy> 
bulus at Phyle. § 15. Seizure and massacre of the Eleusinians. 
§ 16. Thrasybulus occupies Pirgeus. Death of Critias. § 17. Deposi- 
tion of the Thirty, and establishment of the Ten. Return of Lysander 
to Athens, and arrival of Pausanias. § 18. Peace with Thrasybulus, 
and evacuation of Attica by the Peloponnesians. § 1 9. Restoration of 
the democracy. § 20. Archonship of Euclides. Reduction of Eleusis. 

^ 1. The defeat of JEgospotami, which took place about Sep- 
tember, 405 B.C., was announced at Piraeus in the night, by tha 

R* 



370 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXIIL 

arrival of the Paralus. " On that night," says Xenophon, " no 
man slept." The disaster, indeed, was as sudden and as authen- 
tic as it was vast and irretrievable. The proceedings of the de- 
jected assembly which met on the following day at once showed 
that the remaining struggle was one for bare existence. In 
order to make the best preparations for a siege, it was resolved to 
block up two of the three ports of Athens — a plain confession 
that maritime supremacy, the sole basis of her power, had de- 
parted from her. 

^ 2. Lysander, secure of an easy triumph, was in no haste to 
gather it by force. The command of the Euxine enabled him to 
control the supplies of Athens ; and sooner or later, a few weeks 
of famine must decide her fall. With the view of hastening the 
catastrophe he compelled the ganisons of all the towns which 
surrendered to proceed to the capital. The question was not 
one of arms, but of hunger ; and an additional garrison, so far 
from adding to her strength, would complete her weakness. A 
strong proof of the insecure foundation of her power I A naval 
defeat in a remote quarter had not only deprived her of empire, 
but was about to render her in turn a captive and a subject. 

Lysander now sailed forth to take possession of the Athenian 
towns, which fell one after another into his power as soon as 
he appeared before them. In all a new form of government 
was estabhshed, consisting of an oligarchy of ten of the citizens, 
called a decarchy, under a Spartan harmost. Chalcedon, Byzan- 
tium, Mytilene, surrendered to Lysander himself ; whilst Eteoni- 
cus was despatched to occupy and revolutionize the Athenian 
towns in Thrace. Amidst the general defection, Samos alone 
remained faithful to Athens. All her other dependencies at 
once 3'ielded to the Lacedsemonians ; whilst her cleruchs were 
forced to abandon their possessions and return home. In many 
places, and especially in Thasos, these revolutions were attended 
with violence and bloodshed, 

§ 3. The situation of Athens was now more desperate even 
than when Xerxes was advancing against her with his countless 
host. The juncture demanded the hearty co-operation of all 
her citizens ; and a general amnesty was proposed and carried 
for the purpose of releasing all debtors, accused persons, and 
state prisoners, except a few of the more desperate criminals 
and homicides. The citizens were then assembled in the Acro- 
polis, and swore a solemn oath of mutual forgiveness and har- 
mony. 

About November Lysander made his appearance at JEgina, 
with an overwhelming fleet of 150 triremes, and proceeded to 
devastate Salamis and blockade Piraeus. At the samo time the 



B.C. 404. CAPITULATION OF ATHENS. Zll 

whole Peloponnesian army was marched into Attica, and en- 
camped in the precincts of the Academus, at the very gates of 
Athens. Famine soon began to be felt within the waUs. Yet 
the Athenians did not abate of their pretensions. In their pro- 
posals for a capitulation they demanded the preservation of their 
long walls, and of the port of Pira3us. But the Spartan Ephors, 
to whom the Athenian envoys had been referred by king Agis, 
refused to listen to such terms, and insisted on the demohtion 
of the long walls for the space of 1 stadia at least. The spirit 
of the people, however, was still so unsubdued — though some of 
them were actually dying of hunger — that the senator Arches- 
tratus was imprisoned for proposing to accept the terms offered 
by the Ephors ; and on the motion of Cleophon, it was forbidden 
to make any such proposal in future. 

^ 4. Theramenes, formerly one of the Four Hundred, now 
offered to proceed to Lysander for the purpose of learning his 
real intentions with regard to the fate of Athens ; and as he 
pretended that his personal connexions would afford him great 
facilities in such an undertaking, his offer was accepted. After 
wasting three months with Lysander, — three months of ter- 
rible suffering to the Athenians, — he said that Lysander had 
then informed him for the first time that the Ephors alone 
had power to treat. The only construction that can be put on 
this conduct of Theramenes is, that he designed to reduce the 
Athenians to the last necessity, so that they should be compelled 
to purchase peace at any price. If such was his object he com- 
pletely succeeded. When he returned to Athens the famine had 
become so dreadful, that he was immediately sent back to con- 
clude a peace on whatever terms he could. In the debate which 
ensued at Sparta, the Thebans, the Corinthians, and others of 
the more bitter enemies of Athens, urged the very extinction 
of her name and the sale of her whole population into slavery. 
But this proposition was resolutely opposed by the Lacedaemo- 
nians, who declared, with great appearance of magnanimity, 
though probably with a view to their own interest in converting 
Athens into a useful dependency, that they would never consent 
to enslave or annihilate a city which had rendered such eminent 
services to Greece. The terms which the Ephors dictated, and 
which the Athenians were in no condition to refuse, were : That 
the long walls and the fortifications of Piraeus should be de- 
molished ; that the Athenians should give up all their foreign 
possessions, and confine themselves to their own territory ; that 
they should surrender all their ships of war ; that they should 
readmit all their exiles ; and that they should become allies of 
Sparta. As Theramenes re-entered Athens, bearing in his hand 



372 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIII. 

the roll or scytale, which contained these terms, he was pressed 
upon by an anxious and haggard crowd, who, heedless of the 
terms, gave loud vent to their joy that peace was at length con- 
cluded. And though there was still a small minority for holding 
out, the vote for accepting the conditions was carried, and noti- 
fied to Lysander. 

k 5. It was about the middle or end of March, e.g. 404, that 
Lysandei sailed into Piraeus, and took formal possession of 
Athens; the war, in singular conformity with the prophecies 
current at the beginning of it, having lasted for a period of thrice 
nine, or 27 years. The Lacedsemonian fleet and army remained 
in possession of the city till the conditions of its capitulation 
had been executed. Lysander carried away all the Athenian 
triremes except twelve, destroyed the naval arsenals, and burned 
the ships on the stocks. The insolence of the victors added 
another blow to the feehngs of the conquered. The work of de- 
struction, at which Lysander presided, was converted into a sort 
of festival. Female flute-players and wreathed dancers inaugu- 
rated the demolition of the strong and proud bulwarks of 
Athens ; and as the massive walls fell piece by piece excla- 
mations arose from the ranks of the Peloponnesians that free- 
dom, had at length begun to dawn upon Greece. The solidity of 
the works rendered the task of demolition a laborious one. After 
some little progress had been made in it, Lysander withdrew 
with his fleet to prosecute the siege of Samos. 

Thus fell imperial Athens in the seventy-third year after the 
formation of the Confederacy of Delos, the origin of her subse- 
quent empire. During that interval she had doubtless com- 
mitted many mistakes and much injustice ; had uniformly, per- 
haps, overrated the real foundations of her strength, and fre- 
quently employed unjustifiable means in order to support it. 
But on the other hand, it must be recollected that in that brief 
career she had risen by her genius and her valour, from the con- 
dition of a small and subordinate city to be the leading power 
in Greece ; that in the first instance empire had not been sought 
by her ambition, but laid at her feet, and in a manner thrust 
upon her ; that it had been accepted, and successfully employed, 
for the most noble of human purposes, and to avert an over- 
whelming deluge of barbarism ; and that Greece, and more 
particularly Athens herself, had been thus enabled to become the 
mother of refinement, the nurse of literature and art, ainl the 
founder of European civilisation. 

^6. The fall of Athens brought back a host of exiles, all cf 
them the enemies of her democratical constitution. Of these the 
most distinguished was Critias, a man of wealth and family, the 



B.C. 404. THE THIRTY TYRANTS. 878 

uncle of Plato and once the intimate friend of Socrates, distin- 
guished both for his literary and political talents, but of unmea- 
sured ambition and unscrupulous conscience. Critias and his 
companions soon found a party with which they could co-operate. 
A large portion of the senators was favourable to the establish- 
ment of an oligarchy ; of which Theramenes had already laid 
the foundation during his residence with Lysander. Scarcely 
was the city surrendered, when this faction began to organize 
its plans. The political clubs met and named a committee of 
five, who, in compliment to the Lacedaemonians, were called 
Ephors. Their first step was to seize the leaders of the de- 
mocratical party, whom they accused of a design to overturn 
the peace. Cleophon had already fallen, on an accusation of 
neglect of military duty, but in reality from his perseverance in 
opposing the surrender of Athens. The way being thus pre- 
pared, Critias and Theramenes invited Lysander from Samos, in 
order that his presence might secure the success of the move- 
ment. It was then proposed in the assembly that a committee 
of thirty should be named to draw up laws for the future 
government of the city, and to undertake its temporary ad- 
ministration. Among the most prominent of the thirty names 
were those of Critias and Theramenes. The proposal was of 
course carried. Lysander himself addressed the assembly, and 
contemptuously told them that they had better take thought lor 
their personal safety, which now lay at his mercy, than for their 
political constitution. The committee thus appointed soon ob- 
tained the title of the Thirty Tyrants, the name by which they 
have become known in all subsequent time. 

^ 7. After completing the revolution of Athens, Lysander re- 
turned to Samos. The island surrendered towards the end of 
summer, when an oligarchical government was established, as 
in the other conquered states. Never had Greek commander 
celebrated so great a triumph as that which adonied the return 
of Lysander to Sparta. He brought with him all the prow orna- 
ments of the numerous ships he had taken ; he was loaded 
with golden crowns, the gifts of various cities ; and he ostenta- 
tiously displayed the large sum of 470 talents, the balance which 
still remained of the sums granted by Cyrus for prosecuting the 
war. 

^ 8. Meanwhile, the Thirty at Athens having named an en- 
tirely new Senate, and appointed fresh magistrates, proceeded to 
exterminate some of their most obnoxious opponents. In order 
to insure their condemnation, the Thirty presided in person in 
the place formerly occupied by the Prytanes ; and the senators 
were obliged to deposit their voting pebbles on tables placed 



S74 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXHI. 

immediately before them. Frequently even this show of legahty 
was dispensed with, and the accused were put to death by the 
mere order of the Thirty. But Critias, and the more violent 
party among them, still called for more blood ; and with the 
view of obtaining it, procured a Spartan garrison, under the 
harmost Callibius, to be installed in the Acropolis. Besides 
this force, they had an organized band of assassins at their dis- 
posal. Blood now flowed on all sides. Many of the leading men 
of Athens fell, others took to flight. A still greater refinement 
of cunning and cruelty was, to implicate distinguished citizens in 
their own crimes by making them accomplices in their acts of 
violence. Thus, on one occasion, they sent for five citizens to 
the government house, and ordered them, with horrible menaces 
to proceed to Salamis, and bring back as a prisoner an eminent 
Athenian named Leon. Socrates was one of the five, and again 
did himself immortal honour by refusing to participate in such 
an act of violence. 

^ 9. Thus the reign of terror was completely established. In 
the bosom of the Thirty, however, there was a party, headed by 
Theramenes, who disapproved of these proceedings. Thera- 
menes was long-sighted and cunning, as we have seen from 
his former acts, and so shifting and unstable in his political 
views as to have obtained the nick-name of Cothurnus, from 
resembling a shoe that would fit either foot. But he was not 
unnecessarily and gratuitously cruel ; and though he had ap- 
proved of the slaughter of those citizens whom, from their former 
political conduct, he deemed dangerous and irreconcilable ene- 
mies to the new state of things, yet he was not disposed to 
sanction murder merely for the sake of obtaining the wealth of 
the victims. He was also inclined to give the new government 
a more constitutional form ; and it was at his suggestion that 
the Thirty were induced to bestow the franchise on 3000 citi- 
zens, chosen, however, as much as possible from their own 
adherents. But this show of liberality, as managed by the ma- 
jority of the Thirty, was in reality only a vehicle for greater 
oppression towards the remainder of the citizens. All except 
the chosen 3000 were considered to be without the pale of the 
law, and might be put to death without form of trial by the 
simple fiat of" the Thirty ; whilst in order to render them inca- 
pable of resistance, they were assembled under pretence of a 
review, during which their arms were seized by a stratagem. 

^10. The Thirty now proceeded more unsparingly than 
ever. A regular proscription took place. A list was made 
out of those who were to be slain and plundered ; and 
the adherents of the Thirty were permitted to insert in it 



B.C. 404. DEATH OF TIIERAMENES. Bl5 

whatever names they pleased. So Httle was the proscription 
of a poUtical character, that it extended to metics (resident 
aUens) as well as to citizens ; and under the metics were in- 
cluded Lysias, the celebrated orator, and his brother, Polemar- 
chus. Theramenes stood aloof from these atrocities ; and when 
offered the choice of a victim among the metics, to be destroyed 
and plundered for his own especial benefit, he indignantly re- 
jected the offer. His moderation cost him his life. One day 
as he entered the Senate-house, Critias rose and denounced him 
as a public enemy, struck his name out of the privileged 3000, 
and ordered him to be carried off to instant death. Upon hear- 
ing these words Theramenes sprang for refuge to the altar in 
the Senate-house ; but he was dragged away by Satyrus, the 
cruel and unscrupulous head of the " Eleven," a body of officers 
who carried into execution the penal sentence of the law. Being 
conveyed to prison, he was compelled to drink the fatal hem- 
lock. The constancy of his end might have adorned a better 
life. After swallowing the draught, he jerked on the floor a 
drop which remained in the cup, according to the custom of the 
game called cottabos, exclaiming, " This to the health of the 
gentle Critias I" 

S^ 11. Thus released from all check, the tyranny of Critias and 
his colleagues raged with tenfold violence. It has been affirmed 
by subsequent orators that no fewer than 1500 victims were put 
to death without trial by the Thirty ; and, though this is pro- 
bably art. exaggeration, the number was undoubtedly prodigious. 
Measures were taken to repress all intellectual culture, and to 
convert the government into one of brute force. A decree was 
promulgated, forbidding the teaching of " the art of words ;" a 
phrase which, in its comprehensive Greek meaning, included 
logic, rhetoric, and literature in general, and was more particu- 
larly levelled at those ingenious and learned men who went by 
the name of " Sophists." Socrates, the most distinguished among 
them, had commented with just severity on the enormities per- 
petrated by the Thirty. He was summoned before Critias, and 
prohibited in future from all conversation with youths. Socrates 
exposed, in his usual searching style, the Vtn»gucness of the com- 
mand, and the impossibility of its execution ; but this only pro- 
voked the more the rage of the tyrants, who dismissed him with 
the hint that they were not ignorant of the censures he had 
passed upon them. 

\ 12. Alcibiades had been included by the Thirty in -the list 
of exiles ; but the fate which now overtook him seems to have 
sprung from the fears of the Lacedaemonians, or perhaps from 
the personal hatred of Agis. After the battlo of ^gospotami 



376 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXIIL 

Alcibiades felt himself insecure on the Thracian Chersonese, and 
fled to Pharnabazus in Phrj^gia, not, however, without the loss of 
much of his wealth. He solicited from the satrap a safe conduct 
to the court of Suza, in the hope, perhaps, of playing the same 
part as Themistocles. Pharnabazus refused this request, but 
permitted him to live m Phrygia, and assigned him a revenue 
for his maintenance. But a scytale, or despatch, came out from 
Sparta to Lysander, directing that Alcibiades should be put to 
death. Lysander communicated the order to Pharnabazus. The 
motives of the latter for carrying it into execution are not alto- 
gether clear. It seems probable that the demands of the Spar- 
tans were supported by Cyrus, who was now forming designs 
against his brother's throne, and feared perhaps that Alcibiades 
would reveal them at Susa. Be this, however, as it may, it is 
certain that the murder was undertaken under the superintend- 
ence of the uncle and brother of Pharnabazus. They surrounded 
the house of Alcibiades with a band of assassins, and set it on 
fire. Alcibiades rushed out with drawn sword upon his assail- 
ants, who shrank from his attack, but wdio slew him from a 
distance with their javelins and arrows. Timandra, a female 
with whom he lived, performed towards his body the last ofhces 
of duty and affection. Thus perished miserably, in the vigour 
of his age, one of the most remarkable, but not one of the 
greatest, characters in G-recian history. Alcibiades was endowed 
with most of those qualities which serve to constitute greatness. 
He possessed talent, ambition, enterprise, courage, great presence 
of mind, and inexhaustible resources in emergencies ; but all 
these were marred and rendered pernicious, instead of profitable, 
to himself and to liis country, by profligacy, selfishness, pride, 
rapacity, and utter want of principle. With qualities which, 
properly applied, might have rendered him the greatest bene- 
factor of Athens, he contrived to attain the infamous distinction 
of being that citizen who had inflicted upon her the most signal 
amount of damage. 

§ 13. Meantime an altered state of feeling was springing up in 
Greece. Athens had ceased to be an object of fear or jealousy, 
and those feelings began now to be directed towards Sparta. 
That state persisted in retaining the large amount of booty 
acquired by the war ; and when the Thebans and Corinthians 
sent in their claim it was resented almost as an insult. Yet in 
the monument erected at Delphi in commemoration of the vic- 
tory at iEgospotami, Lysander had not only caused his oAvn 
statue in bronze to be erected, but also that of each commander 
of the allied contingents. Lysander had risen to a height of un- 
paralleled power. He was in a manner idolized. Poets showered 



B.C. 404. THRASYBULUS AT PHYLK 377 

their praises on him, and even altars were raised in his honour hy 
the Asiatic Greeks. The Ephesians set up his gtatue in the famous 
temple of their goddess Artemis ; the Samians did the like at Olym- 
pia, and altered the name of their principal festival from Hera;a 
to Lysandria. In the name of Sparta he exercised almost uncon- 
trolled authority in the cities he had reduced, including Athens 
itself But it was soon discovered that, instead of the freedom 
promised by the Spartans, only another empire had been esta- 
blished, whilst Lysander was even meditating to extort from the 
subject cities a yearly tribute of one thousand talents. And all 
these oppressions were rendered still more intolerable by the 
overweening pride and harshness of Lysander's demeanour. 

§ 14. Even in Sparta itself the conduct of Lysander was be- 
ginning to inspire disgust and jealousy. Pausanias, son of Plis- 
toanax, who was now king with Agis, as well as the new Ephors 
appointed in September, B.C. 404, disapproved of his proceedings. 
The Thebans and Corinthians themselves were beginning to 
sympathise with Athens, and to regard the Thirty as mere in- 
struments for supporting the Spartan dominion ; whilst Sparta 
in her turn looked upon them as the tools of Lysander's ambi- 
tion. Many of the Athenian exiles had found refuge in Boeotia ; 
and one of them, Thrasybulus, with the aid of Ismenias and 
other Theban citizens, starting from Thebes at the head of a 
sma'l band of exiles, seized the fortress of Phyle, in the passes 
of Mount Parnes and on the direct road to Athens. The Thirty 
marched out to attack Thrasybulus, at the head of the La- 
cedaemonian garrison, the three thousand enfranchised citizens, 
and all the Athenian knights. But their attack was repulsed 
with considerable loss. A timely snow-storm, by compelling 
the Thirty to retreat, relieved Thrasybulus and the exiles from 
a threatened blockade, and enabled him to obtain reinforce- 
ments which raised his little garrison to the number of seven 
hundred. Li a subsequent rencontre Thrasybulus surprised at 
daybreak a body of Spartan hoplites and Athenian horse that 
had been sent against him ; and, after killing one hundred and 
twenty of the Spartans, carried ofi' a considerable store of arms 
and provisions to Phyle. 

^ 15. Symptoms of wavering now began to be perceptible, not 
only among the three thousand, but even among the Thirty 
themselves ; and Critias, fearful that power was slipping from liis 
grasp, resolved to secure Salamis and Eleusis as places of refuge. 
All the Eleusians capable of bearing arms were accordingly 
seized and carried to Athens, and their town occupied by ad- 
herents of the Thirty. The same was done at Salamis. Critias 
then convoked the three thousand and the knights in the Odeum, 



878 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXHt 

which he had partly filled with Lacedaemonian soldiers, and com- 
pelled them to pass a, vote condemning the Eleusinians to death. 
This was done, as he plainly told them, in order the more 
thoroughly to identify their interests with those of the Thirty. 
The prisoners were immediately led oft^ to execution. 

M6. Thrasybulus, whose forces were now a thousand strong, 
incited probably by this enormity, and reckoning on support 
from the party of the reaction at Athens, marched from Phyle to 
Piraeus, which was now an open town, and seized upon it without 
opposition. When the whole force of the Thirty, including the 
Lacedaemonians, marched on the ibllowing day to attack him, he 
retired to the hill of Munychia, the citadel of Piraeus, the only 
approach to which was by a steep ascent. Here he drew up liis 
hoplites in files of ten deep, posting behind them his slingers 
and dartmen, whose missiles, owing to the rising ground, could 
be hurled over the heads of the foremost ranks. Against them 
Critias and his confederates advanced in close array, his hoplites 
formed in a column of fifty deep. Thrasybulus exhorted his men 
to stand patiently till the enemy came within reach of the mis- 
siles. At the first discharge the assailing column seemed to 
waver ; and Thrasybulus, taking advantage of their confusion, 
charged down the hill, and completely routed them, kilhng 
seventy, among whom was Critias himself. 

M7. The partisans of the Thirty acknowledged the victory 
by begging a truce to bury their dead. The loss of their leader 
had thrown the majority into the hands of the party formerly 
led by Theramenes, who resolved to depose the Thirty and con- 
stitute a new oligarchy of Ten. Some of the Thirty were re- 
elected into this body ; but the more violent colleagues of Critias 
were deposed, and retired for safety to Eleusis. The new 
government of the Ten sent to Sparta to solicit further aid ; and 
a similar application was made at the same time from the section 
of the Thirty at Eleusis. Their request was complied with ; 
and Lysander once more entered Athens at the head of a La- 
cedaemonian force, whilst his brother Libys blockaded Piraeus 
with 40 triremes. Fortunately, however, the jealousy of the 
Lacedaemonians towards Lysander led them at this criticaF 
juncture to supersede him in the command. King Pausanias 
was appointed to lead an army into Attica, and when he en- 
camped in the Academus he was joined by Lysander and his 
forces. It was known at Athens that the views of Pausanias 
were unfavourable to the proceedings of Lysander ; and his 
presence elicited a vehement reaction against the oligarchy, 
which fear had hitherto suppressed. At first, however, Pausa- 
nias made a show of attacking Thrasybulus and his adherents, 



B.C. 403. THE THIRTY DEPOSED. 8T9 

and sent a herald to require them to disband and return to their 
homes. As this order was not obeyed, Pausanias made an attack 
on Piraeus, but was repulsed with loss. Retiring to an eminence 
at a little distance he rallied his forces and formed them into a 
deep phalanx. Thrasybulus, elated by his success, was rash 
enough to venture a combat on the plain, in which his troops 
were completely routed and driven back to Piraeus with the loss 
of 150 men. 

^ 18. Pausanias, content with the advantage he had gained, 
began to listen to the entreaties for an accommodation which 
poured in on all sides ; and when Thrasybulus sent to sue for 
peace, he granted him a truce for the purpose of sending envoys 
to Sparta. The Ten also despatched envoys thither, offering to 
submit themselves and the city to the absolute discretion of 
Sparta. The Ephors and the Lacedaemonian Assembly referred 
the question to a committee of fifteen, of whom Pausanias 
was one. The decision of this board was : That the exiles in 
Piraeus should be readmitted to Athens ; and that there should 
be an amnesty for all that had passed, except as regarded the 
Thirty, the Eleven, and the Ten. Eleusis was recognised as a 
distinct government, in order to serve as a refuge for those who 
felt themselves compromised at Athens. 

^19. AMien these terms were settled and sworn to, the Pelopon- 
nesians quitted Attica ; and Thrasybulus and the exiles, marching 
in solemn procession from Piraeus to Athens, ascended to the 
Acropolis and offered up a solemn sacrifice and thanksgiving. 
An assembly of the people was then held, and after Thrasybulus 
had addressed an animated reproof to the oligarchical party, the 
democracy w^as unanimously restored. This important counter- 
revolution appears to have taken place in the spring of 403 B.C. 
The archons, the senate of 500, the public assembly, and the 
dicasteries seeni to have been reconstituted in the same form as 
before the capture of the city. All the acts of the Thirty were 
amiulled, and a committee was appointed to revise the laws of 
Draco and Solon, and to exhibit their amendments at the statues 
of the eponjTiious heroes. These laws, as afterwards adopted 
' by the whole body of 500 nomothetae, and by the Senate, were 
ordered to be inscribed on the walls of the PcEcile Stoa, on which 
occasion the full Ionic alphabet of 24 letters was for the first 
time adopted in public acts, though it had long been in private 
use. The old Attic alphabet, of 16 or 18 letters, had been pre- 
viously employed in public documents. 

^ 20. Thus was terminated, after a sway of eight montlis, the 
despotism of the Thirty. The year which contained their rule 
was not named after the archon, but was termed " the year of 



380 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



Chap. XXXIII. 



anarchy." The first archon drawn after their fall was Euclides, 
who gave his name to a year ever afterwards memorable among 
the Athenians. The democracy, though smarting under recent 
wrongs, behaved with great moderation ; a circumstance, how- 
ever, which may in some degree be accounted for by the facts, 
that 3000 of the more influential citizens had been more or less 
imphcated in the proceedings of the Thirty, and that the number 
of those entitled to the franchise was now reduced by its being 
restricted to such only as were bom of an Athenian mother as 
well as father. Eleusis was soon afterwards brought back into 
community with Athens. The only reward of Thrasybulus and 
his party were wreaths of olive, and 1000 drachmae given for a 
common sacrifice. 

But though Athens thus obtained internal peace, she was left 
a mere shadow of her former self Her fortifications, her fleet, 
her revenues, and the empire founded on them had vanished ; 
and her history hencefor wards consists of struggles, not to rule 
over others, but to maintain her own independence. 




Clio, the Muse of History. 




Tlie Erechtheum restored, viewed from the S.W. angle. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 



ATHENS, AND ATHENIAN AND GRECIAN ART DURING THE PERIOD 
OF HER EMPIRE. 

§ 1. Situation of Athens, § 2. Origin and progress of the ancient city. 
§ 3. Extent of the new city. Piraeus and the ports. § 4. General 
appearance of Athens. Population. § 5. Periods and general char- 
acter of Attic art. § 6. Sculptors of the first period. Ageladas, Ona- 
tas, and others. § V. Second period. Phidias. § 8. Polycletus and 
Myron. § 9. Painting. Polj^gnotus, § 10. Apollodorus, Zeuxis, and 
Parrhasius. § 11- Architecture. Monuments of the age of Cimon. 
The temple of Kike Apteros, the Theseum, and the Poecilo Stoa. § 12. 
The Acropolis and its monuments. The Propyla3a. § 13. The Par- 
thenon. § 14. Statues of Athena. § 15. The Ereehtheum. § 16. 
Monuments in the Asty. The Dionysiac theatre. The Odeum of 
Pericles. The Areopagus. The Pnyx. The Agoi'a and Ceramicua. 
§ 17. Monuments out of Attica. The Temple of Jove at Olympia. 
§ 18. The Temple of Apollo near Phigalia. 

O . In the ■ present book we have beheld the rise of Athens 
from the condition of a second or third rate city to the headship 
of Greece ' we are now to contemplate her triumphs in the 



382 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIV. 

peaceful but not less glorious pursuits of art, and to behold her 
establishing an empire of taste and genius, not only over her 
own nation and age, but over the most civilized portion of the 
world throughout all time. 

First of all, however, it is necessary to give a brief description 
of Athens itself, the repository, as it were, in which the most 
precious treasures of art were preserved. Athens is situated 
about three miles from the sea-coast, in the central plain of 
Attica, which is enclosed by mountains on every side except 
the south, where it is open to the sea. In the southern part 
of the plain rise several eminences. Of these the most pro- 
minent is a lofty insulated mountain, with a conical peaked 
summit, now called the Hill of St. George, and which bore in 
ancient times the name of lAjcabettus. This mountain, which 
was not included within the ancient walls, lies to the north-east 
of Athens, and forms the most striking feature in the environs 
of the city. It is to Athens what Vesuvius is to Naples, or 
Arthur's Seat to Edinburgh. South-west of Lycabettus there 
are four hills of moderate height, all of which formed part of the 
city. Of these the nearest to Lycabettus, and at the distance of 
a mile from the latter, was the Acrojjolis, or citadel of Athens, a 
square craggy rock rising abruptly about 150 feet, with a fiat 
summit of about 1000 feet long from east to west, by 500 feet 
broad from north to south. Immediately west of the Acropolis 
is a second hill of irregular form, the Areopagus. To the south- 
west there rises a third hill, the Pnyx, on which the assemblies 
of the citizens were held ; and to the south of the latter is a 
fourth hill, known as the Museum. On the eastern and western 
sides of the city there run two small streams, which are nearly 
exhausted before they reach the sea, by the heats of summer and 
by the channels for artificial irrigation. That on the east is the 
Ilissus, which flowed through the southern quarter of the city : 
that on the west is the Cephissus. South of the city was seen 
the Saronic Gulf, with the harbours of Athens. The ground on 
which Athens stands is a bed of hard limestone rock, which the 
ingenuity of the inhabitants converted to architectural purposes, 
by hewing it into walls, levelling it into pavements, and forming it 
into steps, seats, cisterns, and other objects of utility or ornament. 

The noblest description of Athens is given by Milton in his 
Paradise Regained : — 

" Look once more, ere we leave this specular mount, 
Westward, much nearer by south-west behold, 
Where on the JEgean shore a city stands, 
Built nobly ; pure the air, and light the soil ; 
Athens, the eye of Greece, mother of arts 
And eloquence, native to famous wits, 



Chap. XXXIV. 



CITY OF ATHENS. 



385 




Or hospitable, in her sweet recess, 

City or suburban, studious walks and shades. 

See there the olive grove of Academe, 

Plato's retirement, where the Attic bird 

Trills her thick warbled notes the summer long; 

There flowery hill Hymettus, with the sound 

Of bees' industrious murmur, oft invites 

To studious musing ; there Ilissus rolls 

His whispering stream: within the walls then view 

The schools of ancient sages ; his who bred 

Great Alexander to subdue the world, 

Lyceum there, and painted Stoa next." 




Plan of Athens. 



1. Pnyx Kcclesia. 

2. These II ni. 

3. Theatre of Dionysus. 



4. Odeum of Pericles. 

5. Temple of the Olympiaa 

Jove. 



§ 2. Athens is said to have derived its name from the pro* 
minence given to the worship of Athena by its King Erechtheus. 
The inhabitants were previously called Cranai and Cecropida), 
from Cecrops, who, according to tradition, was the original 
founder of the city. This at first occupied only the hill or rock 
which afterwards became the Acropolis ; but gradually the 
buildings began to spread over the ground at the sowthern foot 
of this hill. It was not till the time of Pisistratus and his 
sons (b.c. 560—514) that the city began to assume any degree 
of splendour. The most remarkable building of these despots 
was the gigantic temple of the Olympian Jove, which, however. 



884 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIV. 

was not finished till many centuries later. In b.c. 500, the 
theatre of Dionysus was commenced on the south-eastern slope 
of the Acropolis, but was not completed till b.c. 340 ; though it 
must have been used for the representation of plays long before 
that period. 

§ 3. Xerxes reduced the ancient city almost to a heap of 
ashes. After the departure of the Persians, its reconstruction 
on a much larger scale was commenced under the superintend- 
ence of Themistocles, whose first care was to provide for its 
safety by the erection of walls. The Acropolis now formed the 
centre of the city, round which the new walls described an ir- 
regular circle of about 60 stadia, or 71^ miles in circumference. 
The new walls were built in great haste in consequence of the 
attempts of the Spartans to interrupt their progress ; but though 
this occasioned great irregularity in their structure, they were 
nevertheless firm and solid. The space thus enclosed formed 
the Astij,^ or city, properly so called. But the views of Themis- 
tocles were not confined to the mere defence of Athens : he 
contemplated making her a great naval power, and for this pur- 
pose adequate docks and arsenals were required. Previously the 
Athenians had used as their only harbour the open roadstead of 
Phalerum on the eastern side of the Phaleric bay, where the 
sea-shore is nearest to Athens. But Themistocles transferred 
the naval station of the Athenians to the peninsula of Piraeus, 
which is distant about 4 J miles from Athens, and contains three 
natural harbours — a large one on the western side, called simply 
PircEus, or The Harbour, and two smaller ones on the eastern 
side, called respectively Zea and MunycJiiay the latter being 
nearest to the city. Themistocles seems to have anticipated 
from the first that the port-town would speedily become as large 
a place as the Asty or city itself; for the walls which he built 
around the peninsula of Piraeus were of the same circumference 
as those of Athens, and were 14 or 15 feet thick. It was not, 
however, till the time of Pericles that Piraeus was regularly laid 
out as a town by the architect, Hippodamus of Miletus. It was 
also in the administration and by the advice of Pericles, but in 
pursuance of the policy of Themistocles, that the walls were 
built which connected Athens with her ports. These were at 
first the outer or northern Long Wall, which ran from Athens t» 
Piraeus, and the Phaleric wall connecting the city with Phalerum. 
These were commenced in b.c. 457, and finished in the following 
year. It was socv>> found, howp^er, that the space thus inclosed 
was too vast to ue easily defended ; and as the port of Phalerum 

* To 'Aarv. 



Chap. XXXIV. ITS GEXERAL APPEARANCK 



885 



was small and insignificant in comparison with the Pirzeus, and 
soon ceased to be used by the Athenian ships of war, its wall 
was abandoned and probably allowed to iall into decay. Its 
place was supplied by another Long Wall, which was built parallel 
to the first at a distance of only 550 feet, thus rendering both 
capable of being defended by the same body of men. The mag- 
nitude of these walls may be estimated from the fact that the 
foundations of the northern one, which may still be traced, are 
about 12 feet thick, and formed of large quadrangular blocks of 
stone. Their height in all probability was not less that 60 feet. 
In process of time the space between the two Long Walls was 
occupied on each side by houses. 

§ 4- It will be seen from the preceding description that Athens, 
in its larger acceptation, and nicluding its port, consisted of two 
circular cities, the Asty and Piraeus, each of about 7-|- miles in 
circumference, and joined together by a broad street of between 
4 and 5 miles long. Its first appearance.was by no means agree- 
able or striking. The streets were narrow and crooked, and the 
meanness of the private houses formed a strong contrast to the 




Athens and its Port-towns. 



A. The Asty. 

B. Piraeus. 

C. Munvoh in, citadel of PirtDUi. 

D. Pl)Hlenini. 

EE, FF. Ttie Long Wnlls ; EE, the Northern 
long wall ; FF, tha Southern wall. 



GO. The Phnleric Wall. 
H. Hnrhour of Pirwus. 
I. Plmleriv Bay. 
K. Harbour of MiinychU. 
L. Harbour of Z0.1. 



386 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIY. 

magnificence of the public buildings. None of the houses were 
more than one story high, which often projected over the street. 
They were for the most part constructed either of a framework 
of wood, or of unburnt bricks dried in the open air. The front 
towards the street had rarely any windows, and was usually 
nothing but a curtain wall covered with a coatmg of plaster. It 
was not till the Macedonian period, when pubhc spirit had de- 
cayed, that the Athenians, no longer satisfied with participating 
in the grandeur of the state, began to erect handsome private 
houses. Athens was badly drained, and scantily supplied with 
water. It was not hghted, and very few of the streets were 
paved.- Little care was taken to cleanse the city ; and it appears 
to have -been as dirty as the filthiest town of southern Europe in 
the present day. 

The population of Athens cannot be accurately ascertained. 
The population of the whole of Attica probably exceeded half a 
million, of whom, however, nearly four-fifths were slaves, and 
half the remainder metics, or resident aliens. The number of 
citizens — native males above the age of twenty, enjoying the 
franchise — was 20,000 or 21,000. The population resident in 
Athens itself has been variously estimated at from 120,000 to 
192,000 souls. 

§ 5. Such was the outward and material form of that city, which 
during the brief period comprised in our present book reached 
the highest pitch of military, artistic, and hterary glory. The 
progress of the first has been already traced, and it is to the last 
two subjects that we are now to devote our attention. The 
whole period contemplated embraces about 80 years, the middle 
portion of which, or that comprised under the ascendency of 
Pericles, exliibits Athenian art in its highest state of perfection, 
and is therefore by way of excellence commonly designated as 
the age of Pericles. The generation which preceded, and that 
which followed the time of that statesman, also exhibit a high 
degree of excellence ; but in the former perfection had not yet 
attained its full development, and in the latter we already begm 
to observe traces of incipient decline. The progress both of 
poetry and of the plastic arts during this epoch is strikingly 
similar. The great principle that pervaded all was a lively and 
truthful imitation of nature, but nature of an ideal and elevated 
stamp. Epic poetry and the ode give place to a more accurate 
and striking rendering of nature by means of dramatic repre- 
sentations ; whilst sculpture presents us not only with more 
graceful forms, but with more of dramatic action in the ar- 
rangement of its groups. In this latter respect, however, the 
age was probably excelled by the succeeding one of Scopas 



CflAP. XXXIV. BEST PERIOD OF ATHENIAN ART. 387 

and Praxiteles. The process by which Athenian genius freed 
itself from the trammels of ancient stifiiiess, is as visible in the 
tragedies of ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, as in the pro- 
ductions of the great masters of the plastic arts during the same 
period. In the dramas of /Eschylus majesty and dignity are 
not unmixed with a rigid and archaic simplicity, which also 
marks the works of the contemporary sculptors. In the next 
generation, during the time of Pericles, we find this character- 
istic giving place to the perfection of grace and sublimity united, 
as in the tragedies of Sophocles and in the statues of Phidias. 
Art could not be carried higher. In the next step we find 
equal truthfulness and grace ; but the former had lost its ideal 
and elevated character, and the latter was begmning to degene- 
rj-te into over-refinement and afiectation. Such are the examples 
oTered by the plays of Euripides, and by the sculptures of Myron 
and Polycletus. In like manner, v/ith regard to architecture, 
the- Parthenon, erected in the time of Pericles, presents the most 
exquisite example of the Doric style in the happiest medium 
between antique heaviness and the slender weakness of later 
monuments. Painting also, in the hands of Polynotus, attained 
its highest excellence in the grace and majesty of single figures. 
But painting is a complicated art ; and the mechanical improve- 
ments in perspective, light and shade, grouping, and compo- 
sition in general, afterwards introduced by Apolloddrus and 
Zeuxis, and still later by Apelles, imdoubtedly brought the art 
to a greater degree of perfection. 

^ 6. Among the artists of this period the sculptors stand out 
prominently. In general the eminent sculptors of tliis period also 
possessed not only a theoretical knowledge, but frequently great 
practical skill in the sister arts of painting and architecture. 

One of the earliest sculptors of note was Agcladas of Argos, 
whose fame at present chiefly rests on the circumstance of his 
having been the master of Phidias, Myron, and Polycletus. He 
was probably born about B.C. 540, so that he must have been an 
old man when Phidias became his pupil. Another distinguished 
statuary and painter among the immediate predecessors of Phi- 
dias was Onatas, an -S^ginetan, who flourished down to the 
year b.c. 4G0. His merit as a painter appears from the fact 
that he was employed, in conjunction with Polygndtus, to deco- 
rate with paintmgs a temple at Plataea. 

Contemporary with these elder masters of the best period of 
Greek art were Hegias, Canachus, Calamis, and others. The 
somewhat stifl" and archaic style which distinguislicd their pro- 
ductions from those of Phidias and liis school was preserved even 
by some artists who flourished at the same time with Phidias ; 



388 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXIV. 

as, for instance, by Praxias and Androsthenes, who executed some 
of the statuary which adorned the temple of Delphi. 

^7. Phidias is the head of the new school. He was bom 
about 490 B.C., began to flourish about 460, and died just before 
the breaking out of the Pelopomiesian war in 432. He seems to 
have belonged to a family of artists, and to have first turned his 
attention towards pamting. He was the pupil, as we have said, 
of Ageladas, and probably of Hegias ; and his great abilities were 
developed in executing or superintending the works of art with 
which Athens was adorned during the administration of Pericles. 
He went to Elis about B.C. 437, where he executed his famous 
statue of the Olympian Jove. He returned to Athens about 434, 
and shortly afterv\'ards fell a victim to the jealousy against his 
friend and patron, Pericles, which was then at its height ; and, 
though he was acquitted on the charge of peculation, he was con- 
demned on that of impiety, for having introduced his own like- 
ness, as well as that of Pericles, among the figures in the battle of 
the Amazons, sculptured on the shield of Athena. He was in con- 
sequence thrown into prison, where he shortly afterwards died. 

The chief characteristic of the works of Phidias is ideal 
beauty of the sublimest order, especially in the representation 
of divinities and their worship. He entirely emancipated him- 
self from the stiffness which had hitherto marked the archaic 
school, but without degenerating into that almost meretricious 
grace which began to corrupt art in the hands of some of his 
successors. His renderings of nature had nothing exaggerated 
or distorted : all was marked by a noble dignity and repose. 
We shall speak of his works when we come to describe the 
buildings which contained them. 

§ 8. Among the most renowned sculptors contemporary with 
Phidias were Polycletus and Myron. There were at least two 
sculptors of the name of Polycletus ; but it is the elder one of 
whom we here speak, and who was the more famous. He seems 
to have been born at Sicyon, and to have become a citizen of 
Argos. The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but he was 
rather younger than Phidias, and flourished probably from about 
452 to 412 B.C. Of his personal history we know absolutely 
nothing. The art of Polycletus was not of so ideal and elevated 
a character as that of Phidias. The latter excelled in statues 
of gods, Polycletus in those of men ; but in these he reached so 
great a pitch of excellence that on one occasion, when several 
artists comi^i^ed in the statue of an Amazon, he was adjudged 
to have carried away the palm from Phidias. The greatest of 
his works was the ivory and gold statue of Hera in her temple 
between Argos and Mycense, which always remained the ideal 



Chap. XXXIV. SCULPTURE AND PAINTING. 389 

model of the queen of the gods, as Phidias's statue at OljTnpia 
was considered the most perlect image of the king of heaven. 

Myron, also a contemporary and fellow-pupil of Phidias, was 
a native of Eleutherse, a town on the borders of Attica and 
Boeotia. He seems to have been younger than Phidias, and 
was probably longer in attaining excellence, since he flourished 
about the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. He excelled 
in representing the most difficult, and even transient, postures 
of the body, and his works were marked by great variety and 
versatility. He appears to have been the first eminent artist 
who devoted much attention to the figures of animals, and one 
of his statues most celebrated in antiquity was that of a cow. 
It was represented as lowing, and stood on a marble base in the 
centre of one of the largest open places in Athens, where it was 
still to be seen in the time of Cicero, but was subsequently re- 
moved to Rome. This, as well as most of his other works, was 
in bronze. He excelled in representing youthful athletse ; and 
a celebrated statue of his, of which several copies are still extant, 
was the discobolus, or quoit-player. 

k 9, The ait of painting was developed later than that of 
sculpture, of which it seems to have been the offspring, and in 
its earlier period to have partaken very closely of the statuesque 
character. The ancient Greek paintings were either in water 
colours or in wax : oil colours appear to have been unknown. 
"VVe have already given some account of the rudiments of the 
art among the Greeks.^ The first Grecian painter of any great 
renown was Polygnotus, who was contemporary M'ith Phidias, 
though probably somewhat older. He was a native of Thasos, 
whence he was, in all probabiHty, brought by his friend and 
patron Cunon, when he subjugated that island in B.C. 463. At 
that period he must at least have been old enough to have 
earned the celebrity which entitled him to Cimon's patronage. 
He subsequently became naturalized at Athens, where he pro- 
bably died about the year 426 B.C. His chief works in Athens 
were executed in adorning those buildings which were erected 
in the time of Cimon ; as the temple of Theseus, and the Poecile 
Stoa, or Painted Colonnade. His paintings were essentially sta- 
tuesque — the representation by means of colours on a flat sur- 
face of figures similar to those of the sculptor. But the improve- 
ments which he introduced on the works of his predecessors 
were very marked and striking, and form an epoch in the art. 
He first depicted the open mouth, so as to show the teetli, and 
varied the expression of the countenance from its ancient stiii- 

* See p. 150. 



390 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXIY. 

ness. He excelled in representing female beauty and com- 
plexion, and introduced graceful, flowing draperies, in place of 
the hard stiff lines by which they had been previously depicted. 
He excelled in accuracy of drawnig, and in the nobleness, grace, 
and beauty of his figures, w^liich were not mere transcripts from 
nature, but had an ideal and elevated character. His master- 
pieces were executed in the Lesclie (inclosed court or hall for 
conversation) of the Cnidians at Delphi, the subjects of which 
were taken lirom the cycle of epic poetry. In these there seems 
to have been no attempt at perspective, and names were aflixed 
to the different figures. 

^10. Painting reached a further stage of excellence in the 
hands of Apollodorus, Zeuxis, and Parrhasius, the only other 
artists whom we need notice during this period. Apollodorus 
was a native of Athens, and first directed attention to the eflect 
of light and shade in painting, thus creating another epoch in 
the art. His immediate successors, or rather contemporaries, 
Zeuxis and Parrhasius, brought the art to a still greater degree 
of perfection. Neither the place nor date of the birth of Zeuxis 
can be accurately ascertained, though he was probably born about 
455 B.C., since thirty years after that date we find him practising 
his art with great success at Athens. He was patronised by 
Archelaiis, king of Macedonia, and spent some time at his court. 
He must also have visited Magna Grsecia, as he painted his 
celebrated picture of Helen for the city of Croton. He acquired 
great wealth by his pencil, and was very ostentatious in display- 
ing it. He appeared at Olympia in a magnificent robe, having 
his name embroidered in letters of gold ; and the same vanity is 
also displayed in the anecdote that, after he had reached the sum- 
miit of his fame, he no longer sold, but gave away, his pictures, 
as being above all price. "With regard to his style of art, single 
figures were his favourite subjects. He could depict gods or 
heroes with sufficient majesty, but he particularly excelled in 
painting the softer graces of female beauty. In one important 
respect he appears to have degenerated from the style of Poly- 
gndtus, his idealism being rather that oifwni than of character 
and ex-prcssion. Thus his style is analogous to that of Euripides 
in tragedy. He was a great master of colour, and his paintings 
were sometimes so accurate and life-like as to amount to illusion. 
This is exemplified in the story told of him and Parrhasius. As 
a trial of skill, these artists painted two pictures. That of Zeuxis 
represented a bunch of grapes, and was so naturally executed 
that the birds came and pecked at it. After this proof, Zeuxis, 
confident of success, called upon his rival to draw aside the cur- 
tain which concealed his picture. But the painting of Parrhasius 



'Chap. XXXIV. MONUMENTS OF CIMON. 391 

was the curtain itself, and Zeuxis was now obliged to acknow- 
ledge himself vanquished ; for, though he had deceived birds, 
Parrhasius had deceived the author of the deception. Whatever 
may be the historical value of this tale, it at least shows the 
high reputation which both artists had acquired for the natural 
representation of objects. But many of the pictures of Zeuxis 
also displayed great dramatic power. He worked very slowly 
and carefully, and he is said to have replied to somebody who 
blamed him for his slowness, "It is true I take a long time to 
^aint, but then I paint works to last a longtime." His master- 
piece was the picture of Helen, already mentioned. 

Parrhasius was a native of Ephesus, but his art was chiefly 
exercised at Athens, where he was presented with the right of 
citizenship. His date cannot be accurately ascertained, but he 
was probably rather younger than his contemporar5% Zeuxis, and 
it is certain that he enjoyed a high reputation before the death 
of Socrates. The style and degree of excellence attained by 
Parrhasius appear to have been much the same as those of 
Zeuxis. He was particularly celebrated for the accuracy of his 
drawing, and the excellent proportions of his figures. For these 
he established a canon, as Phidias had done in sculpture for gods, 
and Polycletus for the human figure ; whence Gluintilian calls 
him the legislator of his art. His vanity seems -to have been as 
remarkable as that of Zeuxis. Among the most celebrated of his 
works was a portrait of the personified Athenian Demos, which is 
said to have miraculously expressed even the most contradictory 
qualities of that many-headed personage. 

The excellence attained during this period by the great mas- 
ters in the higher walks of sculpture and painting was, as may 
be well supposed, not without its influence on the lower grades 
of art. This is particularly visible in the ancient painted vases, 
which have been preserved to us in such numbers, the paintings 
on which, though of course the productions of an inferior class 
of artists, show a marked improvement, both in design and exe- 
cution, after the time of Polygnotus. 

§11. Having thus taken a brief survey of the progress of 
sculpture and painting in the hands of the most eminent masters, 
we now turn to contemplate soma of the chief buildings which 
they were employed to adorn. 

The first public monuments that arose after the Persian wars 
were erected under the auspices of Cimon, who was, like Pericles, 
a lover and patron of the arts. The principal of these were the 
small Ionic temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory), the 
Theseum, or temple of Theseus, and the Poecile Stoa. The 
temple of Nike Apteros was only 27 feet in length by IS in 



S92 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIV. 

breadth, and was erected on the Acropohs in commemoration 
of Cimon's victory at the Eur^inedon. It was still in existence 
in the year 1676, but it was subsequently destroyed by the Turks 
in order to form a batter)^ Its remains were discovered in 1835, 
and it was rebuilt with the original materials. A view of it is 
given on p. 216, and its position on the Acropohs, on one side 
of the Propylaea, is seen in the .drawings on pp. 265 and 273. 
Four slabs of its sculptured frieze, found in a neighbouring wall, 
are now in the British Museum. 

The Theseum is situated on a height to the north of the 
Areopagus, and was built to receive the bones of Theseus, which 
Cimon brought from Sc}tos in B.C. 469 . It was probably finished 
about 465, and is the best preserved of all the monuments of 
ancient Athens. (See drawing on p. 239.) It was at once a 
tomb and temple, and possessed the privileges of an asylum. It 
is of the Doric order, 104 feet in length by 45 feet broad, and 
surrounded with columns, of which there are 6 at each front, 
and 13 at the sides, reckoning those at the angles twice. The 
cella is 40 feet in length. It is not therefore by its size, but by 
•its symmetr)'', that it impresses the beholder. The eastern front 
was the principal one, since all its metopes, together with the 
four adjoinmg ones on either side, are sculptured, whilst all the 
rest are plain. • The sculptures, of which the subjects are the 
exploits of Hercules and Theseus, have sustained great injurj'", 
though the temple itself is nearly perfect. The figures in the 
pediments have entirely disappeared, and the metopes and frieze 
have been greatly mutilated. The relief is bold and salient, and 
the sculptures, both of the metopes and friezes, were painted, 
and still preserve remains of the colours. There are casts from 
some of the finest portions of them in the British Museum. The 
st}4e exhibits a striking advance on that of the jEgmetsm marbles, 
and forms a coimecting link between them and the sculptures 
of the Parthenon. The Pcecile Stoa, which ran along one side of 
the Agora, or market-place, was a long colonnade formed by 
columns on one side and a wall on the other, against which were 
placed the paintings, which were on panels.* 

M2. But it was the Acropolis which was the chief centre of 
the architectural splendour of Athens. After the Persian wars 
the Acropolis had ceased to be inhabited, and was appropriated 
to the worship of Athena, and the other guardian deities of the 
city. It was covered with the temples of gods and heroes ; and 
thus its platform presented not only a sanctuary, but a museum, 
containing the finest productions of the architect and the sculptor, 

* Hence its name of Poecile {ttoiki?.?}, variegated or painted). 



Chap. XXXIV. 



THE PROPYL^A. 



S93 




Plan of the Acropolis. 



1. Parthenon. 

2. Erechtheur 



3. Propylsea. 

4. Temfjle of Nike Apte 



Statue of Athena Promachug. 



in which the whiteness of the marhle was reheved by brilhant 
colours, and rendered still more dazzling by the transparent 
clearness of the Athenian atmosphere. It was surrounded with 
walls, and the surface seems to have been divided into terraces 
conununicating with one another by steps. The only approach to 
it was from the Agora on its western side. At the top of a mag- 
iiifi cent flight of marble steps, 70 feet broad, stood the Propyla3a,^ 
constructed under the auspices of Pericles, and which served as 
a suitable entrance to the exquisite works within. The Pro- 
pylaea were themselves one of the masterpieces of Athenian art. 
They were entirely of Pentelic marble, and covered the whole of 
the western end of the Acropolis, having a breadth of 168 feet. 
They were erected by the architect Mnesicles, at a cost of 2000 
talents, or 460,000/. The central portion of them consisted of 
two hexastyle porticoes, of which the western one faced the city, 
and the eastern one the interior of the Acropolis. Each portico 
consisted of a front of six fluted Doric columns, 4^ feet in 
diameter, and nearly 29 feet in height, supporting a jiediment. 
The central part of the building just described was 58 feet in 
breadth, but the remaining breadth of the rock at this point was 
covered by two wings, which projected 26 feet in front of the 
western portico. Each of these wings was in the form of a Doric 
temple. The northern one, or that on the left of a person ascend- 
ing the Acropolis, was called the Pinacotheca, from its walls being 
covered with paintings. The southern wing consisted only of a 
porch or open gallery. Immediately before its western front 



JIpoTTiJ/laia. 



394 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXIV. 

stood the little temple of Nike Apteros already mentioned. (See 
drawing on p. 273.) 

M3. On passing through the Propylaea all the glories of the 
Acropolis became visible. The chief building was the Parthenon,^ 
the most perfect production of Grecian architecture. It de- 
rived its name from its being the temple of Athena Parthenos,t 
or Athena the Virgin, the invincible goddess of war. It was also 
called Hecatom'pedon, from its breadth of 100 feet. It was built 
under the administration of Pericles, and was completed in B.C. 
438. The architects were Ictinus and Callicrates ; but, as we 
have said, the general superintendence of the building was in- 
trusted to Phidias. The Parthenon stood on the highest part of 
the Acropolis, near its centre, and probably occupied the site of 
an earlier temple destroyed by the Persians. It was entirely 
of Pentelic marble, on a rustic basement of ordinary limestone, 
and its architecture, which was of the Doric order, was of the 
purest kind. Its dimensions, taken from the upper step of the 
stylobate, were about 228 feet in length, 101 feet in breadth, 
and 66 feet in height to the top of the pediment. It consisted 
of a cella, surrounded by a peristile, which had 8 columns at 
either front, and 17 at either side (reckoning the corner columns 
twice), thus containing 46 columns in all. These columns were 
6 feet 2 inches in diameter at the base, and 34 feet in height. 
The cella was divided into two chambers of unequal size, the 
eastern one of which was about 98 feet long, and the western 
one about 43 feet. The ceiling of both these chambers was sup- 
ported by rows of columns. The whole building was adorned 
with the most exquisite sculptures, executed by various artists 
under the direction of Phidias. These consisted of, 1. The sculp- 
tures in the tympana of the pediments {i.e. the inner portion of 
the triangular gable ends of the roof above the two porticoes), 
each of which was filled with about 24 colossal figures. The 
group in the eastern or principal front represented the birth of 
Athena from the head of Jove, and the western the contest 
between Athena and Poseidon for the land of Attica. An en- 
graving ojf one of the figures in the pediments is given on 
p. 296. 2. The metopes between the triglyphs in the frieze of 
the entablature {i.e. the upper of the two portions into which 
the space between the columns and the roof is divided) were 
filled with sculptures in high relief, representing a variety of 
subjects relating to Athena herself, or to the indigenous heroes 
of Attica. Each tablet was 4 feet 3 inches square. Those on 
the south side related to the battle of the Athenians with the_ 

* na^£vwv, i.e., House of th« Virgin. f 'Adrjvd nugdevo^. 



Chap. XXXIV. THE PARTHENON. 3% 

Centaurs. One of the metopes is figured on p. 321. 3. The 
frieze which ran along outside the wall of the cella, and within 
the external columns which surround the building, at the same 
height and parallel with the metopes, was sculptured with a 
representation of the Panathenaic festival in very low relief 
Tiiis frieze was 3 feet 4 inches in height, and 520 feet in length. 
A small portion of the frieze is figured on p. 306. A large num- 
ber of the slabs of the frieze, together with sixteen metopes 
from the south side, and several of the statues of the pediments, 
were brought to England by Lord Elgin, of whom they were 
purchased by the nation and deposited in the British Museum. 
The engraving on p. 285 represents the restored western front of 
the Parthenon. 

^ 14. But the chief wonder of the Parthenon was the colossal 
statue of the Virgin Goddess executed by Phidias himself, which 
stood in the eastern or principal chamber of the cella. It was 
of the sort called chryseiepluiJitine,^ a kind of work said to have 
been invented by Phidias. Up to this time colossal statues not 
of bronze were acroliths, that is, having only the face, hands, and 
feet of marble, the rest being of wood, concealed by real drapery, 
Bat, in the statue -of Athena, Phidias substituted ivory for marble 
in those parts which were uncovered, and supplied the place of 
the real drapery with robes and other ornaments of solid gold. 
Its height, including the base, was 26 cubits, or nearly 40 feet. 
It represented the goddess standing, clothed with a tunic reach- 
ing to the ankles, with a spear m her left hand, and an image 
of Victory, 4 cubits high, in her right. She was girded with 
the aegis, and had a helmet on her head, and her shield rested 
on the ground by her side. The eyes were of a sort of marble 
resembling ivory, and were perhaps painted to represent the 
iris and the pupil. The weight of solid gold employed in the 
statue was, at a medium statement, 44 talents, and was remov- 
able at pleasure. 

The Acropolis was adorned with another colossal figure of 
Athena in bronze, also the work of Phidias. It stood in the 
open air, nearly opposite the Propylai, and was one of the first 
objects seen after passing through the gates of the latter. "With 
its pedestal it must have stood about 70 feet high, and conse- 
quently towered above the roof of the Parthenon, so that the 
point of its spear and the crest of its helmet were visible olF the 
promontory of Sunium to ships approaching Athens. It was 
called the " Athena Promachus,"t because it represented the 
goddess armed, and in the very attitude of battle. It was still 

* i.ff., of gold and ivory, from xQ'^<yov^i golden, and DuCcpdvTivo^, of ivory. 
\ Trqofiaxo^, the Defender. 



396 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIV. 

standing in a.d. 395, and is said to have scared away Alaric when 
he came to sack the Acropohs. In the annexed coin the statue 
of Athena Promachus and the Parthenon are represented on the 
summit of the Acropohs : below is the cave of Pan, with a flight 
of steps leading up the top of the Acropohs. 




Coin showing the Parthenon, Athena Promachus, and the Cave of Paa. 

§ 15. The only other monument on the summit of the Acro- 
polis which it is necessary to describe is the Erechtheum, or 
temple of Erechtheus. The Erechtheum was the most revered of 
all the sanctuaries of Athens, and was closely connected with the 
earliest legends of Attica. The traditions respecting Erechtheus 
vary, but according to one set of them he was identical with 
the god Poseidon. He was worshipped in his temple under the 
name of Poseidon Erechtheus, and from the earliest times was 
associated with Athena as one of the two protecting deities of 
Athens. The original Erechtheum was burnt by the Persians, but 
the new temple was erected on the ancient site. This could not 
have been othervidse ; for on this spot was the sacred olive-tree 
which Athena evoked from the earth in her contest with Posei- 
don, and also the well of salt-water which Poseidon produced by 
a stroke of his trident, the impression of which was seen upon 
the rock. The building was also called the temple of Athena 
Polias, because it contained a separate sanctuary of the goddess, 
as well as her most ancient statue. The building of the new 
Erechtheum was not commenced till the Parthenon and Propylsea 
were finished, and probably not before the year preceding the 
breaking out of the Peloponnesian war. Its progress was no 
doubt delayed by that event, and it was probably not completed 
before 393 b.c. When finished it presented one of the finest 
models of the Ionic order, as the Parthenon was of the Doric. 
It stood to the north of the latter building, and close to the 
northern wall of the Acropolis. The form of tho Erechtheum 
differs from every known example of a Grecian temple. Usually 



Chap. XXXIY. ERECHTHEUM. DIONYSIAC THEATER 397 

a Grecian temple was an oblong figure with a portico at each 
extremity. The Erechtheum, on the contrary, though oblong in 
shape, and having a portico at the eastern or principal front, had 
none at its western end, where, however, a portico projected 
north and south from either side, thus forming a kind of tran- 
sept. This irregularity seems to have been chiefly owing to the 
necessity of preserving the different sanctuaries and religious 
objects belonging to the ancient temple. A view of it from the 
north-west angle is given on p. 381. The roof of the southern 
portico, as shown in the view, was supported by six Carj^atides, 
or figures of young maidens m long draperies, one of which is 
figured on p. 357. 

Such were the principal objects which adorned the Acropohs 
at the time of which we are now speaking. Their general ap- 
pearance will be best gathered from the engraving on p. 265. 

M6. Before quitting the city of Athens, there are two or 
three other objects of interest which must be briefly described. 
First, the Dionysiac theatre, which, as already stated, occupied 
the slope at the south-eastern extremity of the Acropohs. The 
middle of it was excavated out of the rock, and the rows of seats 
ascended in curves one above another, the diameter increasing 
with the height. It was no doubt sufficiently large to accom- 
modate the whole body of Athenian citizens, as well as the 
strangers who flocked to Athens during the Dionysiac festival, 
but its dimensions cannot now be accurately ascertained. It 
had no roof, but the spectators were probably protected from 
the sun by an awning, and from their elevated seats they had a 
distinct view of the sea, and of the peaked hills of Salamis in 
the horizon. A representation of this theatre viewed from below 
is given on a brass coin of Athens. The seats for the spectators 
are distinctly seen ; and on the top, the Parthenon in the centre, 
with the Propylsea on the left. 




Theatre of Dionysus, IVom coin. 



398 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chat. XXXIV. 

Close to the Dionysiac theatre on the east was the Odeum of 
Pericles, a smaller kind of theatre, which seems to have been 
chiefly designed for the rehearsal of musical performances. It 
was covered vdth a conical roof, like a tent, in order to retain 
the sound, and in its original state was perhaps actually covered 
with the tent of Xerxes. It served as a refuge for the audience 
when driven out of the theatre by rain, and as a place for training 
the chorus. 

The Areopagus* was a rocky height opposite the western end 
of the Acropolis, from which it was separated only by gome 
hollow ground. It derived its name from the tradition that 
Ares was brought to trial here before the assembled gods, by 
Poseidon, for murdering Halirrhothius, the son of the latter. 
It was here that the Council of Areopagus met, frequently called 
the Upper Council, to distinguish it from the Council of Five 
Hundred, which assembled m the valley below. The Areopagites 
sat as judges in the open air, and two blocks of stone are still 
to be seen, probably those which, according to the description of 
Euripides,! were occupied respectively by the accuser and the 
accused. The Areopagus was the spot where the Apostle Paul 
preached to the men of Athens. At the south-eastern corner of 
the rock is a wide chasm leading to a gloomy recess, containing 
a fountain of very dark water. This was the sanctuary of the 
Eumenides, called by the Athenians the SeTunceX or Venerable 
Goddesses. 

The Pnyx, or place for holding the public assemblies of the 
Athenians, stood on the side of a low rocky hill, at the distance 
of about a quarter of a mile from the Areopagus. 

Between the Pnyx on the west, the Areopagus on the north . 
and the Acropolis on the east, and closely adjoining the base 0/ 
these hills, stood the Agora (or market-place.) Its exact bound- 
aries cannot be determined. The Stoa Poecile, already described, 
ran along the western side of it, and consequently between it and 
the Pnyx. In a direction from north-west to south-east a street 
called the Ceramicus ran diagonally through the Agora, entering 
it through the valley between the Pnyx and the Areopagus. 
The street was named after a district of the city, which was 
divided into two parts, the Inner and Outer Ceramicus. The 
former lay within the city walls, and included the Agora. Tho 
Outer Ceramicus, which formed a handsome suburb on the 
north-west of the city, was the burial-place of all persons ho- 
noured with a pubhc funeral. Through it ran the road to the 

* (S 'kgeLog nuyo^y or Hill of Ares (Mars). f Iphig. Taur. 961. 

\ at 'Zefivac. 



Chap. XXXIV. STATUE OF THE OLYMPIAX JOVE. 399 

gymnasium and gardens of the Academy, which were situated 
about a mile from the walls. The Academy was the place where 
Plato and his disciples taught. On each side of this road were 
monuments to illustrious Athenians, especially those who had 
fallen in battle. 

East of the cit)% and outside the walls, was the Lyceum, a 
g}TTinasium dedicated to Apollo Lyceus, and celebrated as tho 
place in which Aristotle taught. 

^17. Space will allow us to advert only very briefly to two of 
the most distinguished monuments of the art of this period out 
of Attica. These are the temple of Jove at Olympia, and the 
temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassse, near Phigalia in Arcadia. 
The former, built with the spoils of Pisa, was finished about the 
year 435. It was of the Doric order, 230 feet lon^r by 95 broad. 
There are still a few remains of it. We havo already adverted to 
the circumstance of Phidias being engaged by the E leans to exe- 
cute some of the works here. His statue of the Olympian Jove 
was reckoned his masterpiece, and one of the wonders of the 
world. The idea which he essayed to embody in this work was 
that of the supreme deity of the Hellenic nation, enthroned as a 
conqueror, in perfect majesty and repose, and ruling with a nod 
the subject world. The statue was about 40 feet high, on a 
pedestal of 12 feet. The throne was of cedar- wood, adorned with 
gold, ivory, ebony, precious stones, and colours. The god held 
in his right hand an ivor)^ and gold statue of Victory, and in his 
left a sceptre, ornamented with all sorts of metals, and sur- 
mounted by an eagle. The robe which covered the lower part 
of the figure, as well as the sandals, was of gold. After the com- 
pletion of the statue, Jove is related to have struck the pavement 
in front of it with lightning in token of approbation. 

§18. The Doric temple of Apollo near Phigalia was built by 
Ictinus, and finished about 430 b.c. It was 125 feet long by 
47 broad. The frieze of this temple, which is preserved in the 
British Museum, represents in alto-rilievo the combat of the 
Centaurs and Amazons, with Apollo and Artemis hastening 
to the scene in a chariot drawn by stags. The sculpture by no 
means equals that of the Parthenon, or even of the Theseum. 
The figures are short and fleshy. Some of the groups evidently 
indicate the influence of Attic art, and especially an imitation of 
the sculptures of the Theseum ; but in general they may be re- 
garded as affording a standard of the difference between Athe- 
nian and Pelopomiesian art at this period. 





Melpomene, the Muse of Tragedy. 



Thalia, the Muse of Comedy. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

fflSTORY OF ATHENIAN LITERATURE DOWN TO THE END OF THE 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 



§ 1. Characteristics of the early literature of Athens. § 2. Origin of the 
drama. § 3. Introduction of the drama at Athens. Susarion, Thespis, 
Phrynichus, Pratinas. § 4. ^schylus. § 5. Sophocles. § 6. Euripides. 
§ 1. Athenian comedy. Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes. § 8. Prose 
writers of the period. Thucydides. § 9. Xenophon. § 10. Athenian 
education. § 11. Rhetors and sophists. § 12. Life of Socrates. § 13. 
How he differed from the sophists. § 14. Enmity against him. § 15. 
His impeachment, trial, and death. 

§ 1. Although the lonians were one of the most intellectual of 
the Grecian races, we have had as yet little occasion to mention 
the Athenians in the literary history of Greece. In this path they 
were at first outstripped by their colonists in Asia Minor. The 
^Asiatic Greeks, settled in a fertile and luxurious country, amongst 
a race wealthier but far inferior to themselves, soon found those 
means of ease and leisure which, to a certain degree at least, 
seem necessary to the development of intellectual culture ; 
whilst at the same time their kinsmen in Attica were struggling 
for a bare existence, and were often hard pressed by the sur- 



CuAP. XXXV. ORIGIN OF THE DRAMA. 401 

rounding tribes. It was not till the time of Pisistratus and his 
sons that we behold the first dawn of literature at Athens. But 
this literature was of an exotic growth ; the poets assembled at 
the court of the Pisistratids were mostly foreigners ; and it was 
only after the fall of that dynasty, and the estabhshment of more 
liberal institutions at Athens, that we find the native genius 
shooting forth with vigour. 

It was probably the democratic nature of their new consti- 
tution, combined with the natural vivacity of the people, which 
caused Athenian literature to take that dramatic form which 
pre-eminently distinguishes it. The democracy demanded a 
literature of a popular kind, the vivacity of the people a litera- 
ture that made a lively impression ; and both these conditions 
were fulfilled by the drama. 

§ 2. Though the drama was brought to perfection among the 
Athenians, it did not originate with them. Both tragedy and 
comedy, in their rude and early origin, were Dorian inventions. 
Both arose out of the worship of Dionysus. There was at first 
but little distinction between these two species of the drama, 
except that comedy belonged more to the rural celebration of the 
Dionysiac festivals, and tragedy to that in cities. The name of 
tragedy^ was far from signifying any thing mournful, being de- 
rived from the goat-like appearance of those who, disguised as 
satyrs, performed the old Dionysiac songs and dances. In like 
manner, comedy f was called after the song of the band of revel- 
lers, X who celebrated the vintage festivals of Dionysus, and 
vented the rude merriment inspired by the occasion in jibes and 
extempore witticisms levelled at the spectators. It was among 
the Megarians, both those in Greece and those in Sicily, whose 
political institutions were democratical, and who had a turn for 
rough humour, that comedy seems first to have arisen. It was 
long, however, before it assumed anything like a regular shape. 
Epicharmus appears to have been the first who moulded the 
wild and irregular Bacchic songs and dances into anything ap- 
proaching a connected fable, or plot. He was born at Cos, 
about B.C. 540, but spent the better part of his life at Syracuse. 
He wrote his comedies some years before the Persian war, and 
from the titles of them still extant it would appear that the 
greater part of them were travesties of heroic myths. They 
seem, however, to have contained an odd mixture of sententious 
wisdom and broad bufibonery, for Epicharmus was a Pythago- 
rean philosopher as well as a comic poet. 

* rgayifidia — literally " the goat-song.'* 
f K(jfi(f)6[a. \ Kujbioc. 



^02 HISTORY OF GR^EECR Chap. XXXV. 

^ 3. Comedy, in its rude and early state, was introduced into 
Attica long before the time of Epicharmus by Susarion, a native 
of Tripodiscus, in Megara. It was at Icaria, an Attic village 
noted for the worship of Dionysus, where Susarion had taken up 
his residence, that he first represented comedy, such as it then 
existed among the Megarians, in the year 578 b.c. The per- 
formances of Susarion took no root ; and we hear nothing more 
of comedy in Attica for nearly a hundred years. 

It was during this interval that tragedy was introduced into 
Attica, and continued to be successfully cultivated. "We have 
already observed that tragedy, like comedy, arose out of the 
worship of Dionysus ; but tragedy, in its more perfect form, 
* was the offspring of the dithyrambic odes with which that Avor- 
ship was celebrated. These were not always of a joyous cast. 
Some of them expressed the sufferings of Dionysus ; and it was 
from this more mournful species of dithyramb that tragedy, 
properly so called, arose. Arion introduced great improvements 
into the Dithyrambic odes.=^ They formed a kind of lyrical 
tragedy, and were sung by a chorus of fifty men, dancing round 
the altar of Dionysus. The improvements in the Dythyramb 
were introduced by Arion at Corinth ; and it was chiefly among 
the Dorian states of the Peloponnesus that these choral dithy- 
rambic songs prevailed. Hence, even in Attic tragedy, the chorus, 
which was the foundation of the drama, was written in the Doric 
dialect, thus clearly betraying the source from which the Athe- 
nians derived it. 

In Attica an important alteration was made in the old tragedy 
in the time of Pisistratus, in consequence of which it obtained 
a new and dramatic character. This innovation is ascribed to 
Thespis, a native of the Attic village of Icaria. It consisted in 
the introduction of an actor, for the purpose, it is said, of giving 
rest to the chorus. He probably appeared in that capacity him- 
self, taking various parts in the same piece by means of dis- 
guises effected by linen masks. Thus by his successive appear- 
ance in different characters, and by the dialogue which he main- 
tained with the chorus, or rather with its leader, a dramatic fable 
of tolerable complexity might be represented. The first repre- 
sentation given by Thespis was in 535 b.c. He was succeeded 
by Chcerilus and Phrynicus, the latter of whom gained his first 
prize in the dramatic contests in 511 B.C. He deviated from the 
hitherto established custom in making a contemporary event 
the subject of one of his dramas. His tragedy on the capture of 
Miletus was so pathetic that the audience were melted into 

* Seep. 182. 



Uhap. XXXV. ^SCHYLUS. 403 

tears ; but the subject was considered so ill-choscu that he was 
Hned a thousand drachmae.* Tlic only other dramatist whom 
we need mention beibre ^schylus is the Dorian Pratinas, a 
native of Phhus, but who exhibited his tragedies at Athens. 
Pratinas was one of the improvers of tragedy by separating 
the satyric from the tragic drama. As neither the popular 
taste nor the ancient religious associations connected with 
the festivals of Dionysus would have permitted the chorus of 
Sityrs to be entirely banished from the tragic representations, 
Pratinas avoided this by the invention of what is called the 
Satyric drama ; that is, a species of play in which the ordinary 
subjects of tragedy were treated in a lively and farcical man- 
ner, and in which the chorus consisted of a band of Satyrs in 
appropriate dresses and masks. After this period it became 
customary to exhit dramas in tetralogies, or sets of four ; 
namely, a tragic trilogy, or series of three tragedies, followed by 
a Satyric play. These were often on connected subjects ; and 
the Satyric drama at the end served like a merry after-piece to 
relieve the minds of the spectators. 

The subjects of Greek tragedy were taken, with few exceptions, 
from the national mythology. Hence the plot and story were 
of necessity known to the spectators, a circumstance which 
strongly distinguishes the ancient tragedy from the modern. It 
must also be recollected that the representation of tragedies 
did not take place every day, but only, after certain fixed inter- 
vals, at the festivals of Dionysus, of which they formed one of 
the greatest attractions. During the whole day the Athenian 
public sat in the theatre witnessing tragedy after tragedy ; and 
a prize was awarded by judges appointed for the purpose to the 
poet who produced the best set of dramas. 

sW. Such was Attic tragedy when it came into the hands of 
yEschylus, who, from the great improvements which he intro- 
duced, was regarded by the Athenians as its father or founder, 
just as Homer was of Epic poetry, and Herodotus of History. 
iEschylus was born at Eleusis in Attica in b.c. 525, and was thus 
contemporary with Simonides and Pindar. His father, Eupho- 
rion, may possibly have been connected with the worship of 
Demeter at Eleusis ; and hence, perhaps, were imbibed those 
religious impressions which characterized the poet through 
life. His first play was exhibited in b.c. 500, when he was 25 
years of age. He fought with his brother Cynajgirus at the 
battle of Marathon,! and also at those of Artemisium, Salamis, 
and Plata3a. In B.C. 484 he gained his first tragic prize. The 

* See p. 169. \ See p. 178. 



404 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXV 

first of his extant dramas, the PerscE, was not brought out till 
B.C. 472, when he gained the prize with the trilogy of which it 
formed one of the pieces. In 468 he was defeated in a tragic 
contest by his younger rival Sophocles ; shortly afterwards he 
retired to the court of king Hiero, at Syracuse. In 467 Hiero 
died ; and in 458 ^Eschylus must have returned to Athens, 
since he produced his trilogy of the Oresteia in that year. This 
trilogy, which was composed of the tragedies of the Agamemnon, 
the Clioephorce, and the Eumenides, is remarkable as the only one 
that has come down to us in any thing like a perfect shape. His 
defence of the Areopagus, however, contained in the last of these 
three dramas, proved unpalatable to the new and more demo- 
cratic generation which had now sprung up at Athens ; and 
either irom disappointment or fear of the consequences ^schy- 
lus again quitted Athens and retired once more to Sicily. On 
this occasion he repaired to Gela, where he died in B.C. 456, in 
the 6 9th year of his age. It is unanimously related that an eagle, 
mistaking the poet's bald head for a stone, let a tortoise fall 
upon it in order to break the shell, thus fulfilling an oracle pre- 
dicting that he was to die by a blow from heaven. After his 
death, his memory was held in high reverence at Athens. A 
decree was passed that a chorus should be provided at the public 
expense for any one who might wish to revive his tragedies ; and 
hence it happened that they were frequently reproduced upon 
the stage. 

The improvements introduced into tragedy by -Slschylus 
concerned both its form and composition, and its manner of 
representation. In the former his principal innovation was the 
introduction of a second actor ; whence arose the dialogue, pro- 
perly so called, and the limitation of the choral parts, which 
now became subsidiary. His improvements in the manner of 
representing tragedy consisted in the introduction of painted 
scenes, drawn according to the rules of perspective, for which 
he availed himself of the pictorial skill of Agatharchus. He 
furnished the actors with more appropriate and more mag- 
nificent dresses, invented for them more various and expres- 
sive masks, and raised their stature to the heroic size by pro- 
viding them with thick soled cothurni or buskins. He paid 
great attention to the choral dances, and invented several new 
figures.^ 

The genius of JEschylus inclined rather to the awful and sub- 

* " personse palla?qtie repertor honestse 

JEschylus, et modicis instravit pulpita tignis, 
Et docuit magnumque loqui, nitique cothurno." 

HoR., Ar. Poet. 278. 



Chap. XXXV. SOPHOCLES. 405 

lime than to the tender and pathetic. He excels in representing 
the superhuman, in depicting demigods and heroes, and in tracing 
the irresistible march of fate. His style resembles the ideas 
which it clothes. It is bold, sublime, and full of gorgeous 
imagery, but sometimes borders on the turgid. *= 

^ 5. Sophocles, the younger rival and immediate successor of 
JEschylus in the tragic art, was born at Colonus, a village about 
a mile from Athens, in B.C. 495. We know little of his family, 
except that his father's name was Sophilus ; but that he was 
carefully trained in music and g}^mnastics appears from the fact 
that in his sixteenth year he w..i chosen to lead, naked, and with 
lyre in hand, the chorus which danced round the trophy, and 
sang the hymns of triumph, on the occasion of the victory of 
Salamis (b.c. 480). We have already adverted to his wresting 
the tragic prize from ^Eschylus in 468, which seems to have 
been his first appearance as a dramatist. This event was ren- 
dered very striking by the circumstances under which it occurred. 
The Archon Eponymus had not yet appointed the judges of the 
approaching contest, respecting which public expectation and 
party feeling ran very high, when Cimon and his nine colleagues 
in command entered the theatre, having just returned from 
Scyros. After they had made the customary libations to Dio- 
nysus, the archon detained them at the altar and administered 
to them the oath appointed for the judges in the dramatic con- 
tests. Their decision, as we have said, was in favour of Sopho- 
cles. From this time forwards he seems to have retained the 
almost undisputed possession of the Athenian stage, until a 
young but formidable rival arose in the person of Euripides. 
In 440 we find Sophocles elected one of the 10 Strategi, of whom 
Pericles was the chief, to conduct the expedition against Samos ; 
an honour which he is said to have owed to his play of the 
Antigone, which was brought out in the spring of that year, and 
which is the earliest of his extant dramas. He was now 56 
years of age, yet his poetical life seemed only beginning. From 
this time to his death was the period of his greatest literary 
activity ; but of his personal history we have few details. He 
was one of the ten elders, or Frobouli, a sort of committee of 
public safety appointed by the Athenians after the fliilure of the 
Sicilian expedition, unless indeed the Sophocles mentioned ou 
that occasion by Thucydides be some other person. The close 



* ^Eschyhis is said to have written seventy tragedies ; but only seven 
are extant, which were probably represented in the following order ; the 
Persians, n.c. 472; the Seven against Thebes, B.C. 471 ; the Suppliants ; 
the Proynetheus ; the Agarncmnon, Choepltorce, and Eumenides, B.C. 468. 



406 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXV. 

of his life was troubled with family dissensions. lophon, his 
son by an Athenian wife, and therefore his legitimate heir, was 
jealous of the afiection manifested by his father for his grandson 
Sophocles, the offspring of another son, Ariston, whom he had 
had by a Sicyonian w^oman. Fearing lest his father should 
bestow a great part of his property upon his favourite, lophon 
summoned him before the Phratores, or tribesmen, on the ground 
that his mind was affected. The old man's only reply was — " If 
I am Sophocles I am not beside myself; and if I am beside 
myself I am not Sophocles." Then taking up his (Edipus at Co- 
lonus, which he had lately written, but had not yet brought out, 
he read from it the beautiful passage beginning — 

'E.vi'iTnov, ^£ve, rdade x^P^^S — 

with which the judges were so struck that they at once dis- 
missed the case. He died shortly afterwards in B.C. 406, in his 
90th year. 

As a poet Sophocles is univ^ersally allowed to have brought 
the drama to the greatest perfection of which it is susceptible. 
His plays stand in the just medium between the subhme but 
unregulated flights of iEschylus, and the too familiar scenes and 
rhetorical declamations of Euripides. His plots are worked up 
with more skill and care than the plots of either of his gi'eat 
rivals : that of the (Edipus Tyran^ius in particular is remarkable 
for its skilful devolopement, and for the manner in which the in- 
terest of the piece increases through each succeeding act. So- 
phocles added the last improvement to the form of the drama 
by the introduction of a third actor ; a change which greatly 
enlarged the scope of the action. The improvement Was so 
obvious that it was adopted by iEschylus in his later plays ; but 
the number of three actors seems to have been seldom or never 
exceeded. Sophocles also made considerable alterations in the 
choral parts, by curtailing the length of the songs, and by giving 
the chorus itself the character of an impartial spectator and 
judge, rather than that of a deeply interested party which it 
often assumes in the plays of ^schylus.* 

k 6. Euripides was born in the island of Salamis, in B.C. 480, 
his parents having been among those who fled thither at the 
time of the invasion of Attica by Xerxes. In early life he prac- 
tised painting with some success, but he devoted himself with 

* Sophocles is said to have written llY tragedies, but of these only 
seven are extant, which are to be ranked, probably, in the following 
ehronolocrical order: the Antigone, b.c. 440; JElectra ; Trachinice; 
(Edipus Tyr annus ; Ajax ; Philoctctes, B.C. 409; (Edipus at Colonus, 
brought out by the younger Sophocles b.c. 401. 



1 3 - ^^-^ 

Chap. XXXV. EURIPIDES. 407 

still more earnestness to philosophy and literature. He studied 
rhetoric under Prodicus, and physics under Anaxagoras, and also 
lived on intimate terms with Socrates. He is said to have written 
a tragedy at the age of 18 ; but the first play brought out in his 
own name was acted in B.C. 455, when he was 25 years of age. 
It was not, however, till 441 that he gained his first prize, and 
from this time he continued to exhibit plays until b.c. 408, the 
date of his Orestes. Soon after this he repaired to the court of 
Macedonia, at the invitation of King Archelaiis, where he died 
two years afterwards at the age of 74 (b.c. 406). Common re- 
port relates that he was torn to pieces by the king's dogs, which, 
according to some accounts, were set upon him by two rival 
poets out of envy. 

Euripides received tragedy perfect from the hands of his pre- 
decessors, and we do not find that he made any changes in its 
outward form. But he varied from them considerably in the 
poetical mode of handling it, and his mnovations in this respect 
were decidedly for the worse. He converted the prologue into a 
vehicle for the exposition of the whole plot, in which he not 
only informs the spectator of what has happened up to that 
moment, but frequently also of what the result or catastrophe 
will be. In his hands too the chorus grew feebler, and its odes 
less connected with the subject of the drama, so that they might 
frequently belong to any other piece just as well as to the one in 
which they were inserted. In treating his characters and subjects 
he often arbitrarily departed from the received legends, and di- 
minished the dignity of tragedy by depriving it of its ideal char- 
acter, and by bringing it down to the level of every day life. His 
dialogue was garrulous and colloquial, wanting in heroic dignity, 
and frequently frigid through misplaced philosophical disquisi- 
tions. Yet in spite of all these faults Euripides has many 
beauties, and is particularly remarkable for pathos, so that Aris- 
totle calls him " the most tragic of poets." Eighteen of the tra- 
gedies of Euripides are still extant, omitting the Rhesus, the 
genuineness of which there are good reasons for doubting. One 
of them, the CyclojJS, is particularly interesting as the only ex- 
tant specimen of the Greek satyric drama.^ 

k 7. Comedy was revived at Athens by Chionides and his con- 
temporaries, about B.C. 488 ; but it received its full development 

* The following is a list of his extant plays : the Alcestis, b.c. 438 ; 
Medea, 431 ; Hippolytus, 428 ; Hecuba, about 424 ; Heraclidce, about 421; 
Supplices, Ion, Hercules Furcns, Andrmnachc ; Troadrsi, 41.5; Elcctra ; 
Helena, 42.5 ; Iphigenia in Taurlx ; Orestes, 408 ; PhceniKSiP, BaccJun, and 
Iphigeiiia in Aulis were brouirht out after the death of Euripides hy liis 
son, the younger Euripides. The date of the Cyclops is quite uncertain. 



408 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXV. 

from Cratinus, who lived in the age of Pericles. Cratinus, and 
his younger contemporaries, Eupolis and Aristophanes, were 
the three great poets of what is called the Old Attic Comedy.* 
The comedies of Cratinus and Eupolis are lost ; but of Aristo- 
phanes, who was the greatest of the three, we have eleven dramas 
extant. Aristophanes was born about 444 B.C. Of his private 
life we know positively nothing. He exhibited his first comedy 
in 427, and from that time till near liis death, which probably 
happened about 380, he was a frequent contributor to the Attic 
stage, t 

The old Attic comedy was a powerful vehicle for the expres- 
sion of opinion ; and most of the comedies of Aristophanes, and 
those of his contemporaries likewise, turned either upon political 
occurrences, or upon some subject which excited the interest of 
the Athenian public. Their chief object was to excite laughter 
by the boldest and most ludicrous caricature ; and provided that 
end was attained the poet seems to have cared but little about 
the justice of the picture. A living historian has well remarked, 
" Never probably will the full and unshackled force of comedy 
be so exhibited again. Without having Aristophanes actually 
before us it would have been impossible to imagine the un- 
measured and unsparing licence of attack assumed by the old 
comedy upon the gods, the institutions, the politicians, philo- 
sophers, poets, private citizens, specially named — and even the 
women, whose life was entirely domestic — of Athens. With this 
universal liberty in respect of subject there is combined a 
poignancy of derision and satire, a fecundity of imagination and 
variety of turns, and a richness of poetical expression such as 
cannot be surpassed, and such as fully explains the admiration 
expressed for him by the philosopher Plato, who in other respects 
must have regarded him with unquestionable disapprobation. 
His comedies are popular in the largest sense of the word, ad- 
dressed to the entire body of male citizens on a day consecrated 
to festivity, and providing for their amusement or derision with 
a sort of drunken abundance, out of all persons or things stand- 
ing in any way prominent before the public eye.":!: In illustra- 
tion of the preceding remarks we may refer to the Knights of 
Aristophanes, as an example of the boldness of his attacks on one 

* Eupohs atque Cratinus Aristophanes(][ue poetae, 

Atque alii quoi'um comoedia prisca virorum est. 

HoR. Sat. i. 4. 
•j- The eleven extant dramas are ; the Acharnians, b.c. 425 ; Knightis, 
424 ; Clouds, 423 ; Wasps, 422 ; Peace, 419 ; Birds, 414 ; Lysistrata, 411 ; 
ThesmophoriazuscE, 411 ; Plutus, 408; Frogs, 405; Ecclesiazusee, 392. 
\ Grote's Hiit. of Greece, vol. viii. p. 460. 



Chap. XXXV. ARISTOPHANES. 409 

of the leading political characters of the day — the demagogue 
Cleon ; whilst the Clouds, in which Socrates is held up to ridi- 
cule, and the Thesmoplioriazusce and Frogs, containing slashing 
onslaughts on Euripides, show that neither the greatest philoso- 
phers nor the most popular poets were secure. Even Pericles 
himself is now and then bespattered with ridicule, and the aver- 
sion of the poet for the Peloponnesian war is shown in many of 
his dramas. From the nature of his plays it would be absurd, 
as some have done, to quote them gravely as historical autho- 
rity ; though, with due al'ov/ance for comic exaggeration, they no 
doubt afford a valuable comment on the politics, literature, and 
manners of the time. Nor can it be doubted that, imder all his 
bantering, Aristophanes often strove to serv^e the views of the 
old aristocratical party, of which he was an adherent. The more 
serious political remarks were commonly introduced into that 
part of the chorus called the i:)arahasis, when, the actors having 
left the stage, the choreutse turned round, ard, advancing to- 
wards the spectators, addressed them ?n the name of the poet. 
Towards the end of the career of Aristophanes the unrestricted 
licence and libellous personality of comedy began gradually to 
disappear. The chorus was first curtailed and then entirely sup- 
pressed, and thus made way for what is called the Middle Co- 
medy, which had no chorus at all. The Plutus of Aristophanes, 
which contains no political allusions, exhibits an approach to this 
phase. 

An extract from the Knights of Aristophanes will give some 
idea of the unmeasured invective in which the poet indulged. 
The chorus come upon the stage, and thus commence their attack 
upon Cleon : — 

Close around him, and confound bim, the confounder of iis all; 
Pelt bim, pummel him, and mau' him ; rummage, ransack, overliaul him, 
Overbear him and outbawl liim; bear him down, and bring him under. 
Bellow like a burst of thunder, Robber! harpy! sink of plunder! 
Rogue and villain! rogue and cheat! rogue and villain, 1 repeat 1 
Oftener than I can repeat it, has the rogue and villain cheated. 
Close around him, left and right; spit upon him, spurn and smite: 
Spit I'.pon him as you see; cpurn and spit at him like me. 
But ))eware, or he'll evade you, for he knows the private track 
Where Eucrates was seeu escaping with his mill-dust on his back. 

Cleon. 
Worthy veterans of the jury, you that, either right or wrong, 
With my threepenny provision, I've maintained and cherished long, 
Come to my aid! I'm here waj-laid — assassinated and betrayed. 

Chorus. 
Rightly served! we serve you rightly, for your hungry love of pelf 
For your gross and greedy rapine, gormandizing by yourself; 

T 



410 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXV. 

You that, ere the figs are gathered, pilfer with a pvivy twitch 
Fat delinquents and defaulters, pulpy, luscious, plump, and rich; 
Pinching, fingering, and pulling — tempering, selecting, culling, 
With a nice survey discerning which are green and which are turning 
"Which are ripe for accusation, forfeiture, and confiscation. 

Him, besides, the wealthy man, retired upon an easy rent. 
Hating and avoiding party, noble-minded, indolent, 
Fearful of official snares, intrigues, and intricate afiairs; 
Him you mark; you fix and hook him, whilst he's gaping unawares; 
At a fling, at once you bring him hither from the Chersonese, 
Down you cast him, roast and baste him, and devour him at your ease. 

Cleon. 
Yes ! assault, insult, abuse me ! this is the return I find 
For the noble testimony, the memorial I designed: 
Meaning to propose proposals for a monument of stone. 
On the which your late achievements should be carved and neatly done. 

Chorus. 
Out, away with him! the slave ! the pompous, empty, fawning knave! 
Does he think with idle speeches to delude and cheat us all, 
As he does the doting elders that attend his daily call ? 
Pelt him here, and bang him there ; and here and there and everywhere. 

Cleon. 
Save me, neighbours I O the monsters ! my side, my back, my breast ! 

Chorus. 
What, you're forced to call for help ? you brutal, overbearing pest.* 

§ 8. Of the prose writers of this period, Thucydides is by far 
the greatest. Herodotus, who belongs to the same period, and 
who was only a few years older than Thucydides, has been no- 
ticed in a previous chapter. 

Thucydides was an Athenian, and was bom in the year 471 
B.C. His father was named Olorus, and his mother Hegesipyle, 
and his family was connected with that of Miltiades and Cimon. 
Thucydides appears to have been a man of v»'ealth ; and we know 
from his own account that he possessed gold mines in Thrace, 
and enjoyed great influence in that country. We also learn 
from himself that he was one of the suiierers from the great 
plague at Athens, and among the few who recovered. He com- 
manded an Athenian squadron of seven ships at Thasos, in 424 
B.C., at the time when Brasidas was besiegmg Amphipolis ; and, 
having failed to relieve that city in time, he went into a volun- 
tary exile, in order probably to avoid the punishment of death. 
He appears to have spent 20 years in banishment, principally in 

* Translated by Mr. Frere. 



Chap. XXXV. THUCYDIDES. XENOPHON. 411 

the Peloponnesus, or in places under the dominion or influence 
©f Sparta. He perhaps returned to Athens in B.C. 403, the date 
ef its liberation by Thrasybulus. According to the unanimous 
testimony of antiquity he met with a violent end, and it seems 
probable that he was assassinated at Athens, since it cannot be 
doubted that his tomb existed there ; but some authorities place 
the scene of his death in Thrace. From the beginning of the 
Peloponnesian war he had designed to write its histor)^ and he 
employed himself in collecting materials for that purpose during 
its continuance ; but it is most likely that the work was not 
actually composed till after the conclusion of the war, and that 
he was engaged upon it at the time of his death. Some critics 
are even of opinion that the 8th and concluding book is not Irom 
his hand ; but there seems to be little ground for this assump- 
tion, though he may not have revised it with the same care as 
the foraier books. 

Such are all the authentic particulars that can be stated re- 
specting the greatest of the Athenian historians. It is only 
necessary to add a short account of his work. The first book is 
introductory, and contains a rapid sketch of Grecian history 
from the remotest times to the breaking out of the war, accom- 
panied with an explanation of the events and causes which led 
to it, and a digression on the rise and progress of the Athenian 
power. The remaining seven books are filled with the details 
of the war, related according to the division into summers and 
winters, into which all campaigns naturally fall ; and the work 
hreaks off abruptly in the middle of the 21st year of the war 
(b.c. 411). It is probable that the division of his history into 
books was the work of the Alexandrine critics, and that as it 
came from the hands of the author it formed a continuous nar- 
rative. The materials of Thucydides were collected with the 
most scrupulous care ; the events are related with the strictest 
impartiality ; and the work probably ofiers a more exact account 
of a long and eventful period than any other contemporary his- 
tory, whether ancient or modern, of an equally long and import- 
ant sera. The style of Thucydides is brief and sententious, and 
whether in moral or political reasoning, or in description, gains 
wonderful force from its condensation. It is this brevity and 
simplicity that renders his account of the plague of Athens so 
striking and tragic. But this characteristic is sometimes carried 
to a faulty extent, so as to render his style harsh, and his mean- 
ing obscure. 

^ 9. Xenophon properly belongs to the next period of Grecian 
history, but the subject of the earlier portion of his History is 
so intimately connected with the work of Thucydides, that it 



412 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXV. 

will be more convenient to speak of him in the present place. 
Xenophon was the son of G-ryllus, an Athenian, and was pro- 
bably born about b.c. 444. Socrates is said to have saved his 
life in the battle of Delium, which was fought in b.c. 424, and 
as we know that he lived to a much later period, he could hardly 
have been more than 20 at the time of this battle. Xenophon 
was a pupil of Socrates, and we are also told that he received 
instructions from Prodicus of Ceos, and from Isocrates. His 
accompanying Cyrus the younger in his expedition against his 
brother Artaxerxes, king of Persia, formed a striking episode in 
his life, and has been recorded by himself in his Anabasis ; but 
as we shall have occasion to relate this event in our next book, 
we need not touch upon it here. He seems to have been still 
in Asia at the time of the death of -Socrates in 399 b.c, and was 
probably banished from Athens soon after that period, in conse- 
quence of his close connexion with the Lacedaemonian autho- 
rities in Asia. He accompanied Agesilaus, the Spartan king, on 
the return of the latter from Asia to Greece ; and he fought 
along with the Lacedaemonians against his own countrymen at 
the battle of Coronea in 394 B.C. After this battle he went with 
Agesilaus to Sparta, and soon afterwards settled at Scillus in 
Ehs, near Olympia, where he was joined by his wife and children. 
His time seems to have been agreeably spent at this residence 
in hunting, and other rural diversions, as well as in literary pur- 
suits ; and he is said to have composed here his Anabasis, and a 
part, if not the whole of the Hellenica. From this quiet retreat 
he was at length expelled by the E leans, but at what date is 
uncertain ; though he seems at all events to have spent at least 
20 years at this place. His sentence of banishment from Athens 
was repealed on the motion of Eubulus, but in what year we do 
not know. His two sons, Gryllus and Diodorus, are said to have 
fought with the Athenians and Spartans against the Thebans, at 
the battle of Mantinea in 362. There is, however, no evidence 
that Xenophon ever returned to Athens. He seems to have 
retired to Corinth after his expulsion from Elis, and it is pro- 
bable that he died there. He is said to have lived to more than 
90 years of age, and he mentions an event which occured as late 
as 357 B.C. 

Probably all the works of Xenophon are still extant. The 
Anabasis is the work on which his fame as an historian chiefly 
rests. It is written in a simple and agreeable style, and conveys 
much curious and striking information. The Hcllemca is a con- 
tinuation of the history of Thucydides, and comprehends in 
seven books a space of about 48 years ; namely, from the time 
when Thucydides breaks off, b.c. 411, to the battle of Maatinea 



Chap. XXXV. SOPHISTS. 41J 

in 3G2. The subject is treated in a very dry and uninteresting 
style; and his evident partiahty to Sparta, and dislike of" Athens, 
have frequently warped his judgment, and must cause his state- 
ments to be received with some suspicion. The Cyropcedla, one 
of the most pleasing and popular of Xenophon's works, professes 
to be a history of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy, 
but is in reality a kind of political romance, and possesses no 
authority whatever as an historical work. The design of the 
author seems to have been to draw a picture of a perfect 
state ; and though the scene is laid in Persia, the materials of 
the work are derived from his own philosophical notions and the 
usages of Sparta, engrafted on the popularly current stories re- 
specting Cyrus. Xenophon displays in this work his dislike of 
democratic institutions like those of Athens, and his preference 
for an aristocracy, or even a monarchy. Xenophon was also the 
author of several minor works ; but the only other treatise which 
we need mention is the Memorabilia of Socrates, in four books, 
intended as a defence of his master against the charges which 
occasioned his death, and which undoubtedly contams a genuine 
picture of Socrates and his philosophy. The genius of Xenophon 
was not of the highest order ; it was practical rather than specu- 
lative ; but he is distinguished for his good sense, his moderate 
views, his humane temper, and his earnest piety. 

MO. In closing this brief survey of Athenian literature, it is 
necessary to make a few remarks upon Athenian education, and 
upon the greatest teacher of his age — the philosopher Socrates. 

A certain amount ef elementary education seems to have pre- 
vailed among the free citizens of all the Grecian states at the 
time of which we are speaking. Instruction was usually im- 
parted in schools. The pa3dagogue, or private tutor, was not a 
teacher ; he was seldom a man of much knowledge— often 
indeed a slave — and his office Avas merely to watch over his 
pupils in their idle hours, and on their way to the schools. 
When a youth could read with fluency, he was set to learn 
by heart passages selected from the best poets, in which moral 
precepts and examples of virtuous conduct were inculcated and 
exhibited. The works of -Ssop and Theognis were much used 
for this purpose. He was then taught those accomplishments 
which the Greeks included under the comprehensive head of 
"music," and which comprised not only the art of playing on the 
lyre, and of singing and dancing, so as to enable him to bear a 
part in a chorus, but also to recite poetical compositions witli 
grace and propriety of accent and pronunciation. At the same 
time his physical powers were developed and strengthened by a 
course of gymnastic exercises. At the age of 18 or 20 the sons 



414 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXY. 

of the more wealthy citizens attended the classes of the rhetors 
and sophists who gave their lectures in the Lyceum, Academy, 
or other siniilar institutions ; — a course somewhat analogous to 
entering a university in our own times. Here the young man 
studied rhetoric and philosophy ; under which heads were in- 
cluded mathematics, astronomy, dialectics, oratory, criticism, 
and morals. 

§ 11. It will be perceived from the above sketch that the 
rhetor and sophist — whose provinces were often combined, and 
are generally difficult to distinguish with accuracy — ^played the 
most important part in the formation of the future man. They 
gave the last bias to his mind, and sent him forth into the world 
with habits of thought which in after life he would perhaps have 
neither the leisure nor the inclination to alter, or even to exa- 
mine. Most of the young men who attended their lectures 
had little more in view than to become qualified for taking a 
practical part in active life. The democraticai institutions which 
had begun to prevail in Athens, Sicily, and other parts of Greece 
during the filth century before the Christian sera, and which 
often obliged a public man to confute an adversary, to defend 
himself from an attack, or to persuade a public assembly, ren- 
dered it necessary for him to obtain some knowledge of rhetoric 
and dialectics. It was for tliis purpose that the schools of the 
rhetors and sophists were frequented by the great mass cf their 
hearers, without, perhaps, much care ior their speculative prin- 
ciples except so far as they might serve as exercises to sharpen 
dialectic skill. Among the most eminent of these teachers in 
the time of Socrates were Protagoras of Abdera, Gorgias of 
Leontini, Polus of Agrigentum, Hippias of Ehs, Prodicus of Ceos, 
and others. As rhetorical instructors they may be compared 
with Isocrates or Gtuintilian ; but, generally speaking, there was 
more or less of philosophical speculation mixed up with their 
teaching. 

The name of " Sophist" borne by these men had not origin- 
ally that invidious meaning which it came to possess in later 
times. In its early use it meant only a wise or a clever man. 
Thiis it was applied to the seven sages, and to the poets, such as 
Homer and Hesiod ; men as far removed as possible from the 
notion implied in the modern term sophist. The word seems 
to have retained its honourable meaning do"svn to the time of 
Socrates ; but Plato and Xenophon began to use it in a depre- _ 
ciatory sense, and as a term of reproach. ^Ahenever they I, 
wished to speak of a truly wise man they preferred the word ^ 
" philosopher." It may therefore be inferred that the name of 
"Sophist" began to fall into contempt through the teaching of 



Chap. XXXY. SOCRATES. 415 

Socrates, more especially as we find that Socrates himself shrank 
from the name. 

M2. But the relation of Socrates to the Sophists will be best 
shown by a brief accomit of his life. 

Socrates was born in the year 468 b.c. in the deme of Alopece, 
in the immediate neighbourhood of Athens. His father, So- 
phroniscus, was a sculptor, and Socrates was brought up to, and 
for some time practised, the same profession. A group of the 
Charities or Graces, from his chisel, was preserved in the Acro- 
polis of Athens, and was extant in the time of Pausanias. His 
mother, Phsenarete, was a raiidwife. Thus his station in life was 
humble, but his family was of genuine Attic descent. He was 
married to Xanthippe, by whom he had three sons ; but her 
bad temper has rendered her name proverbial for a conjugal 
scold. His physical constitution was healthy, robust, and won- 
derfully enduring. Indifferent alike to heat and cold, the same 
scanty and homely clothing sufficed him both in summer and 
whiter ; and even in the campaign of PotidsBa, amidst the snows 
of a Thracian winter, he went barefooted. He was moderate 
and frugal in his diet, yet on occasions of festival could drink 
more wine than any other man without being intoxicated. It 
was a principle with him to contract his wants as much as pos- 
sible ; for he had a maxim that to want nothing belonged only 
to the gods, and to want as little as possible was the nearest 
approach to the divine nature. But though thus gifted with 
strength of 'body and of mind, he was far from being endowed 
with personal beauty. His thick lips, flat nose, and prominent 
eyes, gave him the appearance of a Silenus, or satyr. We Imow 
but few particulars of his life. He served with credit as an 
hoplite at Potidsea (b.c. 432), Delium (b.c. 424), and Amphipolis 
(b.c. 422) ; but it was not till late in life, in the year 406 b.c, 
that he filled any political office. He was one of the Prytanes 
when, after the battle of Arginusee, Callixenus submitted his 
proposition respecting the six generals to the public Assembly, 
and his refusal on that occasion to put an unconstitutional ques- 
tion to the vote has been already recorded.^ He had a strong 
persuasion that he was intrusted with a divine mission, and he 
believed himself to be attended by a daemon, or genius, whose 
admonitions he frequently heard, not, however, in the way of 
excitement but of restraint. He never ivrotc anything, but he 
made oral instruction the great business of his life. Early ui 
the morning he frequented the pubhc walks, the gymnasia, and 
the schools ; whence he adjourned to the market-place at its 

* See p. 3G0. 



416 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXV. 

most crowded hours, and thus spent the whole day in convers- 
ing with young and old, rich and poor, — with all in short who felt 
any desire for his instructions. There was, however, a certain set 
of persons who were in the habit of following him to hear his con- 
versation, and these became known as his disciples. 

From this public manner of life, he became one of the best 
known characters in Athens, and this circumstance was probably 
. the reason why he was selected for attack, as the representative 
of the Sophists in general, by Aristophanes and the comic poets. 
But the picture of Aristophanes shows that he either did not 
know, or was not solicitous about, the real objects and pursuits 
of Socrates : his only object seems to have been to raise a laugh. 
The dramatist represents Socrates as occupied with physical re- 
searches. But though in early life Socrates had paid some atten- 
tion to natural philosophy, he soon abandoned the study in disgust, 
from reading a treatise of Anaxagoras, in which he found that the 
philosopher's hypotheses were not sustained by any basis of reason- 
ing. This led Socrates to turn his attention to dialectics. In this 
pursuit there can be little doubt that he derived great assistance 
from the Eleatic school of philosophers, especially Parmenides 
and Zeno, who visited Athens when Socrates was a young man. 
He seems to have borrowed from the Eleatics his, negative 
method ; namely, that of disproving and upsetting what is ad- 
vanced by a disputant, as a means of unmasking not only false- 
hood, but also assertion without authority, yet without attempting 
to establish anything in its place. 

§ 13. We are now in a condition to see in what points Socrates 
differed from the ordinary teachers or Sophists of the time. 
They were these : 1. He taught without fee or reward, and com- 
municated his instructions freely to high and low, rich and poor 
alike. 2. He did not talk for mere vain show and ostentation, 
but for the sake of gaining clear and distinct ideas, and thus ad- 
vancing both himself and others in real knowledge. It was with 
this view that he had abandoned physics, which, in the manner 
in which they were then taught, were founded raierely on guesses 
and conjectures, and had applied himself to the study of his fel- 
low men, which opened a surer held of observation. And in order 
to arrive at clear ideas on moral subjects, he was the first to em- 
ploy definition and inference, and thus confine the discourse to 
the eliciting of truth, instead of making it the vehicle for empty 
display. A contrary practice on these two points is what con- 
stituted the difference between Socrates and the Sophists. 

The teaching of Socrates forms an epoch in the history of 
philosophy. From his school sprang Plato, the founder of the 
Academic philosophy ; Euclides, the founder of the Mej^aric 



Jl 



Chap. XXXV. SOCRATES. 417 

school ; Aristippus, the founder of the Cyrenaic school ; and many 
other philosophers of eminence. 

sW4. That a reformer and destroyer, like Socrates, of ancient 
prejudices and fallacies which passed current under the name of 
wisdom should have raised up a host of enemies is only what 
might be expected ; but in his case this leehng was increased by 
the mamier in which he fulfilled his mission. The oracle of 
Delphi, in response to a question put by his friend Chaerephon, 
had affirmed that no man was wiser than Socrates. No one was 
more perplexed at this declaration than Socrates himself, since 
he was conscious to himself of possessing no wisdom at all. 
HoM-ever, he determined to test the accuracy of the priestess, for 
though he had little wisdom, others might have still less. He 
therefore selected an eminent politician who enjoyed a high 
reputation for wisdom, and soon elicited by his scrutinising me- 
thod of cross-examination, that tliis statesman's reputed wisdom 
was no wisdom at all. But of this he could not convince the 
subject of his examination ; whence Socrates concluded that he 
Avas wiser than tliis politician, inasmuch as he was conscious of 
his own ignorance, and therefore exempt from the error of be- 
lieving himself wise when in reality he was not so. The same 
experiment was tried wdth the same result on various classes 
of men ; on poets, mechanics, and especially on the rhetors and 
sophists, the chief of all the pretenders to wisdom. 

§ 15. The first indication of the unpopularity which Socrates 
had incurred is the attack made upon him by Aristophanes in 
the " Clouds" in the. year 423 b.c. That attack, however, seems 
to have evaporated with the laugh, and for many years Socrates 
continued his teaching without molestation. It was not till 
B.C. 399 that the indictment was preferred against him 
which cost him his life. In that year, Meletus, a leather-seller, 
seconded by Anytus, a poet, and Lycon, a rhetor, accused hint 
of impiety in not Avorshipping the gods of the city, and in 
introducing new deities, and also of being a corrupter of youth. 
With respect to the latter charge, his former intimacy with Al- 
cibiades and Critias may have weighed against him. Socrates 
made no preparations for liis defence, and seems, indeed, not to 
have desired an acquittal. But although he addressed the di- 
casts in a bold uncompromising tone, he was condemned only by 
a smaU majority of five or six in a court composed of between 
five and six hundred dicasts. After the verdict was pronounced, 
he was entitled, according to the practice of the Athenian courts, 
to make some counter-proposition in place of the penalty of 
death, which the accusers had demanded, and if he had done so 
with any show of submission it is probable that the sentenca 



418 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



Chap. XXXY. 



would have been mitigated. But his tone after the verdict was 
higher than before. All that he could be brought to propose 
against himself by way of punishment was a fine of 30 "mince, 
which Plato and other friends engaged to pay for him. Instead 
of a fine, he asserted that he ought to be maintained in the Pry- 
taneum at the public expense, as a public benefactor. This tone 
seems to have enraged the dicasts, and he was condemned to 
death. 

It happened that the vessel which proceeded to Delos on the 
annual deputation to the festival had sailed the day before his 
condemnation ; and during its absence it was unlawful to put any 
one to death. Socrates was thus kept in prison during 30 days, 
till the return of the vessel. He spent the interval in philo- 
sophical conversations with his friends. Crito, one of these, 
arranged a scheme for his escape by bribing the gaoler ; but 
Socrates, as might be expected from the tone of his defence, 
resolutely refused to save his life by a breach of the law. His 
last discourse, on the day of his death, turned on the immor- 
tality of the soul, and has been recorded, and probably em- 
bellished, in the Phcedo of Plato. With a firm and cheerful 
countenance he drank the cup of hemlock amidst his sorrowing 
and weeping friends. His last words were addressed to Crito : — 
" Crito, we owe a cock to JEsculapius ;=* discharge the debt, and 
by no means omit it." 

Thus perished the greatest and most original of the Grecian 
philosophers, whose uninspired wisdom made the nearest ap- 
proach to the divine morality of the Gospel. 

* In allusion to the sacrifice usually offered by sick persons to that 
<3eity on their recovery. 




Bust of Socrates. 




The Pactolus at Sardis. 

BOOK V. 

THE SPARTAN Al^D THEBAN SUPREMACIES. 

B.C. 403—371. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 



THE EXPEDITION OF THE GREEKS UNDER CYRUS, AND RETREAT 
OF THE TEN THOUSAND. 

§ 1. Causes of the Expedition. § 2. C3'rus engages an army of Greek 
mercenaries. Tlieir character. § 3. Marcli to Tarsus. ^ 4. Discon- 
tent of the Greeks. March to Myriandrus, § 5. Passage of the Eu- 
phrates, and march through the desert. § 6. Battle of Cunaxa, and 
death of Cyrus. § 7. Dismay of the Greeks. Preparations for retreat 
8 8. Retreat of the army to "the Greater Zab. Seizure of the generals. 
§ 9. Election of Xenophon and others as generals. § 10. March from 
the Zab to the confines of the Carduchi. March across the mountains 
of the Carduchi. § 11. Progress through Armenia. § 12. March 
through the country of the Taochi, Chalybes, Scythini, Mncrones, and 
Colchi to Trapezus on the Euxine. § 13. March along the coast of 
the Euxine to Chrysopolis. Passage to Byzantium. § 14. Proceed- 



420 ' HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXYI 

ings at Byzantium. § 15. The Greeks enter the service of Seuthes, 
§ 16. Are engaged by the Lacedaemonians. Last exploits of the army, 
and retirement of Xenophon. 

^ 1. The intervention of Cyrus in the affairs of Greece, related 
in the preceding book, led to a remarkable episode in Grecian 
histor}^ which strongly illustrates the contrast between the 
Greeks and Asiatics. This was the celebrated expedition of 
Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes, in which the superiority 
of Grecian to Asiatic soldiers was so strikingly shown. It was 
the first symptom of the repulsion of the tide of conquest, which 
had in former times flowed from east to w^est, and the harbinger 
of those future victorious expeditions into Asia which were to 
be conducted by Agesilaus and Alexander the Great. 

It has been already mentioned, in the account of the death of 
Alcibiades, that Cyrus was forming designs against the throne 
of liis brother Artaxerxes. The death of their father, Darius 
Nothus, took place about the beginning of the year b.c. 404, 
shortly before the battle of jEgospotami. Cyrus, who was pre- 
sent at his father's death, was charged by Tissaphemes with 
plotting against the new monarch. The accusation was believed 
by Artaxerxes, who seized his brother, and would have put 
him to death, but for the intercession of their mother, Parysatis, 
who persuaded him not only to spare Cyrus, but to confirm him 
in his former government. Cyrus returned to Sardis, burning 
with revenge, and fully resolved to make an effort to dethrone 
his brother. 

^2. From his intercourse with the Greeks Cyrus had become 
aware of their superiority to the Asiatics, and of their usefelness 
in such an enterprise as he now contemplated. The peace which 
followed the capture of Athens seemed favourable to his projects. 
Many Greeks, bred up in the practice of war during the long 
struggle between that city and Sparta, were now deprived of 
their employment, whilst many more had been driven into exile 
by the establishment of the Spartan oligarchies in the various 
conquered cities. Under the pretence of a private w^ar with the 
satrap Tissaphernes, Cyrus enlisted large numbers of them in 
his service. The Greek, in whom he placed most confidence, and 
who collected for him the largest number of mercenaries, was 
Clearchus, a Lacedaemonian, and formerly harmost of Byzantium, 
who had been condemned to death by the Spartan authorities 
for disobedience to tlieir orders. 

It was not, however, till the beginning of the year b.c. 401, 
that the enterprise of Cyrus w^as ripe for execution. The Greek 
levies were then withdrawn from the various towTis in which 
they were distributed, and concentrated in Sardis to the number 



422 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXVL 

of 7 700 hoplites, and 500 light-armed troops ; and in March or 
April of this year Cyrus marched from ^^ardis with them, and 
with an army of 100,000 Asiatics. The object of the expedition 
was proclaimed to be an attack upon the mountain-freebooters 
of Pisidia ; its real destination was a secret to every one except 
Cyrus himself and Clearchus. 

The G-reeks who took part in this expedition were not mere 
adventurers and outcasts ; many of them had some position in 
their own cities, and several were even opulent. Yet the hope of 
gain, founded on the riches of Persia, and on the known liberality 
of Cyrus, was the motive which allured them. Among them was 
Xenophon, an Athenian knight, to whom we owe a narrative of 
the expedition. He went as a volunteer, at the invitation of his 
friend Proxenus, a Boeotian, and one of the generals of Cyrus. 

§ 3. The march of Cyrus was directed through Lydia and 
Phrygia. After passing Colossse he arrived at Celsense, where he 
halted thirty days to await the arrival of Clearchus with the re- 
serves and reinforcements. The grand total of the Greeks, when 
reviewed here by Cyrus, amounted to 11,000 hoplites and 2000 
peltasts. The line of march, which had been hitherto straight 
npon Pisidia, was now directed northwards. Cyrus passed in suc- 
cession the Phrygian towns of Peltae, Ceramon Agora, the Plain 
of Cayster, Thymbrium, and Tyrieeum. At the last of these 
places he was met by Epyaxa, wife of Syennesis the here- 
ditary prince of Cilicia. Epyaxa supplied him with money 
enough to furnish four months' pay to the G-reeks, who had pre- 
viously been murmuring at the irregularity with which they 
received their stipend. A review was then held, in which the 
Greeks, in their best array, and with newly-furbished shields and 
armour, went through their evolutions, and executed a mock 
charge with such effect that Epyaxa jumped out of her palanquin 
and fled in affright, foUowed by a great part of the Asiatics. 
Cyrus was delighted at seeing the terror which the Greeks in- 
spired. 

From TyriEeum Cyrus marched to Iconium (now Konieh), the 
last city in Phrygia, and from thence through Lycaonia to Dana, 
south of which lay the pass across Mount Taurus into Cilicia. 
This pass, called the Gates of Taurus, or the Cilician Gates, was 
occupied by Syennesis. But the resistance of that prince, who 
was a vassal of the Persian crown, was in fact a mere feint. He 
had already, as we have seen, supphed Cyrus with money through 
his wife ; and he now abandoned his impregnable position, and 
retired first to Tarsus, and thence to an inaccessible fortress in 
the mountains. But, when Cyrus arrived at Tarsus, Syennesis, 
at the first invitation of his wife, repaired thither, and furnished 



B.C. 401. PASSAGE OF THE EUPHRATES. 423 

the young prince with a supply of money and a contingent of 
troops for his expedition. 

^ 4. Pisidia had now been passed, and the Greeks plainly saw 
that they had been deceived, and that the expedition was de- 
signed against the Persian king. Seized with alarm at the pro- 
spect of so long a march, they declared their resolution to pro- 
ceed no farther. But they had already advanced so far that to 
retreat seemed as difficult and dangerous as to advance ; and, 
after considerable hesitation and delay, they sent a deputation 
to C}Tus to ask him what his real intentions were. Cyrus re- 
plied that his design was to march against his enemy, Abrocomas, 
satrap of Spia, who was encamped on the banks of the Euphrates. 
The Greeks, thDugh they still suspected a delusion, contented 
themselves with this answer in the face of their present diffi- 
culties, especially as C}tus promised to raise their pay from one 
Daric to one Daric and a half a month. The whole army then 
marched forwards to Issus, the last town in Cihcia, seated 
on the gulf of the same name. Here they met the fleet, which 
brought them a reinforcement of 1100 Greek soldiers, thus 
raising the Grecian force to about 14,000 men. 

Abrocomas, who commanded for the Great King in Syria and 
Phoenicia, alarmed at the rapid progress of Cyrus, fled before 
him with all his army, reported as 300,000 strong ; abandoning 
the impregnable pass situated one day's march from Issus, and 
known as the Gates of Cihcia and Syria. This pass was a narrow 
road, nearly half a mile in length, lying between the sea and 
Mount Amanus, and enclosed at either end by gates. Marching 
in safety through this pass, the army next reached Myriandrus, 
a sea-port of Phoenicia, where the Grecian generals Xenias and 
Pasion deserted, and hired a merchant-vessel to convey them 
home. Cyrus might easily have captured them with his triremes, 
but declined to do so ; — conduct which won for him the confidence 
and love of the anny, 

^ 5. Cyrus now struck off into the interior, over Hount Ama- 
nus. Twelve days' march brought him to Thapsacus on the 
Euphrates, where for the first time he formally notified to the 
army that he was marching to Babylon against his brother 
Artaxerxes. At this intelligence loud murmurs again broke forth 
from the Grecian ranks, and accusations against the generals of 
having deceived them. The discontent, however, was by no 
means so violent as that which had been manifested at Tarsus. 
The real object of the march had evidently been suspected 
beforehand by the soldiers, and the promise of a large donative 
soon induced them to proceed. The water happened to be very 
low, scarcely reaching to the breast ; and Abrocomas made no 



424 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XXXVI. 

attempt to dispute the passage. The army now entered upon 
the desert, where the Greeks were struck with the novel sights 
which met their view, and at once amused and exhausted them- 
selves in the chase of the wild ass and the antelope, or in the 
vain pursuit of the scudding ostrich. After several days of toil- 
some march, the army at length reached Pylse, the entrance into 
the cultivated plains of Babylonia, where they halted a few days 
to refresh themselves. 

^ 6. Soon after leaving that place symptoms became per- 
ceptible of a vast hostile force moving in their front. The 
exaggerated reports of deserters stated it at 1,200,000 men ; its 
real strength was about 900,000. In a characteristic address 
Cyrus exhorted the Greeks to take no heed of the multitude of 
their enemies ; they would find in them, he affirmed, nothing but 
numbers and noise, and if they could bring themselves to despise 
these, they would soon find of what worthless stuff the natives 
were composed. The army then marched cautiously forwards, 
in order of battle, along the left bank of the Euphrates. They 
soon came upon a huge trench, 30 feet broad and 18 deep, which 
Artaxerxes had caused to be dug across ibe plain for a length 
of about 42 English miles, reaching from the Euphrates to the 
wall of Media. Between it and the river was left only a narrow 
passage about 20 feet broad ; yet Cyrus and his army found with 
surprise that this pass was left entirely undefended. This cir- 
cumstance inspired them with a contempt of the enemy, and 
induced them to proceed in careless array ; but on the next day 
but one after passing the trench, on arriving at a place called 
Cunaxa, they were surprised with the intelligence that Artaxerxes 
Wccs approaching with all his forces. Cyrus immediately drew up 
his army in order of battle. The Greeks were posted on the 
right, whilst Cyrus himself, surrounded by a picked body-guard 
of 600 Persian cuirassiers, took up his station in the centre. It 
was long, however, before the army of the Great King appeared 
in sight. A white cloud of dust in the extreme distance gave the 
first indication of their approach. Out of this an undefined and 
ominous dark spot began gradually to emerge ; presently arms 
and armour glanced in the sunbeams ; and at length the whole 
array of the enemy became discernible, advancing in dense and 
threatening masses. On their left wing, and consequently op- 
posed to the Greeks, appeared Tissaph ernes, at the head of the 
Persian horsemen, with white cuirasses ; on his right the Persian 
bowmen with their gerrha, or light wicker shields, which they 
planted in the ground, and from behind them shot their arrows ; 
next, the array of the Egyptian infantry, whose long wooden 
shields cov I their whole body from head to foot. In front 



B.C. 401. BATTLE OF CUNAXA- 425 

was a line of chariots, having scythes attached to the wheels, and 
which were to lead the charge. The Persian line was so vast 
that its centre extended heyond the left of Cyrus. Before the 
battle began C\tus desired Clearchus to attack the Persian 
centre, where the king in person was posted. But Clearchus, 
whose right rested on the river, cared not to withdraw from that 
position, lest he should be surrounded by the superior numbers 
of the enemy, and therefore returned a general answer that he 
would manage everything for the best. His over-precaution oc- 
casioned the defeat and death of Cyrus. When the enemy were 
about half a mile distant, the Greeks charged them with the 
usual war-shout. The Persians did not await their onset, but 
turned and fled. Tissaphemes and his cavalry alone offered any 
resistance ; the remainder of the Persian left was routed without 
a blow. As Cyrus was contemplating the easy victory of the 
Greeks, his followers surrounded him, and already saluted him 
with the title of king. But the centre and right of Artaxerxes 
still remained unbroken ; and that monarch, unaware of the 
defeat of his left whig, ordered the right to wheel and encompass 
the army of Cyrus. No sooner did Cyrus perceive this move- 
ment than with his body-guard he impetuously charged the 
enemy's centre, where Artaxerxes himself stood, surrounded with 
600 3 horse. The latter were routed and dispersed, and were fol- 
lows 1 so eagerly by the guards of Cyrus, that he was left almost 
aloiie with the select few called his " Table Companions." In this 
situation he caught sight of his brother Artaxerxes, whose per- 
son was revealed by the flight of his troops, when, maddened at 
once by rage and ambition, he shouted out, " I see the man 1" 
and rushed at him with his handful of companions. Hurling 
his javehn at his brother, he wounded him in the breast, but 
was himself speedily overborne by superior numbers and slain 
on the spot. 

§ 7. Meanwhile, Clearchus had pursued the flying enemy up- 
wards of three miles ; but hearing that the King's troops were 
victorious on the left and centre, he retraced his steps, again 
routing the Persians who endeavoured to intercept him. When 
the Greeks regained their camp they found that it had been 
completely plundered, and were consequently obliged to go sup> 
perless to rest. It was not till the following day that they 
learned the death of Cyrus ; tidings which converted their 
triumph into sorrow and dismay. A Greek in the service of 
Artaxerxes now appeared in their camp, with a message re- 
quiring them to lay down their arms. " If the King," replied 
the Grecian generals, " thinks himself strong enough, let him 
come and take them." But they were in a difficult position. 



426 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXYL 

They were desirous that Ariseus, who now commanded the army 
of Cyrus, should lay claim to the Persian crown, and offered to 
support his pretensions ; hut Ariseus answered that the Persian 
grandees would not tolerate such a claim ; that he intended im- 
mediately to retreat ; and that if the Greeks wished to accom- 
pany liim, they must join him during the following night. Tliis 
was accordingly done ; when oaths of reciprocal fidelity were 
interchanged between the Grecian generals and Ariseus, and 
sanctified by a solemn sacrifice. 

The difficult question now arose how their retreat was to be 
conducted. They were nearly 1500 miles from Sardis, and were 
to find their own way back, without guides, and by a new route, 
since the former one was impracticable on account of the desert 
and the want of provisions. Moreover, though they might easily 
defy the Persian infantry, however numerous, yet the Persian 
cavalry, ever hovering on their rear, would prove a formidable 
obstacle to their retreat. They commenced their march east- 
wards towards some Babylonian villages, where they hoped to 
find supplies ; but on reaching them at the end of a long day's 
march, they found that they had been plundered, and that no 
provisions were to be obtained. 

On the following day a message arrived from the Persian king, 
with a proposal to treat for peace on equal terms. Clearchus 
afiected to treat the ofier with great indifierence, and made it an 
opportunity for procuring provisions. " Tell your king," said he 
to the envoys, " that we must first fight ; for we have had no 
breakfast, nor will any man presiune to tallv to the Greeks about 
a truce, without first providing for them a breakfast." This 
was agreed to, and guides were sent to conduct the Greeks to 
some villages where they might obtain food. In these all the 
riches of Babylon were spread before them. Corn in vast abun- 
dance, dates of such size and flavour as they had never before 
seen, wine made from the date palm ; in short, luxury and 
abundance in place of their late scanty fare and privations. 
"Whilst they were enjoying these quarters, they received a visit 
from Tissaphemes, who came in great state. He pretended 
much friendship towards them, and said that he had come from 
the Great King to inquire the reason of their expedition. Cle- 
archus replied — what was indeed true of the greater part of the 
army — that they had not come thither with any design to attack 
the king, but had been enticed forwards by Cyrus under false 
pretences ; that their only desire at present was to return home ; 
but that if any obstacle was offered, they were prepared to repel 
hostilities. In a day or two Tissaphernes returned, and with 
some parade stated that he had with great difficulty obtained 



B.C. 401. RETREAT OF THE GREEKS. 427 

permission to save the Greek army ; that he was ready to con- 
duct them in person into Greece, and to supply them with 
provisions, for which, however, they were to pay ; but if he 
lailed to supply them, then they were to he at liberty to help 
themselves. An agreement was accordingly entered into to this 
effect. 

Artaxerxes, indeed, seems to have been heartily desirous of 
getting rid of them. They were now within 90 miles of Baby- 
lon, in a rich country intersected by canals, and easily defensible 
against cavalry. But a painful interval of twenty days ensued 
during which Tissaphernes neglected to return ; whilst at the 
same time the suspicions of the Greeks were excited by the 
friendly messages which Arieeus received from Artaxerxes, with 
promises of oblivion and forgiveness of his past conduct. At 
length, however, Tissaphernco returned, and undertook the di- 
rection of the homeward march. 

k 8. The troops of Ariseus were now mingled with those of 
Tissaphernes, whilst the Greeks followed the combined army 
at a distance of three miles. In three days' march they reached 
the wall of Media, and passed through it. This wall was 100 
feet high and 20 feet broad, and was said to extend a distance 
of 70 miles. Two days more brought them to the Tigris, which 
they crossed on the following morning by a bridge of boats. 
They then marched northward, arriving in four days at the river 
Physcus and a large city called Opis. Six days' further march 
through a deserted part of Media brought them to some villages 
belonging to queen Parysatis, which, out of enmity to her- as 
the patron of Cyrus, Tissaphernes abandoned to be plundered 
by the Greeks. From thence they proceeded in five days to the 
river Zabatus, or Greater Zab, having previously crossed the 
Lesser Zab, which Xinophon neglects to mention. In the first 
of these five days they saw on the opposite side of the Tigris 
a large city called Csenae, the inhabitants of which brought 
over provisions to them. At the Greater Zab they halted 
three days. Mistrust, and even slight hostilities, had been 
already manifested between the Greeks and Persians, but they 
now became so serious that Clearchus demanded an interview 
with Tissaphernes, The latter protested the greatest fidelity 
and friendship towards the Greeks, and promised to deliver to 
the Greek generals, on the following day, the calumniators who 
had set the two armies at variance. But when Clearchus, witli 
four other generals, accompanied by some lochagcs, or captains, 
and 200 soldiers, entered the Persian camp, according to appoint- 
ment, the captains and soldiers were immediately cut down ; 
whilst the five generals were seized, put into irons, and sent to 



428 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XXXYI. 

the Persian court. After a short imprisonment, four of them 
were beheaded ; the fifth, Menon, who pretended that he had 
betrayed his colleagues into the hands of Tissaphemes, was at 
first spared ; but after a year's detention was put to death with 
tortures. 

This scene naturally produced a commotion in the Persian 
camp ; and the Greeks who observed it from afar, warned by one 
of the companions of the generals, who came running wounded 
towards them, rushed to arms in expectation of a general attack. 
None, however, followed ; but Ariseus rode up at the head of 
300 horse, and relating to the Greeks the fate of their generals, 
called upon them to surrender. 

§ 9. It seems to have been the opinion of the Persians that 
under these circumstances the Greeks would feel themselves 
completely helpless ; but some of the Greek officers stepped 
forvv^ard and dismissed Ariseus with indignant reproaches. Yet 
apprehension and dismay reigned among the Greeks. Their 
situation was, indeed, appalling. They were considerably more 
than a thousand miles from home, in a hostile and unkno^vn 
country, hemmed in on all sides by impassable rivers and moun- 
tains, without generals, without guides, without provisions. 
Despair seemed to have seized on all. Leaving their watch- 
fires unlighted and their suppers uncooked, they threw them- 
selves on the ground, not to sleep, but to ruminate on their 
forlorn condition. Xenophon slumbered, indeed, but his fancy 
was filled with the images naturally conjured up by his desperate 
situation. He dreamed that a thunderbolt had struck his pa- 
ternal house, and enveloped it in flames. This partly favourable 
and partly unfavourable omen indicated at all events a message 
from Jove ; and the superstition which formed so marked a trait 
in his character, led him to consider it as a warning to rise and 
bestir himself He immediately got up, and calling an assembly 
of the captains, impressed upon them the danger of their posi- 
tion, and the necessity for taking immediate precautions. Xeno- 
phon, though young, possessed as an Athenian citizen some 
claim to distinction ; and his animated address showed him 
fitted for command. He was saluted general on the spot ; and 
in a subsequent assembly was, with four others, foiTO^illy elected 
to that ofhce. 

^ 10. The Greeks, havingfirst destroyed their superfluous baggage, 
crossed the Greater Zab, and pursued theirmarch on the other bank. 
Tissaphernes preceded them with his host, but without daring 
to dispute their passage or molest their route : though some 
cavalry, under Mithridates, annoyed the rear guard with their 
missiles. In order to meet this species of attack, a small body 






B.C. 401. RETREAT OF THE GREEKS. 429 

of 50 horse and 200 Rhodian slingcrs was organized. It was 
found highly useful, as the leaden bullets of the Rhodians car- 
ried farther than the stones of the Persian slingers. Another 
day's march brought the Greeks to the Tigris, near the deserted 
city of Larissa, 7 miles in circumference, with walls 25 feet thick 
and 100 ieet high. Pursuing the course of the Tigris they ar- 
rived on the following day at Mespila, another deserted city. It 
was in this neighbourhood that Nineveh was situated, and, 
according to a modem theory, the two were both formerly com- 
prised under the name of Nnieveh. Larissa seems to be repre- 
sented by the mound now called Nimroud, and Mespila by that 
of Kouyunjik, opposite the modern town of Mosul. 

The march from Mespila to the mountainous country of the 
Carduchi occupied several days, in which the Greeks suffered 
much from the attacks of the enemy. 

h \\. Their future route was now a matter of serious per- 
plexity. On their left lay the Tigris, so deep that they could 
not fathom it with their spears ; while in their front rose the 
steep and lofty mountains of the Carduchi, which came so near 
the river as hardly to leave a passage for its waters. A Hhodian 
soldier proposed to transport the army across the Tigris by 
means of inflated skins ; but the appearance of large masses of 
the enemy's cavalry on the opposite bank rendered this inge- 
nious scheme impracticable. As all other roads seemed barred, 
they formed the resolution of striking into the mountains of the 
Carduchi, — a tribe of fierce and warlike highlanders, who, though 
surrounded on all sides by the dominions of the Persian king, 
had succeeded in maintaining their independence. On the 
farther side of these mountains lay Armenia, where both the 
Tigris and the Euphrates might be^forded near their sources. 
The Greeks found the first mountain-pass undefended, and de- 
scended thence into some villages; but all their attempts to 
conciliate the inhabitants proved unavailing. Every pass was 
disputed. Sometimes huge rocks were hurled down on the 
defiling army ; sometimes they were attacked by the Carduchian 
slingcrs and bowmen. The latter were of extraordinary skill, 
and their bows and arrows of such strength as to pierce the 
shields and corslets, and even the brazen helmets of the Greeks. 
After a difficult and dangerous march of seven days, during 
which their sufferings were far greater than any they had ex- 
perienced from the Persians, the army at length emerged into the 
plain, and reached the river Centrites, the boundary of Ar- 
menia. 

^12. Their first attempts to cross the Centrites failed. The 
cavalry of Tiribazus, satrap of Armenia, lined the opposite baiik 



430 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXVI. 

©f the river, which was 200 feet broad, up to the neck in depth, 
with a rapid current and shppery bottom. All the efibrts of 
the Greeks to ford it proved abortive ; and as the Carduchi 
were threatening their rear, their situation seemed altogether 
desperate. On the following morning, however, two young men 
fortunately discovered a ford about half a mile higher up the 
stream, by which the whole anmy suceeded in getting across. 
They now prosecuted their march in Armenia, and in three days 
arrived at some villages situated on the river Teleboas. Here 
Tiribazus proposed to them that they should proceed unmolested 
through his satrapy, taking what supplies they wanted, but with- 
out damaging the villages. During the first part of their march 
Tiribazus kept his word, and the only annoyance they felt was 
the severity of the weather. It was now the month of December, 
and Armenia was cold and exposed, being a table-land raised high 
above the level of the sea. Whilst halting near some well sup- 
plied villages, the Greeks were overtaken by two deep falls of 
snow, which almost buried them in their open bivouacs. Hence 
a five days' march brought them to the eastern branch of the 
Euphrates. Crossing the river, they proceeded on the other 
side of it over plains covered with a deep snow, and in the face 
of a biting north wind. Here many of the slaves and beasts 
of burthen, and even a few of the soldiers, fell victims to the 
cold. Some had their feet frost-bitten; some were blinded by 
the snow ; whilst others, exhausted with cold and hunger, sunk 
down and died. The army next arrived at some singular vil- 
lages consisting of dwellings excavated in the earth, and entered 
by means of a ladder through an opening like a well. As these 
villages were plentifully stocked wdth cattle, com, vegetables, 
and beer, they here took up their quarters for a week, in order 
to refresh themselves. On the morning after their arrival, they 
despatched a detachment which brought in most of the soldiers 
left behind during the march. On the eighth day they pro- 
ceeded on their way, ascending the banks of the Phasis, not the 
celebrated river of that name, but probably the one usually called 
Araxes. 

^ lo. From thence they fought their way through the country 
of the Taochi and Chalydes, both of them brave and warlike 
tribes. Then, after crossing the Harpasus (the modern Tchorouk), 
they reached the country of the Scythini, in whose territory they 
found abundance in a large and populous city called Gymnias. 
The chief of this place having engaged to conduct them within 
sight of the Euxine, they proceeded for five days under his 
guidance ; when, after ascending a mountain, the sea suddenly 
burst on the view of the vanguard. The men proclaimed their 



B.C. 401. ARRIVE AT TRAPEZUS, ON THE EUXINE. 431 

joy by loud shouts of " The sea I the sea I" The rest of the 
army hurried to the summit, and gave vent to their joy and 
exultation in tears and mutual embraces. With spontaneous 
impulse they erected a pile of stones, by way of trophy, to mark 
the spot ; and dismissed their guide with many presents and 
expressions of the warmest gratitude. 

The Greeks now entered the country of the Macrones, with 
whom they opened negotiations through a peltast conversant 
wdth their language, and agreed for an unmolested passage and 
the purchase of provisions. The Colchians, through whose ter- 
ritory the march next lay, attempted to oppose their progress, 
but were soon dispersed. The honey of this region produced a 
singular eflect upon the Greeks. It was grateful to the palate, 
and when eaten in moderation produced a species of intoxication ; 
but those who partook largely of it were seized with vomiting 
and diarrhoea, and throvra into a state resembling madness. 

Two days' further march at length brought them to the ob- 
jects for which they had so often pined, and which many at one 
time had never hoped to see again — a Grecian city and the sea. 
By the inhabitants of Trapezus or Trebizond, on the Euxine, 
where they had now arrived, they were hospitably received, and 
being cantoned in some Colchian villages near the towTi, re- 
freshed themselves after the hardships they had undergone by a 
repose of thirty days. They also seized this opportunity to dis- 
charge the vows which they had made for a safe deliverance, 
after the capture and massacre of their generals by Tissaphernes, 
by offering up sacrifices to Jove the Preserver, Hercules the Con- 
ductor, and other gods. Solemn games followed and completed 
these sacred ceremonies. 

^ 14i. The most difficult part of the return of the Ten Thou- 
sand was now accomplished, but much still remained to be done. 
The sight of the sea aw akened in the army a universal desire to 
prosecute the remainder of their journey on that element. 
" Comrades," exclaimed a Thurian soldier, " I am weary of pack- 
ing up, of marching and rumiing, of shouldering arms and falling 
into line, of standing sentinel and fighting. For my part I 
should like to get rid of all these labours, and go home by sea 
the rest of the way, so that I might arrive in Greece outstretched 
and asleep, like Ulysses of old." The shouts of applause which 
greeted this address showed that the Thurian had touched the 
right chord ; and when Chirisophus, one of the principal officers, 
oflered to proceed to Byzantium and endeavour to procure 
transports lor the conveyance of the army, his proposal was joy- 
fully accepted. Meanwhile, the Ten Thousand were employed 
in marauding expeditions, and in collecting all the vessels possible. 



432 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXVI. 

in case Chirisophus should fail in obtaining the requisite supply. 
That officer delayed to return ; provisions grew scarce, and the 
army found itself compelled to evacuate Trapezus. Vessels 
enough had been collected to transport the women, the sick, and 
the baggage to Cerasus, whither the army proceeded by land. 
Here they remained ten days, during which they were mustered 
and reviewed ; when it was found that the number of hoplites 
still amounted to 8600, and with peltasts, bowmen, &c., made 
a total of more than 10,000 men. 

From Cerasus they pursued their journey to Cotyora, through 
the territories of the Mosynseci and Chalybes. They were obliged 
to fight their way through the former of these people, capturing 
and plundering the wooden towers in which they dwelt, and 
from which they derived their name. At Cotyora they waited 
in vain for Chirisophus and the transports. Many difficulties 
still stood in the way of their return. The inhabitants of Sinope 
represented to them that a march through Paphlagonia was im- 
practicable, and the means of a passage by sea were not at 
hand. After remaining 45 days at Cotyora a sufficient number 
of vessels was collected to convey the army to Sinope. A pas- 
sage of 24 hours brought them to that town, where they were 
hospitably received and lodged in the neighbouring sea-port of 
Armene. Here they were joined by Chirisophus, who, however, 
brought with him only a single trireme. From Sinope the army 
proceeded to Heraclea, and from thence to Calpe, where Chiri- 
sophus died. From Calpe they marched across Bithynia to 
Chrysopolis, a toAvn immediately opposite to Byzantium, where 
they spent a week in realizing the booty which they had brought 
with them. 

§ 15. The satrap Pharnabazus was desirous that the Greeks 
should evacuate Asia Minor ; and, at his instance, Anaxibius, 
the Lacedaemonian admiral on the station, induced them to cross 
over by promising to provide them with pay when they should 
have reached the other side. But instead of fulfilling his agree- 
ment, Anaxibius ordered them, after their arrival at Byzantium, 
to proceed to the Thracian Chersonese, where the Laceda3monian 
harmost, Cyniscus, would find them pay ; and during this long 
march of 150 miles they were directed to support themselves by 
plundering the Thracian villages. Preparatory to the march 
they were ordered to muster outside the walls of Byzantium. 
But the Greeks, irritated by the deception which had been 
practised on them, and w^hich, through want of caution on the 
part of Anaxibius, became known to them before they had all 
quitted the town, prevented the gates from being closed, and 
rushed in infuriated masses back into the city, uttering loud 



B.C. 400. RETURN TO EUROPK 43S 

threats and bent on plunder and havoc. The hves and property 
of the citizens were at their mercy ; for at the first alarm Anaxi- 
bius had retired with his troops into the citadel, whilst the 
afiirighted inhabitants were either barricading their houses, or 
ilyiug to the ships for refuge. In this conjuncture Xenophon 
felt that the destruction of a city like Byzantium would draw 
down upon the army the vengeance not merely of the Lacedae- 
monians, but of all Greece. With great presence of mind, and 
under colour of aiding their designs, he caused the soldiers to 
form in an open square called the Thracian, and by a well-timed 
speech diverted them from their designs. 

Shortly afterwards, the army entered into the service of 
Seuthes, a Thracian prince, who was anxious to recover his 
sovereignty over three revolted tribes. But after they had ac- 
complished this object, Seuthes neglected to provide the pay 
which he had stipulated, or to fulfil the magnificent promises 
which he had made to Xenophon personally, of giving him his 
daughter in marriage, and putting him in possession of the town 
of Bisanthe. 

The army, now reduced to 6000, was thus again thrown into 
difficulties, when it entered on the last phase of its checkered 
career by engaging to serve the Lacedeemonians in a war which 
they had just declared against the satraps Tissaphernes and 
Phamabazus. Xenophon accordingly conducted his comrades to 
Pergamus in Mysia, where a considerable booty fell into their 
hands by the capture of a castle not far from that place. Xeno- 
phon was allowed to select the choicest lots from the booty thus 
acquired, as a tribute of gratitude and admiration for the ser- 
vices which he had rendered. 

Shortly after this adventure, in the spiing of B.C. 399, Thim- 
bron, the Lacedaemonian commander, arrived at Pergamus, and 
the remamder of the Ten Thousand Greeks became incorporated 
with his army. Xenophon now returned to Athens, where he 
must have arrived shortly after the execution of his master 
Socrates. Disgusted probably by that event, he rejoined his 
old comrades in Asia, and subsequently returned to Greece along 
with Agesilaus, as we have already related. ^'^ 

* See p. 412. 
U 




Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. 



CHAPTER XXXVIL 



FROM THE COMMEirOEMENT OF THE SPARTAN EMPIRE TO THE 
BATTLE OF CNIDUS. 

§ 1. Invasion and reduction of Elis by King Agis. § 2. Ambitious pro- 
jects of Lysander. § 3. He procures tlie throne for Agesilaus. § 4. 
Character of Agesilaus. § 5. Nature of the Spartan empire. § 6. Af- 
fairs of Asia Minor. § 1. Agesilaus proceeds thither. § 8. Mortifies 
Lysander. § 9. Campaigns of Agesilaus against Tissaphernes and 
Pharnabazus. §10. Execution of Tissaphernes. §11. Proceedings 
of Conor). Khodcs revolts from Sparta. § 12. Agesilaus ravages the 
satrapy of Pharnabazus. Interview between them. § 13. Recall of 
Agesilaus. § 14. Battle of Cnidus. 



B C. 401. £LIS REDUCED BY KING AGIS. 435 

§ 1 . Resuming the thread of the narrative, we shall now briefly 
trace the history of the Spartan supremacy, which resulted from 
the battle of iEgospotami, and the consequent capture of Athens, 
related in the preceduig book. This supremacy lasted altogether 
34 years, from the victory of JEgospotami in B.C. 405 to the 
defeat of Leuctra in B.C. 371. It was, however, only during the 
first nine years of this period that Sparta exercised an midis- 
puted sway in Greece, since the battle of Cnidus, fought in b.c. 
394, deprived her of her maritime ascendency, and consequently 
of much of her power. 

After the fall of Athens Sparta stood without a rival in Greece. 
The first use she made of her undisputed power was to take 
vengeance on her neighbours the E leans for some wrongs and 
insults which she had received at their hands. It will be recol- 
lected that in the year in which Alcibiades conducted the Athe- 
nian theory at Olympia with so much splendour, the E leans had 
excluded the Spartans from the festival ; and moreover that they 
had subsequently, in conjunction with Argos and Mantinea, 
borne arms against Sparta. To these causes of offence a fresh 
insult had been recently added, by the exclusion of King Agis 
from the temple of Olympia, whither he had gone to offer sa- 
crifice and consult the oracle. The Spartans also viewed with 
dislike and suspicion the democratical form of government esta- 
blished in Elis. Accordingly, they now demanded that the 
E leans should make good their quota of the expenses of the 
war against Athens, and also that they should relinquish their 
authority over their dependent townships in the district of 
Triphylia. Upon the refusal of the Eleans to comply with these 
demands, King Agis entered their territory at the head of a 
Lacedaemonian army m the summer of b.c. 402, but he was in- 
duced to retire and disband his troops by the unfavourable omen 
of an earthquake. In the following year, however, he resumed 
the expedition with more success. Assisted by the allies of 
Sparta, among whom even the Athenians now furnished their 
contingent, he ravaged and plundered the territory of Elis, per- 
formed by force the sacrifice at Olympia from which he had 
been debarred, and ultimately compelled the Eleans to accept a 
humiliating jpeace. This success placed Sparta in a more com- 
manding position than she had ever before occupied ; and she took 
advantage of it to root out her ancient enemies the Messenians, 
some of whom had been planted by the Athenians in Naupactus, 
and others in the island of CephaJlenia. 

^ 2. Meanwhile the overgrown wealth and power of Lysander 
made him ill-satisfied to remain in the condition of a private 
citizen. Stimulated by the flattery which he received from 



436 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXVII. 

every quarter, he began to contemplate setting aside the two 
regal families of Pausanias and Agis, and by rendering the crown 
elective, to pave the way for his own accession to it. It is to be 
recollected, however, that at Sparta such a design must not b^ 
regarded in quite the same light as in any other monarchy 
Although the two chief magistrates there enjoyed the title of 
Basileus, or King, they were not kings in the modern sense of the 
term. They were merely hereditary magistrates, enjoying indeed 
certain privileges, and exercising certain definite civil and military 
functions ; but they had no share in the government, which was 
carried on by the Ephors and the senate, with occasional appeals 
to the public assembly ; and even in the discharge of their ap- 
pointed duties they were subject to the control of the Ephors. 

§ 3. Aware of the influence of religion over the Spartan mind, 
Lysander, in pursuance of his scheme, endeavoured by bribery 
to procure for it the sanction of the oracles of Delphi, Dodona, 
and Jove Ammon in Libya. But the priests of those famous 
temples proving on this occasion incorruptible, he employed his 
influence in obtaining for another the sceptre which had eluded 
his own grasp. About a year after his campaign in Elis, King 
Agis died, leaving a son named Leotychides, about fifteen years 
of age. The legitimacy of Leotychides was however doubted, 
and Agis himseli" suspected him to be the ofisprmg of Alcibiades. 
Agesilaus, the younger brother of Agis, but by a difierent mo- 
ther, took advantage of these doubts, and being assisted by the 
powerful influence of Lysander, succeeded in setting aside Leo- 
tychides and ascending the throne, b.c. 398. 

§ 4. Agesilaus was now forty years of age, and esteemed a 
model of those virtues more peculiarly deemed Spartan. He was 
obedient to the constituted authorities, emiflous to excel, cou- 
rageous, energetic, capable of bearing all sorts of hardship and 
fatigue, simple and frugal in his mode of life. To these severer 
qualities he added the popular attractions of an agreeable coun- 
tenance and pleasing address. The character of Agesilaus seems, 
however, to have been magnified beyond its real worth by the 
indiscriminating panegyrics of his biographers, who relate of 
him many trivial anecdotes with a sort of unctuous admiration ; 
and though he was indisputably a good general, yet his cam- 
paigns present us with little that is striking or decisive. Pre- 
viously to his accession he had filled no prominent pubUc office, 
and his character cmisequently remained in a great measure 
unknown even to Lysander himself; who erroneously considered 
liim to be of a yielding and manageable disposition, and hoped 
by a skilful use of those qualities to extend his own influence, 
and under the name of another to be in reality king himself. 



B.C. 398. ACCESSION OF AGESILAUS. 487 

The personal defects of Agesilaus at first stood in the way of 
his promotion. He was not only low in stature, but also lame 
of one leg ; and there was an ancient oracle which warned the 
Spartans to beware " of a lame reign." The ingenuity of Lysan- 
der, assisted probably by the popular qualities of Agesilaus, 
contrived to overcome this objection by interpreting a lame 
reign to mean not any bodily defect in the king, but the reign 
of one who was not a genuine descendant of Hercules. Once 
possessed of power, Agesilaus supplied any defect in his title by 
the prudence and policy of his conduct ; and, by the marked 
deference which he paid both to the Ephors and the senators, 
lie succeeded in gaining for himself more real power than had 
been enjoyed by any of his predecessors. The very beginning 
of his reign Avas threatened by the conspiracy of Cinadon, one 
of the poorer class of citizens, but possessing all the pride of an 
ancient Spartan. The conspiracy, however, was discovered, and 
Cinadon and his accomplices were arrested by a stratagem of 
the Ephors and put to death. 

§ 5. The discontent which gave birth to this conspiracy ori- 
ginated in a great measure from the altered condition of Spartan 
citizens, in consequence of the extension of Spartan power and 
dominion. Sparta had now stepped into the place of Athens. 
In the various cities which had belonged to the Athenian em- 
pire, Lysander estabhshed an oligarchical Council of ten, called 
a Dcchairhj/^ or Decemvirate, subject to the control of a Spartan 
Harmost\ or governor. The Decarchies, however, remained only 
a short time in power, since the Spartan government regarded 
them with jealousy as the partisans of Lysander; but Harmosts 
continued to be placed in every state subject to their empire. 
The government of the Harmosts was corrupt and oppressive ; 
no justice could be obtained against them by an appeal to the 
Spartan authorities at home ; and the Grecian cities soon had 
cause to regret the milder and more equitable sway of Athens. 

The commencement of the Spartan degeneracy and decay may 
be dated from her entrance upon imperial power. Before the 
victories of Lysander, iron had formed the only Spartan money. 
That commander brought vast sums of gold and silver into the 
public treasury, in spite of the opposition of some of the Ephors, 
who regarded such a proceeding as a flagrant violation of the 
ordinances of Lycurgus. Several instances of corruption re- 
corded in the course of this history have, however, shown that the 
Spartans were far from insensible to the love of money, and that 
they contrived to gratify it even under the old system. But 

* ^EKaQXia. \ 'A()//o(Tr;^f, literally "one who fits or arranges." 



488 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXVII. 

properly regarded, an extension of the currency was rendered 
necessary by the ahered situation of Sparta. It would have 
been impossible to maintain a large fleet and a colonial empire 
without the requisite funds ; and how, for instance, could a re- 
venue of 1000 talents, which Sparta levied from the subject 
states, have been represented in iron money ? Whether Sparta 
had now entered on a career to \vhich the national genius was 
suited is another question ; and it would not perhaps be diffi- 
cult to show that in grasping the splendid prize of empire, she 
lost those homely virtues which previously formed her chief dis- 
tinction, and for which her children were naturally most fitted. 
It is at all events certain that the influx of w^ealth caused a 
great alteration in her internal condition. It w^as only the 
leading men who were enabled to enrich themselves by foreign 
comiriands or at the expense of the public treasury. Hence arose 
a still more marked distinction between the higher class of citizens, 
called Peers, and the lower, called the Equals or the Inferiors.* 
The latter, though nominally in the enjoyment of equal privileges, 
were no longer able, in consequence of the altered scale of living, 
to bear their share at the Syssitia, or public tables, and thun 
sank into a degraded and discontented class, in which Cinadoi- 
found the materials of his sedition. 

§ 6. The aflairs of Asia Minor soon began to draw the atten- 
tion of Agesilaus to that quarter. The assistance lent to Cyrus 
by the Spartans was no secret at the Persian court, and Tissa- 
phernes, who had been rewarded for his fidelity with the satrapy 
of Cyrus in addition to his own, no sooner returned to his go- 
vernment than he attacked the Ionian cities, then under the 
protection of Sparta. A considerable Lacedsemonian force under 
Thimbron was despatched to their assistance, and which, as 
related in the preceding chapter, was joined by the remnant of 
the Greeks who had served under Cyrus. Thimbron, however, 
proved so inefficient a commander, that he was superseded appa- 
rently at the end of 399 or beginning of 398 b.c , andDercyllidas 
appointed in his place, a man w^ho from his cunning and re- 
sources had acquired the name of Sisyphus. On assuming the 
command, Dercyllidas concluded a truce with Tissaphernes, in 
order that he might direct his w^hole force against Pharnabazus, 
from whom he had received a personal injury. He overran the 
greater part of iEolis with great rapidity, reducing nine towns 
in eight days, and took up his winter quarters in Bithynia. 
Early in the ensuing spring he proceeded into Thrace, where he 
built a wall across the Chersonese, to protect the Grecian colo- 

* See p. 62. 



B.C. 397. WAR IN ASIA MINOR. 439 

nies from the attacks of the barbarians of the interior. On his 
return to Asia he received orders from tlic Ephors to attack 
TJssapherncs in Caria, whilst the Lacedaemonian fleet under 
Pharax co-operated Avith him on the coast. But liere the Per- 
sians appeared in such force, the two satrap'= having imited their 
ai-mies, that he was able to cflcct but httle; ^nd bemg surprised 
in an unfavorable position woukl himself havf' sufiered severely 
but for the timidity of Tissaphernes, who was afraid to venture 
upon an action. Under these circiunstances an armistice was 
agreed to for the purpose of treating for a peace. Dercylhdas de- 
manded on the part of the Spartans the complete independence 
of the Grecian cities in Asia : the Persians on their side required 
the Lacedaemonians to withdraw their army from Asia as well as 
their various harmosts, or governors. 

This armistice took place in 397 B.C. Pharnabasus availed 
himself of it to make active preparations for a renewal of the 
w^ar. He obtained large reinforcements of Persian troops, and 
began to organize a fleet in Phcenicia and Cilicia. This was 
to be intrusted to the Athenian admiral Conon, of whom we now 
flrst hear again after a lapse of seven years since his defeat at 
^gospotami. After that disastrous battle, Conon fled wdtli 9 
triremes to Cyprus, where he w^as now living under the protec- 
tion of Evagoras, prince of Salamis. At the instance of Pharna- 
bazus, seconded by Evagoras, Conon consented to accept the 
command of the Persian fleet, which was to be raised to the 
number of 300 vessels. 

sW. It Avas the news of these extensive preparations that in- 
duced Agesilaus, on the suggestion of Lysander, to volunteer his 
eei-vices against the Persians. He proposed to take with him 
only 30 full Spartan citizens, or peers, to act as a sort of council, 
together with 2000 ISeodamodes, or enfranchised Helots, and 
GOOO hoplites of the allies. But Thebes, Corinth, and Athens 
refused on diflerent pleas to join tlie expedition. Lysander in- 
tended to be the leader of the 30 Spartans, and expected through 
them to be the virtual commander of the expedition of which 
Agesilaus was nominally the head. 

Since the time of Agamemnon no Grecian king had led an 
army into Asia ; and Agesilaus studiously availed himself of the 
prestige of that precedent in order to attract recruits to his 
standard. The Spartan kings claimed to inherit the sceptre of 
Agamemnon; and to render the parallel more complete, Age- 
silaus proceeded with a division of his fleet to Aulis, intending 
there to imitate the memorable sacrifice of the Homeric hero. 
But as he had neglected to ask the permission of the Tliebans, 
and conducted the sacriflce and solemnities by means of lii^ 



440 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXVII. 

owTi prophets and ministers, and in a manner at variance with 
the usual rites of the temple, the Thebans were offended, and 
expelled liim by armed Ibrce : — an nisult which he never 
forgave. 

§ 8. It was in 396 e.g. that Agesilaus arrived at Ephesus, and 
took the command in Asia. He demanded the same conditions 
of peace as those previously made by Dercyllidas ; and in order 
that there might be time to communicate with the Persian court, 
the armistice was renewed for three months. During this in- 
terval of repose, Lysander, by his arrogance and pretensions, 
offended both Agesilaus and the Thirty Spartans. Agesilaus, 
determined to uphold his dignity, subjected Lysander to so 
many humiliations that he was at last fain to request his dis- 
missal from Ephesus, and was accordingly sent to the Hellespont, 
where he did good service to the Spartan interests. 

§ 9. Meanwhile Tissaphemes, having received large rein- 
forcements, sent a message to Agesilaus before the armistice 
had expired, ordering him to quit Asia. Agesilaus replied by 
saying that he thanked the satrap for perjuring himself so 
flagrantly as to set the gods against him, and immediately made 
preparations as if he would attack Tissapharnes in Caria ; but 
having thus put the enemy on a false scent, he suddenly turned 
northwards into Phrj^gia, the satrapy of Pharnabazus, and marched 
without opposition to the neighbourhood of Dascylium, the re- 
sidence of the satrap himself Here, however, he was repulsed 
by the Persian cavalry ; and the sacrifices proving unfavourable 
for an advance, Agesilaus gave orders to retreat. He now pro- 
ceeded into winter quarters at Ephesus, where he employed him- 
self in organizing a body of cavalry to compete with the Persians. 
A conscription was accordingly made of the richest Greeks in 
the various towns, who, however, were allowed if they pleased 
to provide substitutes. By these and other energetic exertions, 
which during the winter gave to Ephesus the appearance of one 
vast arsenal, the army was brought into excellent condition ; y^d 
Agesilaus gave out early in the spring of 395 b.c. that he should 
march direct upon Sardis. Tissaphemes, suspecting another 
feint, now dispersed his cavalry in the plam of the Maeander. 
But this time Agesilaus marched as he had announced, and in 
three days arrived unopposed on the banks of the Pactolus, be- 
fore the Persian cavalry could be recalled. When they at last 
came up, the newly-raised Grecian horse, assisted by the peltasts, 
and some of the younger and more active hoplites, soon succeeded 
in putting them to flight. Many of the Persians were drowned 
in the Pactolus, and their camp, containing much booty and 
several camels, was taken. 



B.C. 396. AGESILAUS IN ASIA. 441 

§ 10. Agesilaug now pushed his ravages up to the very gates 
of Sardis, the residence of Tissaphernes. But the career of that 
timid and treacherous satrap was drawing to a close. The 
queen-mother, Pary satis, who had succeeded in regaining her 
influence over Artaxerxes, making a pretext of the disasters 
which had attended the arms of Tissaphernes, but in reality to 
avenge the part which he had taken against her son Cyrus, 
caused an order to be sent down from Susa for his execution ; in 
pursuance of which he was seized in a bath at Colossae, and be- 
headed. Tithraustes, who had been intrusted with the execution 
of this order, succeeded Tissaphernes in the satrapy, and imme- 
diately reopened negotiations with Agesilaus ; proposing that if 
he quitted Asia the Greek cities there should enjoy their in- 
dependence, with the sole exception of paying to Persia the tri- 
bute originally imposed upon them. Agesilaus replied that he 
could decide nothing without consulting the authorities at home. 
For this pui-pose an armistice of six months was concluded ; and 
meanwhile Tithraustes, by a subsidy of 30 talents, induced Age- 
silaus to move out of his satrapy into that of Pharnabazus. 

Ml- During this march into Phrj^gia Agesilaus received a new 
commission from home, appointing him the head of the naval as 
well as of the land force — two commands never before united 
in a single Spartan. For the first time since the battle of 
JEgospotami the naval supremacy of Sparta was threatened. 
Conon, with a fleet of 40 triremes, occupied the port of Caunus, 
on the confines of C aria and Lycia, and was there blockaded by a 
Lacedaemonian fleet of 120 triremes under Pharax; but a re- 
inforcement of 40 more ships having come to the aid of Conon, 
Pharax raised the blockade and retired to Rhodes. Here the 
first symptoms appeared of the detestation in which the Spartan 
government was held. The inhabitants rose, compelled the Spar- 
tan fleet to leave the island, and put themselves under the pro- 
tection of Conon, who now sailed thither. 

§12. Agesilaus, having despatched orders to the Lacedaemonian 
maritime dependencies to prepare a new fleet of 120 triremes 
against the following year, and having appointed his brother- 
in-law, Pisander, to the command of it, marched himself into the 
satrapy of Pharnabazus. He passed the winter in the neighbour- 
hood of Daspylium, the rich and fertile country about which 
afforded comfortable quarters and abundant plunder to the 
Grecian army. 

Towards the close of the winter a Greek of Cyzicus, named 
Apollophanes, brought about an interview betcen Agesilaus and 
Pharnabazus. Agesilaus, with the Thirty, having arrived first at 
the appointed place, sat down without ceremony on the grass. 



442 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXVIL 

When the Satrap came, accompanied with all the luxury of ori- 
ental pomp, his attendants prepared to spread some rich carpets 
for him. ; but Pharnabazus, observing how the Spartans were 
seated, was ashamed to avail himself of such luxuries, and sat 
down on the grass by the side of Agesilaus. After mutual 
salutes, Pharnabazus began to reproach the Greeks with their 
treatment of one who had always been their faithful ally, " You 
have reduced me so low," he observed, " that I have scarcely a 
dinner except from your leavings. My residences, my parks and 
hunting-grounds, the charm of my life, are all burnt or destroyed. 
Pray tell me if this is gratitude." The Spartans seemed struck 
with shame ; and Agesilaus, after a long pause, remarked in 
apology that their war with the Persian king compelled them to 
act as they had done ; that towards himself personally they had 
the most friendly feelings, and invited him to join then' alliance, 
when they would support him in independence of the Persian 
king. The reply of Pharnabazus was characterized by a noble 
frankness. " If the king," he said, " should deprive me of my 
command, I would willingly become your ally ; but so long as I 
am intrusted with the supreme power, expect from me nothing 
but war." Agesilaus was touched with the satrap's magnanimity. 
Taking him by the hand, he observed, " Would to Heaven that 
with such noble sentiments it were possible for you to be our 
friend But at all events I will at once quit your territory, and 
never again molest you or your property so long as there are 
other Persians against whom to turn my arms." 

^ 13. In pursuance of this promise Agesilaus now entered the 
plains of Thebe, near the gulf of Elseus ; but whilst he was here 
preparing an expedition on a grand scale into the interior of 
Asia Minor, he was suddenly recalled home (b.c. 394) to avert 
the dangers which threatened his native countiy. 

Meanwhile Conon, who had remained almost inactive since the 
revolt of Rhodes, proceeded in person to Babylon, and succeeded 
in obtaining a considerable sum of money from Artaxerxes. He 
shared his command with Pharnabazus, and by their joint exer- 
tions a powerful fleet, partly Phoenician and partly Grecian, was 
speedily equipped, superior in number to that of the Lacedoe- 
monians under Pisander. About the month of July Conon 
proceeded to the peninsula of Cnidus, in Caria, and oheied 
Pisandar battle. Though inferior in strength, Pisander did 
not shrink from the encounter. Being abandoned, however, 
by his Asiastic allies, he was soon overpowered by numbers, 
and fell gallantly fighting to the last. More than half the Lace- 
daemonian fleet was either captured or destroyed. This event 
occurred about the beo:iuniujr of Ausrust B.C. 394. 




View of Corinth and the Acrocorinthus. 



CHAPTER XXXYIII. 



THE COrJNTIIIAN WAR. FROM THE BATTLE OF CNmUS TO THE 
PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS. 

§ 1. Mission of Timocrates to the Grecian cities. § 2. Hostilities between 
Sparta and Thebes. § 3. The Athenians join the Thebans. Defeat 
and death of Lysander. Retreat of Pausanias. § 4. League against 
Sparta. Battle of Corinth. § 5. Homeward march of Agesilau?, 
§ 6. Battle of Coronea. § '7. Loss of the Spartan maritime empire. 
§ 8. Conon rebuilds the Avails of Athens. § 9. Civil dissensions at 
Corinth. § 10. Campaign of Agesilaus in the Corinthian territory-. 
§ 11. New system of tactics introduced by Iphicrates. Destruction 
of a Spartan mora by his light-armed troops. § 12. Negotiations of 
Antalcidas with the'Persians. Death of Conon, Defeat and deatli 
of Thimbron. §13. Maritime war on the coast of Asia. Revolt of 
Rhodes. Thrasybulus appointed Athenian commander. His death 
at Aspendus. ^naxibius defeated by Iphicrates at the Hellespont. 
§ 14. War between Athens and iEgina. Teleutias surprises the Piraiua. 
§ 15. Peace of Antalcidas. § IG. Its character. 

H. The jealousy and ill-will with which the newly acquired 
empire of the Spartans was rcg'arded by the other Grecian slates 
had not escaped the notice of the Persians ; and when Tithraustes 
succeeded to the satrapy of Tissaphernes he resolved to avail 
himself of this feeling bv exciting a war against Sparia in the 
heart of Greece itself AYith tliis view lie despatched one Timo- 
crates, a Rhodian, to the leading Grecian cities which appeared 



444 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXVIIL 

hostile to Sparta, carrying with him a sum of 50 talents to he 
distributed among the chief men in each for the purpose of 
bringing them over to the views of Persia. This transaction, 
however, is scarcely to be viewed in the light of a private bribe, 
but rather as a sum publicly advanced for a specific purpose. 
Timoc rates was successful in Thebes, Corinth, and ArgoB ; but 
he appears not to have visited Athens. 

^ 2. Hostilities were at first confined to Sparta and Thebes. 
A quarrel having arisen between the Opuntian Locrians and the 
Phocians respecting a strip of border land, the former people 
appealed to the Thebans, who invaded Phocis. The Phocians on 
their side invoked the aid of the Lacedaemonians, w4io elated 
with the prosperous state of their afiairs in Asia, and moreover 
desirous of avenging the affronts they had received from the 
Thebans, readily listened to the appeal. Lysander, who took an 
active part in promoting the war, was directed to attack the 
town of Hahartus, having first augmented the small force which 
he took with him by contingents levied among the tribes of 
Mount (Eta; and it was arranged that King Pausanias should 
join him on a fixed day under the walls of that town, with 
the main body of the Lacedsemonians and their Peloponnesian 
allies. 

§ 3. Nothing could more strikingly denote the altered state 
of feeling in Greece than the request for assistance which the 
Thebans, thus menaced, made to their ancient enemies and rivals 
the .Athenians ; even offering, as an inducement, to assist them 
in recovering their lost empire. Nor were the Athenians back- 
ward in responding to the appeal Disunion, however, prevailed 
among the Boeotians themselves ; and Orchomenus, the second 
city in importance in their confederacy, revolted at the approach 
of Lysander, and joined the Lacedaemonians. That commander, 
after ravaging the country round Lebadea, proceeded according 
to agreement to Hahartus, though he had as yet received no 
tidings of Pausanias. Here, in a sally made by the citizens, 
opportunely supported by the unexpected arrival of a body of 
Thebans, the army of Lysander was routed, and himself slain : 
xiid though his troops, favoured by some rugged gi'ound in their 
rear, succeeded in rallying and repulsing their assailants, yet, dis- 
heartened by the severe loss which they had suffered, and by the 
death of their general, they disbanded and dispersed themselves 
in the night time. Thus when Pausanias at last came up, he 
found no army to unite with ; and as an imposing Athenian 
force had arrived, he now, with the advice of his council, took 
the humiliating step — always deemed a confession of inferiority — 
of requesting a truce in order to bury the dead who had fallen 



B.C. 394. BATTLE OF CORINTH. 445 

in the preceding battle. Even this, however, the Thebans would 
not grant except on the condition that the Lacedaemonians 
should immediately quit their territory. With these terms Pau- 
sanias was forced to comply ; and after duly interring the bodies 
of Lysander and his fallen comrades, the Lacedaemonians deject- 
edly pursued their homeward march, followed by the Thebans, 
who manifested by repeated insults, and even by blows admin- 
istered to stragglers, the insolence inspired by their success. Pau- 
sanias, afraid to face the public indignation of the Spartans, 
took refuge in the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea ; and being 
condemned to death in his absence, only escaped that fate by 
remaining in the sanctuary. He Avas succeeded by his son 
Agesipolis. 

^ 4. The enemies of Sparta took fresh courage from this dis- 
aster to her arms. Athens, Corinth, and Argos now formed with 
Thebes a solemn alliance against her. The league was soon joined 
by the Euboeans, the Acarnanians, the Ozolian Locrians, the Am- 
braciots, the Leucadians, and the Chalcidians of Thrace. In the 
spring of 394 b.c. the aUies assembled at Corinth, and the war, 
which had been hitherto regarded as merely Boeotian, w^as now 
called the Corinthian, by which name it is known in history. This 
threatening aspect of affairs determined the Ephors to recall 
Agesilaug, as related in the preceding chapter. 

The allies were soon in a condition to take the field with a 
force of 24,000 hoplites, of whom one-fourth were Athenians, 
together with a considerable body of light troops and cavalry. 
The Lacedaemonians, under the conduct of Aristodemus, had 
also made the most active preparations. The exact amount of 
their force is not known, but it was in all probability consi- 
derably inferior to that of the allies. The latter were full of 
confidence, and the Corinthian Timolaus proposed marchhig 
straight upon Sparta, in order, as he expressed it, to burn the 
wasps in their nest before they came forth to sting. This bold, 
but perhaps judicious advice, was, however, anticipated by the 
unwonted activity of the Lacedaemonians, who had already 
crossed their border, and, advancing by Tegea and Mantiiiea, 
had taken up a position at Sicyon. The allies, who had pro- 
ceeded as far as Nemea, now fell back upon Corinth, and en- 
camped on some rugged ground in the neighbourhood of the city. 
Here a battle ensued, in which the Laceda)monians gained the 
victory, though their allied troops were put to the rout. Of the 
Spartans themselves only 8 men fell ; but of their allies 1100 
perished, and of the confederates as many as 2800. This battle, 
called the battle of Corinth, was fought apparently about tho 
same time as that of Cnidus, in July 394 b.c. 



446 HISTORY OF GREECE. CiiAr. XXXVIIL 

§ 5. Agesilaus, who had reUnquished with a heavy heart his 
projected expedition into Asia, was now on his homeward march. 
By the promise of rewards at Sestus in the Chersonese, he had 
persuaded the bravest and most efficient soldiers in his army to 
accompany him, amongst whom were many of the Ten Thousand, 
with Xenophon at their head. The route of Agesilaus was much 
the same as the one formerly traversed by Xerxes, and the camels 
which accompanied the army gave it somewhat of an oriental 
aspect. At Amphipolis he received the news of the victory at 
Corinth ; but his heart was so full of schemes against Persia, 
that the feeling which it awakened in his bosom was rather one 
of regret that so many Greeks had fallen, whose united efforts 
might have emancipated Asia Minor, than of joy at the success 
of his countrymen. Having forced his way through a desultory 
opposition offered by the Thessalian cavalry, he crossed Mount 
Othrys, and marched unopposed the rest of the way through the 
straits of Thermopylae to the frontiers of Phocis and Bceotia. 
Here the evil tidings reached him — foreshadowed according to 
ancient superstition by an eclipse of the sun (14 Aug. 394 B.C.) — 
of the defeat and death of his brother-in-law, Pisander, at Cnidus. 
Fearing the impression which such sad ncAvs might produce upon 
his men, he gave out that the Lacedaemonian fleet had gained a 
victory, though Pisander had perished ; and, having offered sacri- 
fice as if for a victory, he ordered an advance. 

§ 6. Agesilaus soon came up with the confederate army, which 
had prepared to oppose him in the plain of Coronea, The hostile 
forces approached each other slowly and in silence, till within 
about a furlong, when the Thebans raised the psean, and charged 
at a running pace. They succeeded in driving in the Orchome- 
nians, who formed the left wing of the army of Agesilaus, and 
penetrated as far as the baggage in the rear. But on the re- 
mainder of the line Agesilaus was victorious, and the Thebans 
now saw themselves cut off from their companions, who had 
retreated and taken up a position on Mount Helicon. Facing 
about and forming in deep and compact order, the Thebans 
sought to rejoin the main body, but they were opposed by Age- 
Bilaus and his troops. The shock of the conflicting masses which 
ensued was one of the most terrible recorded in the annals of 
Grecian warfare. The shields of the foremost ranks were shat- 
tered, their spears broken, so that daggers became the only 
available arm. The regular war-shout was suppressed, but the 
silence was occasionally broken by deep and furious exclamations. 
Agesilaus, who was in the front ranks, unequal by his size and 
strength to sustain so furious an onset, was flung down, trodden 
on, and covered with wounds ; but the devoted courage of the 



B.C. 894. BATTLE OF CORONEA. 447 

50 Spartans forming liis body-guard rescued him from death. 
The Thebans finally forced their way through, but not without 
severe loss. The victory of Agesilaus was not very decisive ; 
but the Thebans tacitly acknowledged their deleat by soliciting 
the customary truce for the burial of their dead. 

After the battle Agesilaus visited Delphi, where he dedicated 
to Apollo a tithe, valued at the large sum of 100 talents, of the 
booty which he had acquired during his Asiatic campaigns. He 
then, returned to Sparta, where he was received with the most 
lively demonstrations of gratitude and esteem, and became hence- 
forwards the sole director of Spartan policy. 

^ 7. Thus in less than two months the Lacedaemonians had 
fought two battles on land, and one at sea ; namely, those cf 
Corinth, Coronea, and Cnidus. But, though they had been vic- 
torious in the land engagements, they were so little decisive as 
to lead to no important result ; whilst their defeat at Cnidus 
produced the most disastrous consequences. It was followed by 
the loss of nearly all their maritime empire, even faster than they 
had acquired it after the battle of iEgospotami. For as Conon 
and Pharnabazus sailed with their victorious fleet from island 
to island, and from port to port, their approach was everywhere 
the signal for the flight or expulsion cf the Spartan harmosts. 
Abydus formed the only exception to this universal surrender. 
Fortunately for Sparta the able and experienced Dercyllidas was 
then harmost in that city, and by his activity and courage he 
succeeded in preserving not only Abydus, but also the opposite 
Chersonese from the grasp of Pharnabazus. 

§ 8. In the spring cf the following year, b.c. 393, Conon and 
Pharnabazus sailed from the Hellespont with a powerful fleet, 
and, after visiting Melos and several of the Cyclades, directed 
their course to the Peloponnesus. After ravaging the coast cf 
Laconia at several points, and taking the island cf Cythera, 
where they established an Athenian garrison, they sailed to the 
isthmus of Corinth, then occupied as a central post by the allies. 
The appearance of a Persian fleet in the Saronic gulf was a 
strange sight to Grecian eyes, and one which might have served 
as a severe comment on the eflect of their suicidal wars. Phar- 
nabazus assured the allies of his support, and gave earnest of it 
by advancing to them a considerable sum cf money. Conon 
dexterously availed himself of the hatred of Pharnabazus towards 
Sparta to procure a boon for his native city. As the satrap was 
on the pohit of proceeding homewards Conon obtained leave to 
employ the seamen in rebuilding the fortifications of Pirieus and 
the long walls of Athens. Pharnabuzus also granted a large sum 
foi the same purpose ; and Conon had thus the glory of appear- 



44& 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



Chap. XXXVIIL 



ing, like a second Themistocles, the deliverer and restorer of his 
country. By a singular revolution of fortune, the Thebans, who 
had most rejoiced at the fall of Athens, as w^ell as the Persians, 
who had subsidized Sparta to destroy the city, now gave their 
funds and labour to restore it. Before the end of autumn the walls 
were rebuilt. Athens seemed now restored, if not to power, at 
least to independence ; and if she reflected but the shadow of her 
former greatness, she was at least raised up from the depths of 
her degradation. Having thus, as it were, founded Athens a 
second time, Conon sailed to the islands to lay again the fomida- 
tions of an Athenian maritime empire. 

§ 9. During the remainder of this and the whole of the follow- 
ing year (b.c. 392), the war was carried on in the Corinthian 
territory. The Onean mountains, which extend across the Isth- 
mus south of its narrowest part, afford an excellent line of 
defence against an invading army. Through these mountains 
there are only three passes, one by the Saronic gulf, close to 
CenchresB, a second through a ravine at the eastern side of the 
Acrocorinthus or citadel of Corinth, and a third along the 
narrow strip of land which lies between the western foot of the 
Acrocorinthus and the Corinthian gulf The two former of 
these passes could easily be defended by a resolute body of 
troops against superior numbers ; and the third was completely 
protected by two long walls running down from Corinth to 
Lechseum, the port of the city upon the Corinthian gulf Corinth 




Plan of Carinth. 



A. AcFocorinthus. 

B. Corinth. 



C . Lechaum. 
I. 1. Long Wallfc 



I5.C. 39i THE CORI^iTHIAN AVAR. 449 

and the passes of the Onean mountains were now occupied by 
the aUied troops ; but while the aUies themselves suffered little 
or nothing, the whole brunt of the war lell upon Corinth. The 
Spartans took up their head-quarters at Sicyon, whence they 
ravaged the fertile Corinthian plain upon the coast. The wealthy 
Corinthian proprietors suii'ered so much from the devastation of 
their lands, that many of them became anxious to renew their 
old alliance with Sparta. A large number of the other Co- 
rinthians participated in these feelings, and the leading men in 
power, who were violently opposed to Sparta, became so alarmed 
at the wide-spread disaffection among the citizens, that they in- 
troduced a body of Argives into the city during the celebration 
of the festival of the Eucleia, and massacred numbers of the 
opposite party in the market-place and in the theatre. The go- 
vernment now formed such a close union with Argos, that even 
the boundary marks between the two states were removed, and 
the very name of Corinth was changed to that of Argos. But 
the aristocratical party at Corinth, which was still numerous, 
contrived to admit Praxitas, the Lacedaemonian commander at 
Sicyon, within the long walls whieli connected Corinth with 
Lechaeum. In the space between the walls, which was of con- 
siderable breadth, and about a mile and a half in length, a battle 
took place between the Lacedaemonians and the Corinthians, 
Avho had marched out of the city to dislodge them. The Co- 
rinthians, however, were defeated, and this victory was followed 
by the demolition of a considerable part of the long walls by 
Praxitas. The Lacedaimonians now marched across the Istlimus, 
and captured Sidus and Crommyon. These events happened in 
B.C. 392. 

sWO. The breach elTected in the long walls of Corinth excited 
great alarm at Athens, as it opened a secure passage to the Lace- 
dcEmonians into Attica and Bu3otia. Accordingly the Athenians 
moved in great force to Corinth, with carpenters and other ne- 
cessary workmen ; and with this assistance the Corinthians soon 
restored the breach. In the summer of u.c. 391, this step was, 
however, rendered useless in consequence of Agesilaus, assisted 
by the Lacedaemonian fleet under his brother Teleutias, having 
obtained possession not only of the long walls, but also of the 
port of Lccha3um itself Agesilaus followed up his success by 
marching into the rocky peninsula between the bay of Lechaium 
and the Alcyonian sea, from which Corinth derived both support 
and assistance. The two principal places in this district, Piramm 
and (Enoe, together with large booty and many captives, fell into 
his hands. Corinth was now surrounded on every side ; and tho 
Thebans were thrown into such alarm that they sent envoys to 



450 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXVIIL 

Agesilaus to treat of peace. Agesilaus had never forgiven the 
Thebans for having interrupted his sacrifice at Auhs ; and he 
now seized the opportunity of gratifying his spite against them. 
Accordingly, when they were introduced into his presence, he 
treated them with the most marked contempt, and affected not 
to notice them. But a retributive Nemesis was at hand. As 
Agesilaus sat in a pavilion on the banks of a lake wliich adjoined 
the sacred grove of Hera, feasting his eyes with the spectacle of 
a long train of captives, paraded under the guard of Lacedaemo- 
nian hoplites, a man galloped up on a foaming horse, and ac- 
quainted him with a disaster more novel and more astounding 
than any that had ever yet befallen the Spartan arms. This was 
nothing less than the destruction of a whole Lacedaemonian 
mora, or battalion, by the light-armed mercenaries of the Athe- 
nian Iphicrates 

^ IL For the preceding two years Iphicrates had commanded 
a body of mercenaries, consisting of peltasts,^ who had been 
first organised by Conon after rebuilding the walls of Athens. 
For this force Iphicrates introduced those improved anns and 
tactics which form an epoch in the Grecian art of war. His 
object was to combine as far as possible the peculiar advantages 
of the hophtes and light-armed troops. He substituted a linen 
corslet for the coat of mail worn by the hoplites, and lessened 
the shield, while he rendered the light javelin and short sword 
of the peltasts more effective by lengthening them both one-half 
These troops soon proved very efiective. At their head Iphi- 
crates attacked and defeated the Pliliasians, gained a victory near 
Sicyon, and inflicted such loss upon the Arcadian hoplites that 
they were afraid to meet his peltasts in the f^eld. He now ven- 
tured upon a bolder exploit. 

A body of Amyclaean hoplites had obtained leave to celebrate 
the festival of the Hyacinthia in their native city ; and a Lace- 
daemonian tnora, 600 strong, was appointed to escort them till 
they should be considered out of reach of attack. Iphicrates, 
who was in Corinth with his peltasts, suflered the Amyclaeans 
and their escort to pass unmolested ; but on the return of the 
Lacedaemonians he sallied forth with inconceivable hardihood, and 
attacked them in flank and rear. So many fell under the darts 
and arrows of the peltasts that the Lacedaemonian captain called 
a halt, and ordered the youngest and most active of his hoplites 
to rush forward and drive off the assailants. But their heavy 
arms rendered them quite unequal to such a mode of fighting ; 
nor did the Lacedaemonian cavalry, which now came up, but 

* So called from the pelta, or kind of shield wliich they carried. 



B.C. 391. VICTORY OF IPHICRATES. 451 

which acted with very Httle vigour and courage, produce any 
better eti'ect. At length the Lacedaemonians succeeded in reach- 
ing an eminence, where they endeavoured to make a stand ; but 
at this moment Caliias arrived with some Athenian hophtes 
from Corinth, whereupon the already disheartened Lacedaemo- 
nians broke and fled in confusion, pursued by the peltasts, who 
committed such havoc, chasing and killing some of them even 
in the sea, that but very few of the whole body succeeded in 
reachuig Lechaeum. 

The news of this defeat produced a great change in the con- 
duct of the Theban envoys then with Agesilaus. They did not 
say another word about peace, but merely asked permission to 
communicate with their countrymen at Corinth. Agesilaus, per- 
ceiving their altered sentiments, and taking them with him, 
marched on the following day with his whole force to Corinth, 
where he defied the garrison to come cut to battle. But Iphi- 
crates was too prudent to hazard his recently achieved success ; 
and Agesilaus marched back to Sparta as it were by stealth, 
avoiding all those places where the inhabitants, though aUies, 
were likely to show their satisfaction at the disgi'ace of the Spar- 
tan arms. No sooner was he departed than Iphicrates saUied 
forth from Corinth and retook Sidus, Crommyon, Piraeum, and 
(Enoe, thus liberating all the northern and eastern territory of 
Cori ith. But, in spite of his military abilities and great services, 
the domineering character of Iphicrates had rendered him so 
unpopular at Corinth, that the Athenians were obliged to recall 
him, and appoint Chabrias in his place. 

M2. Meantime important events had taken place in connexion 
with the maritime war. The successes of Conon had inspired 
the Lacedsemonians with such alarm tliat they resolved to spare 
no efforts to regain the goodwill of the Persians. AYith this 
view they sent Antalcidas, an able politician trained in the 
school of Lysander, to negotiate with Tiribazus, who had suc- 
ceeded Tithraustes in the satrapy of Ionia, in order to bring 
about a general peace under the mediation of Persia. His nego- 
tiations, however, though supported by the influence of Tiri- 
bazus, at present proved unsuccessful. Conon, and the other 
representatives of the allies in Asia, rejected with indignation 
the proposal of Antalcidas to abandon the Grecian cities in Asia 
to Persia ; nor was the court of Susa itself as yet disposed to 
entertain any amicable relations with Sparta. Tiribazus, how- 
ever, covertly supphed the Lacedcemonians with money for the 
purposes of their fleet, and, by a gross breach of public faith, 
caused Conon to be seized and detained, under the pretence that 
he was acting contrary to the interests of the Great King. This 



452 HISTOKY OF GREECR Chap. XXXYIIL 

event proved the end of Conon's public life. According to one 
account the Persians caused him to be put to death in prison ; 
but it seems more probable that he escaped and again took 
refuge with Evagoras in Cyprus. Be this, however, as it may, 
the public labours of one of the most useful, if not one of the 
greatest, of Athenian citizens, were now brought to a close : a 
man from whose hands his country reaped nothing but benefit, 
and to whose reputation history seems to have done but scanty 
justice. 

Struthas, who held the command in Ionia during the absence 
of Tiribazus at Susa, carried on hostilities with vigour against 
the Lacedjemonians. In spite of his proved incapacity, Thimbron 
had been again intrusted with the command of an army of 8000 
men ; but while on his march from Ephesus he was surprised 
by Struthas, and suffered a complete deleat. Thimbron himself 
was among the slain, and those of his soldiers who escaped were 
compelled to take refuge in the neighbouring cities. 

§ 13. The island of Rhodes now demanded the attention of the 
belligerents. The democratical party in this island, having ob- 
tained the upper hand, had revolted from Persia ; and the Spar- 
tans, fearing that they would form an alliance with Athens, sent 
Teleutias, the brother of Agesilaus, v/ith a fleet to reduce the 
island, although they were themselves at war with Persia, so 
much greater was their fear of the Athenians than of the Per- 
sians. On his way from Cnidus, Teleutias fell in with and cap- 
tured an Athenian squadron of 10 triremes under Philocrates, 
which was proceeding to assist Evagorus in a struggle that was 
impending betw^een him and the Persians. The news of this 
reverse, as well as the great increase of the Lacedsemonian fleet, 
induced the Athenians to despatch, in B.C. 389, a fleet of 40 
triremes, under Thrasybulus, to the coasts of Asia Minor — a feat 
which betokens a considerable renovation of their naval power. 
Thrasybulus first proceeded to the Hellespont, where he ex- 
tended the Athenian alliance among the people on both sides of 
the straits, persuaded or compelled Byzantium and other cities 
to establish democratical governments, and reimposed the toll of 
a tenth on all vessels passing from the Euxine. After this, Thra- 
sybulus sailed to Lesbos, where he defeated the Lacedaimonian 
harmost, and next visited several places on the mainland, with 
the view of raising funds for his meditated expedition to Rhodes. 
But the inhabitants of Aspendus in Pamphylia, where he had 
obtained some contributions, surprised his naval camp in the 
night, and slew him. Thus perished the man who had delivered 
his country from the Thirty Tyrants. He was succeeded in his 
command by Agyrrhius. 



B.C. 389. TELEUTIAS SURPRISES PIRAEUS. 453 

The success of Thrasybulus in the Hellespont created such 
anxiety at Sparta that the Ephors were induced to supersede 
Dercyllidas, and appoint Anaxibius to the government of Aby- 
dus. Anaxibius took with him a force that rendered him master 
of the straits, and enabled him to intercept the merchantmen 
bound to Athens and other ports belonging to the allies. The 
Athenians now despatched Iphicrates with 8 triremes and 1200 
peltasts to make head against Anaxibius ; and by a well-laid 
stratagem the Athenian commander succeeded in suprising 
Anaxibius among the mountain-ranges of Ida, whilst on his 
homeward march from Antandrus to Abydus. The troops of 
Anaxibius were completely routed, and himself and twelve other 
harmosts slain. 

M4. This exploit rendered the Athenians again masters of the 
Hellespont. But whilst thus successful in that quarter, their 
attention was attracted nearer home by the affairs of ^Egina. 
After the battle of jEgospotami, Lysander had restored to the 
island as many of the ancient population as he could find ; and 
they were now induced by the Lacedaemonian harmost to infest 
the Athenian trade with their privateers ; so that, in the lan- 
guage of Pericles, Mgma. again became " the eyesore of Piraeus." 
The most mamorable event in this period of the war was the 
surprise of Piraeus by Teleutias with a squadron of only 12 sail. 
Teleutias was the most popular commander in the Lacedaemonian 
tleet, and was sent by the Ephors to appease the discontent 
among the Lacedaemonian seamen at ^gina, in consequence of 
not receiving their pay. Teleutias plainly told them that they 
had nothing to depend upon but their swords, and he bade them 
prepare for an enterprise, the object of which he did not then 
disclose. This was nothing less than an attack upon Piraeus ; 
an enterprise which it seemed almost insane to attempt with a 
force of only 12 triremes. But Teleutias reckoned on taking the 
Athenians by surprise. Quitting the harbour of ^Egina at night- 
fall, and rowing along leisurely and in silence, Teleutias found 
himself at daybreak within half a mile of Piraeus, and when it 
was fully light he steered his vessels straight into the harbour, 
which was beginning to assume again some of its former com- 
mercial importance. Here, as he expected, he found no pre- 
parations for repelling an attack, and though the alarm was 
immediately raised, he had time to inflict considerable damage 
before any troops could be got together to oppose him. His 
men disembarked on the quays, and carried oli^ not only the 
portable merchandise, but also the shipmasters, tradesmen, and 
others whom they found there. The larger merchant ships 
were boarded and plundered ; several of the smaller were towed 



454 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXVIIL 

off with their whole cargoes ; and even three or four triremes 
met the same fate. All this booty Teleutias succeeded in caiTy- 
ing safely into ^Egina, together with several corn-ships, and 
other merchantmen which he fell in with off Suniurn. The 
prizes were then sold, and yielded so large a sum that Teleutias 
was able to pay the seamen a month's wages. 

§ 15. Whilst these things were passing in Greece, Antalcidas, 
conducted by Tiribazus, had repaired to the Persian court a 
second time for the purpose of renewing his negotiations for a 
general peace on the same basis as he had proposed before. 
This time he succeeded in winning the favour of the Persian 
monarch, in spite of his dislike of the Spartans generally, and 
prevailed on him both to adopt the peace, and to declare war 
against those who should reject it. Antalcidas and Tiribazus 
again arrived on the coasts of Asia Minor in the spring of b.c. 
387, not only armed with these powers, but provided with an 
ample force to carry them into execution. In addition to the 
entire fleet of Persia, Dionysius of Syracuse had placed 20 tri- 
remes at the service of the Lacedsemonions ; and Antalcidas now 
sailed with a large fleet to the Hellespont, where Iphicrates and 
the Athenians were still predominant. But the overwhelming 
force of Antalcidas, the largest that had been seen in the Helles- 
pont since the battle of ^Egospotami, rendered all resistance 
hopeless. The supplies of corn from the Euxine no longer 
found their way to Athens ; the ^ginetan privateers resumed 
their depredations ; and the Athenians, depressed at once both 
by what they felt and by what they anticipated, began to long 
for peace. The Argives participated in the same desire ; and 
as without the assistance of Athens it seemed hopeless for the 
other allies to struggle against Sparta, all Greece seemed in- 
clined to listen to an accommodation. 

Under these circumstances deputies from the Grecian states 
were summoned to meet Tiribazus ; who, after exhibiting to 
them the royal seal of Persia, read to them the following terms 
of a peace : *' King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities in 
Asia and the islands of Clazomense and Cyprus should belong to 
him. He also thinks it just to leave all the other Grecian cities, 
both small and great, independent — except Lemnos, Imbros, and 
Scyros, which are to belong to Athens, as of old. Should any 
parties refuse to accept this peace, I will make war upon them, 
along with those who are of the same mind, both by land and 
sea, with ships and with money." 

The deputies reported these terms to their respective govern- 
ments, all of which at once accepted the peace with the exception 
of the Thebans, who claimed to take the oath not in their own 



B.C. 387. 



PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS. 



455 



behalf alone, but for the BoBotian confederacy in general. But 
when Agesilaus threatened the Thebans with war if they did 
not comply, they consented to take the oath for their own city 
alone — thus virtually renouncing their federal headship. 

n6. This disgraceful peace, called the peace of Antalcidas, 
was concluded in the year b.c. 387, By it Helles seemed pro- 
strated at the feet of the barbarians ; for its very terms, engraven • 
on stone and set up in the sanctuaries of Greece, recognized the 
Persian kir\g as the arbiter of her destinies. Although Athens 
cannot be entirely exonerated from the blame of this transac- 
tion, the chief guilt rests upon Sparta, whose designs were far 
deeper and more hypocritical than they appeared. Under the 
specious pretext of securing the independence of the Grecian 
cities, her only object was to break up the confederacies under 
Athens and Thebes, and, with the assistance of Persia, to pave 
the way for her own absolute dominion in Greece. Her real 
aim is pithily characterized in an anecdote recorded of Agesi- 
laus. When somebody remarked " Alas, for Hellas, that our 
Spartans should be Medizing l"" "Say rather," replied Agesi- 
laus, "that the Medes are Laconizing .'" 




Adventures of Dionysus, from ihc Choragic monument of Lysicratea, 



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Adventures of Dionysus, from the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. 

CHAPTER XXXIX. 

FROM THE PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS TO THE PEACE OF CALLIAS. 

§ 1. Aggressions of Sparta in Boeotia. Rebuilding of Plafcfea. § 2. 
Reduction of Mantinea. § 3. Olynthian confederation. Sparta in- 
terferes. § 4. Seizure of the Cadmea at Thebes by the Lacedaemo- 
nians. § 6. Reduction of Olynthus. § 6. Unpopularity of Sparta, 
§ 7. Revolution at Thebes. § 8. The Lacedsemouians expelled from 
the Cadmea. § 9. Their expeditions against Thebes. Alarm of the 
Athenians, who ally themselves with Thebes. § 10. Reorganization 
of the Athenian confederation, § 11. Preparations for Avar. The 
Theban "Sacred Band." §12. Character of Epaminondas, §13. 
Spartan invasions of Boeotia. 14, Maritime affairs. Battle of Naxos. 
Success of Timotheus. § 15. Progress of the Theban arms. § 16. 
The Athenians form a peace with Sparta, which is immediately 
broken. Proceedings at Corcyra. § 17. The Lacedsemonians solicit 
Persian aid. § 18. Congress at Sparta to treat of peace. The The- 
bans are excluded from it. 

\ 1. No sooner was the peace of Antalcidas concluded than 
Sparta, directed by Agesilaus, the ever-active enemy of Thebes, 
exerted all her power to w^eaken that city. She began by pro- 
claiming the independence of the various Boeotian cities, and 
by organizing in each a local oligarchy, adverse to Thebes and 
favourable to herself. The popular feeling in these cities was 
in general opposed to the Spartan dominion ; two alone, Orcho- 
menus and Thespias, preferred it to that of Thebes ; and in these 
the Lacedaemonians placed garrisons, and made them their main 
stations in Boeotia. Even such a step as this seemed to exceed 
the spirit of the treaty, which required merely the independence 
of each city ; but the restoration of Platsea, now effected by the 
Lacedsemonians, was an evident work of supererogation, under- 
taken only to annoy and weaken Thebes, and to form a place 
for another Lacedaemonian garrison. Since the destruction of 



B.C. 385. DESTRUCTION OF ISIANTINEA. 457 

Piatsea, most of her remaining citizens had become domiciled at 
Athens, had married Athenian women, and had thus almost 
forgotten their native country. These were now restored, and 
their city rebuilt ; but merely that it might become a Spartan 
out-post. Thebes was at present too weak to resist these en- 
croachments on her dignity and power, which even at Sparta were 
regarded with dissatisfation by king AgesipoUs and the mora 
moderate party. 

^ 2. The Laceda3monians now found themselves in a condition 
to wreak their vengeance on the Mantineans, by whom they 
deemed themselves aggrieved. They could not, indeed, bring 
any charge of positive hostility against the Mantineans ; but they 
accused them of lukewarmness and equivocal fidelity ; of having 
been slack in furnishing their contingents during the late war ; 
and of having supplied the Argives with corn when at war with 
Sparta. On these grounds a message was sent requiring the 
Mantineans to raze their walls ; and as they hesitated to comply, 
an army was despatched under Agesipolis to enforce obedience. 
Agesipolis succeeded in taking Mantinea, which was well sup- 
plied with provisions, by damming up the river Ophis which 
ran through it. The inundation thus caused undermined the 
walls which were built of baked bricks, and obliged the citizens 
to capitulate. Much harder terms were now exacted from 
them.' They were required not only to demolish their fortifica- 
tions but also a great part of their town, so as to restore it to 
the form of five villages, out of which it had been originally 
formed. Each of these villages was left unfortified, and placed 
under a separate oligarchical government. About the same 
time the Lacedaemonians compelled the city of Phlius to recall 
a body of exiles who had been expelled on account of their at- 
tachment to the interests of Sparta. 

§ 3. But the attention of Sparta was soon called to more 
distant regions. Olynthus, a town situated at the head of the 
Toronaic gulf in the peninsula of the Macedonian Chalcidice, had 
become the head of a powerful confederation, which included 
several of the adjacent Grecian cities, and among them Potidaja, 
on the isthmus of Pallenc. Acanthus and Apollonia, the largest 
cities after Olynthus, in the Chalcidic peninsula, had refused to 
join the league ; and as they were threatened with war by Olyn- 
thus, they despatched envoys to Sparta to solicit aid (b.c. 383). 
The envoys gave an alarming account of the designs of Olyn- 
thus : and being seconded by ambassadors from Amyntas, king 
of Macedonia, the Lacedaemonians were easily persuaded to enter 
upon an undertaking which harmonised with their present course 
of policy. Their allies were persuaded or rather overawed into 

X 



458 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIX. 

the adoption of their views, and an army of 10,000 men was 
voted. The emergency, however, was so pressing that Euda- 
midas was despatched at once with a force of 2000 hophtes. 
Marching rapidly with oidy a portion even of these, he arrived 
in time enough to defend Acanthus and Apollonia, and even suc- 
ceeded in inducing Potidaea to revolt from the league. But, 
though joined by Amyntas with his forces, he was not strong 
enough to take the field openly against the Olynthians. 

^ 4. This expedition of the Lacedajmonians led incidentally to 
an affair of much greater importance. The Thebans had entered 
into an alliance with Olynthus, and had forbidden any of their 
citizens to join the Lacedaemonian army destined to act against 
it ; but they were not strong enough to prevent its marching 
through their territory. PhoBbidas, the brother of Eudamidas, 
was appointed to collect the troops which were not in readiness 
at the time of his brother's departure, and to march with all pos- 
sible speed towards Olynthus. On his way through Boeotia he 
halted with his division at a gymnasium not far from Thebes ; 
where he was visited by Leontiades, one of the polemarchs of 
the city, and two or three other leaders of the Lacedsemonian 
party in Thebes. It happened that the festival of the Thes- 
mophoria was on the point of being celebrated, during which the 
Cadmea, or Theban Acropolis, was given up for the exclusive use 
of the women. The opportunity seemed favourable for a sur- 
prise ; and Leontiades and Phcebidas concerted a plot to seize it. 
Whilst the festival was celebrating, Phoebidas pretended to re- 
sume his march, but only made a circuit round the city waUs ; 
whilst Leontiades, stealing out of the senate, mounted his horse, 
and joining the Lacedaemonian troops, conducted them towards 
the Cadmea. It was a sultry summer's afternoon, so that the 
very streets were deserted ; and Phoebidas, without encounter- 
ing any opposition, seized the citadel and all the women in it, to 
serve as hostages for the quiet submission of the Thebans. 
Leontiades then returned to the senate, and caused his fellow 
Polemarch, Ismenias, who was the head of the opposite, or pa- 
triotic, party, to be seized and imprisoned. After this blow, 
300 of the leading men of his party fled to Athens for safety. 
Ismenias was shortly afterwards brought to trial by Leontiades 
before a packed court, and put to death on the ground of his 
receiving money from Persia and stirring up the late war. 

This treacherous act during a period of profound peace 
awakened the liveliest indignation throughout Greece. Sparta 
herself could not venture to justify it openly, and Phoebidas was 
made the scape-goat of her afiected displeasure. The Ephors, 
though they had secretly authorised the proceeding, now dis- 



B.C. 379. END OF THE OLYNTHIAN WAR. 459 

avowed him ; and Agesilaus alone, prompted by his burning 
hatred of Thebes, stood forth in his defence. The result was a 
truly Laconian piece of hypocrisy. As a sort of atonement to 
the violated feeling of Greece, Phcebidas was censured, fined, and 
dismissed. But that this was a mere farce is evident from the 
fact of his subsequent restoration to command ; and, however 
indignant the Lacedaemonians affected to appear at the act of 
Phcebidas, they took care to reap the fruits of it by retaining 
their garrison in the Cadmea. 

^ 5. The once haughty Thebes was now enrolled a member of 
the Laceda3monian alliance, and furnished her contingent — the 
grateful offering of the new Theban government — for the war 
which Sparta was prosecuting with redoubled vigour against 
Olynthus. The troops of that city, however, especially its cav- 
alry, were excellent, and the struggle was protracted for several 
years. During the course of it king Agesipolis died of a fever 
brought on by his exertions ; and the war, which had begun in 
B.C. 383, was ultimately brought to a close by his successor, 
Polybiades, in B.C. 379 : who, by closely blockading Olynthus, 
deprived it of its supplies, and thus forced it to capitulate. The 
Olynthian confederacy was now dissolved ; the Grecian cities be- 
longing to it were compelled to join the Lacedaemonian alliance ; 
whilst the maritime towns of Macedonia were again reduced 
under the dominion of Amyntas. Sparta thus inflicted a great 
blow upon Hellas ; for the Olynthian confederacy might have 
served as a counterpoise to the growing power of Macedon, des- 
tined soon to overwhelm the rest of Greece. 

About the same time as the reduction of Olynthus, Phhus 
yielded to the arms of Agesilaus, who, on the complaint of the 
restored exiles that they could not obtain a restitution of their 
rights, had undertaken the siege of that city. A government 
nominated by Agesilaus was now appointed there. 

§ 6. The power of Sparta on land had now attained its greatest 
height. At sea, she divided with Athens the empire of the 
smaller islands, whilst the larger one seems to have been inde- 
pendent of both. Her unpopularity in Greece was ccmmen- 
surate with the extent of her harshly administered dominion. 
She was leagued on all sides with the enemies of Grecian free- 
dom — with the Persians, with Amyntas of Macedon, and with 
Dionysius of Syracuse. But she had now reached the turning- 
point of her fortunes, and her successes, which liad been earned 
without scruple, were soon to be followed by misfortunes and 
disgrace. The first blow came from Thebes, where she had per- 
petrated her most signal injustice. 

^ 7. That city had been for three years in the liands of 



460 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXIX 

Leontiades and the Spartan party. During this time great dis- 
content had grown up among the resident citizens ; and there 
M^as also the party of exasperated exiles, who had taken refuge at 
Athens. Among these exiles was Pelopidas, a young man of 
birth and fortune, who had already distinguished himself by his 
disinterested patriotism and ardent character. He applied a 
great part of his wealth to the relief of his indignant fellow- 
citizens, and gave such undivided attention to public affairs as 
to neglect the management of his own property. 

Pelopidas took the lead in the plans now formed for the libe- 
ration of his countr}^ and was the heart and soul of the enter- 
prise. Rebuked by his friends on account of his carelessness, he 
replied that money was certainly useful to such as were lame 
and blind. His warm and generous heart was irresistibly at- 
tracted by ever}^thing great and noble ; and hence he was led to 
form a close and intimate friendship Avith Epaminondas, who 
W'as several years older than himself and of a still loftier cha- 
racter. Their friendship is said to have originated in a cam- 
paign in which they served together, when Pelopidas having 
fallen in battle apparently dead, Epaminondas protected his 
body at the imminent risk of his own life. Pelopidas afterwards 
endeavoured to persuade Epaminondas to share his riches with 
him ; and when he did not succeed, he resolved to live on the 
same frugal fare as his great friend. A secret correspondence 
M^as opened with his friends at Thebes, the chief of whom were 
Phyllidas, secretary to the polemarchs, and Charon. Epaminon- 
das was solicited to take a part m the conspiracy ; but, though 
he viewed the Lacedaemonian government with abhorrence, his 
principles forbade him to paticipate in a plot w^hich was to be 
carried out by treachery and murder. 

The dominant faction, besides the advantage of the actual 
possession of power, was supported by a garrison of 1500 Lace- 
daemonians. The enterprise, therefore, was one of considerable 
difficulty and danger. In the execution of it PhylHdas took a 
leading part. It was arranged that he should give a supper to 
Archias and Philippus, the two polemarchs, whose company was 
to be secured by the allurement of an introduction to some 
Theban women remarkable for their beauty. After they had 
partaken freely of wine, the conspirators were to be intio- 
duced, disguised as women, and to complete their work by the 
assassination of the polemarchs. On the day belbre the banquet, 
Pelopidas, with six other exiles, arrived at Thebes from Athens, 
and, straggling through the gates towards dusk in the disguise 
of rustics and huntsmen, arrived safely at the house of Charon, 
where they remained concealed till the appointed hour. Before 



B.C. 379. LIBERATION OF THEBES. 461 

it arrived, however, a summons which Charon received to attend 
the polcmarchs filled the conspirators with the liveliest alarm. 
These magistrates, whilst enjoying the good cheer of Phyllidas, 
received a vague message from Athens respecting some plot 
formed by the exiles ; and, as Charon was known to be connected 
with them, he was immediately sent for and questioned. By 
the aid of Phyllidas, however, Charon contrived to lull the sus- 
picions of the polemarchs, who were already half intoxicated. 
Shortly after the departure of Charon another messenger arrived 
from Athens with a letter for Archias, in which the whole plot 
was accurately detailed. The messenger, in accordance with his 
mstructions informed Archias that the letter related to matters 
of serious importance. But the polemarch, completely engrossed 
by the pleasures of the table, thrust the letter under the pillow 
of his couch, exclaiming, " Serious matters to-morrow." 

The hour of their fate was now ripe, and the polemarchs, 
flushed with wine, desired PhyUidas to introduce the women. 
The conspirators, disguised with veils, and in the ample folds of 
female attire, were ushered into the room. For men in the 
state of the revellers the deception was complete ; but when they 
attempted to lift the veils from the women, their passion was 
rewarded by the mortal thrust of a dagger. After thus slaying 
the two polemarchs, the conspirators went to the house of Leon- 
tiades, whom they found reclining after supper, wliilst his wife 
sat spinning by his side. Leontiades, who was strong and 
courageous, immediately seized his sword and inflicted a mortal 
wound on one of the conspirators, but was at length overpowered 
and killed by Pelopidas. Then the conspirators proceeded to the 
gaol, and, having liberated the prisoners, supplied them with 
arms. 

The news of the revolution soon spread abroad. Epaminondas, 
whose repugnance to these proceedings attached only to then- 
secret and treacherous character, now appeared accompanied by 
a few friends in arms. Proclamations were issued announcing 
that Thebes was free, and caUing upon all citizens who valued 
their liberty to muster in the market-place. As soon as day 
dawned, and the citizens became aware that they were sum- 
moned to vindicate their liberty, their joy and enthusiasm were 
unbounded. For the first time since the seizure of their citadel 
they met in public assembly ; the conspirators, being introduced, 
were crowned by the ])riest with wreaths, and thanked in the 
name of their country's gods ; whilst the assembly, with grateful 
acclamation, unanimously nominated Pelojjidas, Charon, and Mel- 
Ion as the first restored Bceotarchs. 

^ 8. Meanwhile the remainder of the Theban exiles, accom' 



462 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XXXIX 

panied by a body of Athenian volunteers, assembled on the 
frontiers of Boeotia ; and, at the first news of the success of the 
conspiracy, hastened to Thebes to complete the revolution. The 
Lacedaemonian garrison sent to Thespise and Platsea for reinforce- 
ments ; but these were dispersed by the Theban cavalry before 
they could approach the gates. The Thebans, under their new 
BoBotarchs, were already mounting to the assault of the Cadmea, 
when the Lacedaemonians capitulated, and were allowed to march 
out with the honours of war. But several of the Theban citizens 
of the Lacedaemonian party, who had taken refuge in the citadel, 
were put to death, and in some cases even their children shared 
their fate. The surrender of the Cadmea seems to have been a 
disgraceful derehction of duty on the part of the three Com- 
manding Spartan harmosts ; nor are we surprised to hear that 
two of them were put to death and the third fined and banished. 
§ 9. The news of this revolution gave a shock to the Lace- 
daemonian power throughout Greece. At Sparta itself it occa- 
sioned the greatest consternation. Although it was the depth 
of winter, the allied contingents were immediately called out 
and an expedition undertaken against Thebes. As Agesilaus, 
being now more than sixty years of age, declined to take the 
command, it was assigned to his colleague, Cleombrotus, who 
penetrated as far into Boeotia as Cynoscephalae ; but, after re- 
maining there sixteen days, he returned to Sparta without having 
effected anything, leaving, however, a third of his army at Thes- 
piae, under the command of Sphodrias. This expedition caused 
great alarm at Athens. The Lacedaemonians sent envoys to 
demand satisfaction for the part which the Athenians had taken 
in the Theban revolution. Among those who had aided and 
abetted the plot were two of the Strategi or Generals, who were 
now sacrificed to the public security, one of them being con- 
demned and executed, and the other, who fled before trial, sen- 
tenced to banishment. The Thebans, now fearing that the 
Athenians would remain quiet and leave them to contend single- 
handed against the Spartans, bribed Sphodrias to invade Attica. 
Accordingly Sphodrias set out from Thespia3 with the intention 
of surprising the Piraeus by night ; but, being overtaken by day- 
light whilst still on the Thriasian plain near Eleusis, he retreated, 
though not without committing various acts of depredation. 
This attempt excited the liveliest indignation at Athens. The 
Lacedaemonian envoys, still at Athens, were seized and interro- 
gated, but exculpated themselves from all knowledge of the en- 
terprise. Sphodrias l^imself was indicted for it at Sparta, but 
the influence of Agesilaus procured his acquittal. His escape 
was denounced by the unanimous voice of Greece. At Athens 



B.C. S78. ALLIANCE BETWEEN ATHENS AND THEBES. 4C3 

it at once produced an alliance with Thebes, and a declaration 
of war against Sparta (b.c. 378). 

§ 1 0. From this time must be dated the sera of a new political 
combination in Greece. Athens strained every nerve to organ- 
ize a fresh confederacy. She already possessed the nucleus of one 
in a small body of maritime allies, and envoys were now sent to 
the principal ports and islands in the ^Egean, inviting them to 
join the alliance on equal and honourable terms. Thebes did 
not scruple to enrol herself as one of its earliest members. At 
Athens itself the fortifications of Piraeus were completed, new 
ships of war were built, and every means taken to ensure naval 
supremacy. The basis on which the confederacy was formed 
closely resembled that of Delos. The cities composing it were 
to be independent, and to send deputies to a congress at Athens, 
for the purpose of raising a common fund for the support of a 
naval force. Care was taken to banish all recollections con- 
nected with the former unpopularity of the Athenian empire. 
The name of the tribute was no longer phoros,^ but syntaxis,i or 
*' contribution ;" and all previous rights of rlei'uchia were formally 
renounced. The confederacy, which ultimately numbered 70 
cities, was chiefly organized through the exertions of Chabrias, 
of Timotheus the son of Conon, and of the orator Callistratus ; 
but of these Timotheus was particularly successful in procuring 
accessions to the league. 

Ml- The first proceeding of the assembled congress was to vote 
20,000 hoplites, 500 cavalry, and 200 triremes. To meet the ne- 
cessary expenses, a new graduated assessment of the eispkora,t or 
property tax, was instituted at Athens itself (b.c. 378) ; a species 
of tax never imposed except on urgent occasions. These pro- 
ceedings show the ardour with which Athens embarked in the 
war. Nor were the Thebans less zealous, amongst whom the 
Spartan government had left a lively feeling of antipathy. They 
hastened to enrol themselves under Pelopidas and his colleagues ; 
the most fertile portion of the Theban territory was surrounded 
with a ditch and palisade, in order to protect it from invasion ; 
the military force was put in the best training, and the famous 
" Sacred Band" was now for the first time instituted. This 
band was a regiment of 300 hophtes. It was supported at the 
public expense, and kept constantly under arms. It was com- 
posed of young and chosen citizens of the best families, and 
organized in such a manner that each man had at his side a dear 
and intimate friend. Its special duty was the defence of t^^ 
Cadmea. 



464 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIX. 

H 2 . The Thebans had always been excellent soldiers ; but their 
good fortune now gave them the greatest general that Greece had 
hitherto seen. Eparainondas, who now appears conspicuously 
in public life, deserves the reputation not merely of a Theban 
but of a Grecian hero. Sprung from a poor but ancient family, 
Epaminondas possessed all the best qualities of his nation with- 
out that heaviness, either of body or of mind, which characterized 
and deteriorated the Theban people. In the exercises of the 
gymnasium he aimed rather at feats of skill, than of mere cor- 
poreal strength. He excelled in music — a term which among 
the Greeks denoted not only instrumental and vocal perform- 
ance, and dancing, but also the just and rhythmical intonation 
of the voice and movement of the body. To these accomplish- 
ments he united the more intellectual study of philosophy. 
Through the Theban Simmias, and the Tarentine Spintharus, 
both of whom had been companions of Socrates, Epaminondas 
imbibed the wisdom and the method of the great philosopher 
of Athens ; whilst by the Pythagorean Lysis, a Tarentine exile 
resident at Thebes, he was initiated into the more recondite 
doctrines of the earliest of Grecian sages. By these varied com- 
munications his mind was enlarged beyond the sphere of vulgar 
superstition, and emancipated from that timorous interpretation 
of nature, which caused even some of the leading men of those 
days to behold a portent in the most ordinary phenomenon. A 
still rarer accomplishment for a Theban was that of eloquence, 
which he possessed in no ordinary degree. These intellectual 
qualities were matched with moral virtues worthy to consort 
with them. Though eloquent, he was discreet ; though poor, he 
was neither avaricious nor corrupt ; though naturally firm and 
courageous, he was averse to cruelty, violence, and bloodshed ; 
though a patriot, he was a stranger to personal ambition, and 
scorned the little arts by which popularity is too often courted. 
Pelopidas, as we have already said, was his bosom friend. It 
was natural, therefore, that when Pelopidas was named Bjbo- 
tarch, Epaminondas should be prominently employed in organ- 
izing the means of war ; but it was not till some years later 
that his military genius shone forth in its full lustre. 

§ 13. The Spartans were resolved to avenge the repulse they 
had received — and in the summer of B.C. 378, Agesilaus marched 
with a large army into Boeotia. He succeeded in breaking 
through the Theban circumvallation, and ravaged the country 
up to the very gates of Thebes ; though the combined Theban 
and Athenian armies — the latter under Chabrias — presented 
too formidable a front for him to venture upon an engagement. 
ASfer spending a month in the Boeotian territory without 



B.C. 376. BATTLE OF NAXUS. 46§ 

striking a decisive blow, Agesilaus returned to Sparta with 
the bulk of his army, leaving the rest under the command of 
Phoebidas at Thespia3 ; who shortly afterwards fell in a skirmish. 
A second expedition undertaken by Agesilaus in the following 
summer (b.c. 377) ended much in the same manner. An injury 
to his leg, which he received on the homeward march, and which 
was aggravated by the unskilfulness of his surgeon, disabled him 
for a long time from active service ; so that the invasion in the 
summer of b.c. 376 was conducted by Cleombrotus. But the 
Thebans had now acquired both skill and confidence. They an- 
ticipated the Lacedaemonians in seizing the passes of Cithseron; 
and Cleombrotus, instead of invading Boeotia, was forced to re- 
treat ingloriously. 

^ 14l. This ill-success on land determined the Lacedaemonians 
to try what they could effect at sea ; and a fleet of 60 triremes 
under PoUio was accordingly despatched into the iEgean. Near 
Naxos they fell in with the Athenian fleet under Chabrias, who 
completely defeated them, thus regaining once more for Athens 
the mastery of the seas. (b.c. 376.) It was on this occasion 
that young Phocion first distinguished himself The Athenian^ 
followed up this success by sending Timotheus, the son of 
Conon, with a fleet into the western seas. Timotheus won 
success as much by prudence and conciliation as by arms. The 
inhabitants of Cephallenia and Corey ra, several of the tribes 
of Epirus, together with the Acarnanians dwelling on the coast, 
were persuaded to join the Athenian alliance. Off'Acarnania 
he was attacked by the Peloponnesian fleet, which, however, he 
defeated ; and being subsequently reinforced by some triremes 
from Corcyra, he became completely master of the seas in that 
quarter. 

^15. The justice and forbearance, however, which Timotheus 
observed towards friends and neutrals, obliged him to draw 
largely upon the Athenian treasury ; and the losses inflicted on 
the Athenian commerce by the privateers of -Sigina caused thf- 
drain to be still more seriously felt. Athens was thus compelled 
to make fresh demands on the members of the confederacy ; 
with which however the Thebans refused to comply, though it 
was partly at their instance that the Athenian fleet had been 
seut into the ^Egean. This refusal was embittered by jealousy 
of the rapid strides, which, owing to the diversion caused by the 
maritime efforts of Athens, Thebes had recently been making. 
For two years Boiotia had been free from Spartan invasion; and 
Thebes had employed this time in extending her dominion over 
the neighbouring cities. One of her most important successes 
during this period was the victory gained by Pelopidas near 

x=* 



466 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXXIX 

Tegyra, a village dependent upon Orchomenus (b.c. 375). The 
Spartan harmost of Orchomenus having left that town with the 
greater part of the garrison in order to make an incursion into 
Locris, Pelopidas formed the project of surprising Orchomenus, 
but finding it impracticable, was on his road home, when he fell 
in near Tegyra with the Lacedaemonians on their return from 
Locris. Pelopidas had with him only the Sacred Band and a 
small body of cavalry, while the Lacedaemonians were nearly 
twice as numerous. He did not, however, shrink from the con- 
flict on this account ; and when one of his men, running up to 
him, exclaimed, "We are fallen into the midst of the enemy," 
he replied, " Why so, more than they into the midst of us ?" In 
the battle which ensued, the two Spartan commanders fell at 
the first charge, and their men were put to the rout. So signal 
& victory inspired the Thebans with new confidence and vigour, 
as it showed that Sparta was not invincible even in a pitched 
battle, and with the advantage of numbers on her side. By the 
year 374 b.c, the Thebans had succeeded in entirely expehing 
the Lacedsemonians from Bcsotia, had put down the oligarchical 
factions in the various cities, and revived the Boeotian confe- 
deracy. Orchomenus alone, which lay on the borders of Phocis, 
together with its dependency Chseronea, still remained under 
Spartan government. The Thebans now began to look beyond 
their own boundaries, and to retaliate on the Phocians for the 
assistance they had lent to Sparta. The success of the Thebans 
in that quarter would have laid open to them the temple of 
Delphi with all its treasures ; nor did such a result seem impro- 
bable, as the Phocians were at the same time hard pressed by 
Jason, of Pherse in Thessaly. But at the instance of the Phocians 
Cleombrotus came to their aid, and succeeded in assuring their 
safety, as well as that of Orchomenus. 

^16. Such were the successes of the Thebans which revived 
the jealousy and distrust of Athens. Phocis was her ancient 
ally; and the Theban menace of that country, coupled with the 
anger excited by the refusal of the Thebai.s to pay the required 
tribute, induced the Athenians to make proposals of peace to 
Sparta. These were eagerly adopted, and Timotheus was in- 
structed to sail back to Athens with the fleet. The peace, how- 
ever, was broken almost as soon as made. On his way back, 
Timotheus disembarked at Zacynthus some exiles belonging to 
that island, and assisted them in establishing a fortified post. 
For this proceeding Sparta demanded redress at Athens in the 
name of the Zacyiithian government ; which being refused, war 
was again declared. The Laceda3monians now sent a large force 
under the command of Mr.asippus to subdue the important island 



B.C. 371. PEACE BETWEEN ATHENS AND SPARTA. 467 

of Corcyra, which has not appeared in Grecian histoiy since the 
time of the fearful dissensions by which it was torn asunder in 
the Peloponnesian war. Mnasippus having efiected a landing 
and blockaded the capital, the Corcyrians invoked the aid of the 
Athenians, who appointed Timotheus to conduct a fleet to their 
rehef ; and whilst this was preparing despatched Stesicles with 
600 peltasts overland through Thessaly and Epirus. These being 
conveyed across the channel to Corcyra, contrived to get into the 
city, and revived the hopes of the besieged with the news of th« 
approaching Athenian fleet. The distress and privation had now 
become very great within the city ; but the misconduct of Mna- 
sippus afforded the Corcyra^ans an opportunity of retrieving their 
alfairs. His soldiers, who were mostly mercenaries, being irregu- 
larly paid and harshly treated, became mutinous and insubor- 
dinate ; the watch was badly kept ; and the besieged, observing 
their opportunity, made a sally in which the Lacedaemonians 
were deleated, and Mnasippus himself slain. Shortly afterwards 
the approach of the Athenian fleet being announced, the Lace- 
dsemonions hastily evacuated the island, leaving behind them a 
large store of provisions and many slaves, besides a considerable 
number of sick and wounded soldiers. 

AVhen the Athenian fleet arrived it was found to be com- 
manded by Iphicrates, Chabrias, and the orator Callistratus. 
Timotheus had been superseded in the command, because he 
was thought to have wasted time unnecessarily in equipping the 
fleet. Iphicrates, soon after his arrival at Corcyra, captured nine 
out of ten triremes sent by Dionysius of Syracuse to the assist- 
ance of Sparta. From thence he crossed over to the opposite 
coast of Acarnania, and even laid waste the western shores of 
Peloponnesus. 

^17. These successes of the Athenians occasioned great alarm 
at Sparta. Antalcidas was again despatched (b.c. 372) to solicit 
the intervention of Persia, on the plea that the peace had been 
infringed by the re-establishment of the Boeotian confederation. 
But even Athens had become anxious for peace, in consequence 
of the increasing jealousy of Thebes, which had recently destroyed 
the restored city of Plataia, and obliged its inhabitants once more 
to seek refuge at Athens. Prompted by these feelings, the Athe- 
nians opened negotiations for a peace with Sparta ; a resolution 
which was also adopted by the majority of the allies. Due no- 
tice of this intention was given to the Thebans, who were also 
invited to isend deputies to Sparta. 

M8. A congress was accordingly opened in that city in the 
spring of 371 b.c. The Athenians were represented by Callias, 
Autocles, and Callistratus ; and the Thebans by Ej^aminondas, 



468 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



Chap. XXXIX. 



then one of the polemarchs. The terms of a peace were agreed 
upon, by which the independence of the various Grecian cities 
was to be recognized ; the armaments on both sides were to be dis- 
banded, and the Spartan harmosts and garrisons everywhere dis- 
missed. Sparta ratified the treaty for herself and her alhes ; but 
Athens took the oaths only for herself, and was followed separate- 
ly by her allies. But when the turn of the Thebans came, 
Epaminondas refused to sign except in the name of the Boeotian 
confederation, and justified his rei'usal in a bold and eloquent 
speech, in which he maintained that the title of Thebes to the 
headship of Boeotia rested on as good a foundation as the claim 
of Sparta to the sovereignty of Laconia, which he maintained 
was derived only from the power of the sword. This novel and 
startling view of the matter, which nobody before had ever ven- 
tured to open, was peculiarly insulting to Spartan ears. Agesi- 
laus was incensed beyond measure at what he regarded as another 
instance of Theban insolence. Starting abruptly from his seat, 
and addressing Epaminondas, he exclaimed : " Speak out — will 
you, or will you not leave each BcEotian city independent ?" 
Epaminondas replied by another question : " Will you leave each 
of the Laconian towns independent ?" Agesilaus made no answer, 
but directing the name of the Thebans to be struck out of the 
treaty, proclaimed them excluded from it. 

Thus ended the congress. The peace concluded between 
Sparta, Athens, and their respective alhes, was called the peace 
of Callias. The result with regard to Thebes and Sparta will 
appear in the following chapter. 




The Wind Boreas, from the Horologiura of Andronicus Cyrrhestes at Athen\ 




Ithome. from the Stadium of Messene. 



CHAPTER XL. 



THE SUPREMACY OF THEBES. 



§ 1. Inrasion of Boeotia by Cleombrotus. § 2. Battle of Leuctra. § 3. 
Its effect throughout Greece. § 4. Jason of Pherffi joins the Thebans. 
§ 5. Progress of Thebes. § 6. Assassination of Jason. § 7. Estab- 
lishment of the Arcadian league. § 8. First invasion of Peloponnesus 
by Epaminondas. Alarm at Sparta. Vigorous measures of Agesilaus. 
§ 9. Epaminondas founds Megalopolis, and restores the Messenians. 
§ 10. Alliance between Athens and Sparta. Second invasion of 
Peloponnesus by Epaminondas. § 11. Invasion of Laconia by the 
Arcadians. § 12. Expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly. The 
"Tearless Battle" between the Arcadians and Lacedaemonians. 
§ 13. Third invasion of Peloponnesus by Epaminondas. § 14. Mis- 
sion of Pelopidas to the court of Susa. § 1 5. Seizure of Pelopidas by 
Alexander. His release. § 16. The Athenians acquire Oropus. Al- 
liance between Athens and Arcadia. § 17. Attempt of the Athenians 
to seize Corinth followed by an alliance between the Corinthians and 
Thebans. § 18. Success of the Athenians at sea. A Theban fleet 
commanded by Epaminondas. § 19. Death of Pelopidas. § 20. 
"Wars between Elis and Arcadia. Battle at Olympia during tlio 

, festival. § 21. Dissensions among the Arcadians. § 22. Fourth in- 
vasion of Peloponnesus by Epaminondas. Attempts upon Sparta 
and Mantinea. § 23. Battle of Mantinea, and death of Epaminon- 
das. § 24. Death of Agesilaus. 

M. In pursuance of the treaty, the Lacedaemonians withdrew 
their harmosts and parrisons, whilst the Athenians recalled 



470 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XL. 

Iphicrates with the fleet from the Ionian sea. Only one feehng 
prevailed at Sparta — a desire to crush Thebes ; and this was 
carried to an almost insane extent ; so that even Xenophon, a 
warm partizan of the Lacedsemonians, compares it to a mis- 
leading and fatal inspiration sent by the gods. But this was 
an after-thought. Before the actual collision, the general opinion 
not only at Sparta, but throughout Greece, was very difierent. 
Thebes was regarded as doomed to destruction ; and it was not 
for a moment imagined that, single-handed, she would be able 
to resist the might of Sparta. At the time when the peace was 
concluded, Cleombrotus happened to be in Phocis at the head of 
a Lacedsemonian army ; and he now received orders to invade 
BcBotia without delay. The Thebans, on their side, were equally 
determined on resistance. In order to prevent Cleombrotus 
from penetrating into Boeotia, Epaminondas occupied with a 
strong force the narrow pass near Coronea, situated between the 
lake Copais and a spur of Mount Helicon, through which Agesi- 
laus had forced a passage on his homeward march from Asia. 
But Cleombrotus took a circuitous road, deemed hardly practi- 
cable, and therefore but slightly guarded, over the mountains to 
the south. Arriving thus unexpectedly before Creusis in the 
Crisssean gulf, he took that place by surprise, and seized twelve 
Theban triremes which lay in the harbour. Then, having left a 
garrison in the town, he directed his march through the terri- 
tory of Thespiae, and encamped on the memorable plain of 
Leuctra. 

^2. This march of Cleombrotus displays considerable military 
skill. He had not only succeeded in penetrating into Boeotia 
almost without opposition ; but, by seizing the port of" Creusis, he 
had secured a safe retreat in case of disaster. The Thebans were 
discouraged at his progress, and it required all the energy and 
address of Epaminondas and Pelopidas to revive their drooping 
spirits. Omens of evil import had attended their march Irorn 
Thebes; and when they encamped within sight of the Lacedaj- 
monians, three out of the seven Boeotarchs were for returning 
to the city and shutting themselves up in it, after sending away 
their wives and children to Athens. But Epaminondas had too 
much confidence in his own genius to listen to such timorous 
counsels. His own mind was proof against the fears of super- 
stition, and luckily some favourable portents now gave encourage- 
ment to his troops. A Spartan exile serving with the Thebans 
bade them remark, that on that very spot stood the tomb of 
two BoBotian virgins who slew themselves in consequence of 
having been outraged by Lacedsemonians. The shades of these 
injured maidens, he said, v/ould now demand vengeance ; and 



BATTLE OF LEUCTRA. 471 

the Thcban commanders, seizing the omen, crowned the tombs 
with wreaths. 

The forces on each side are not accm-ately known, but it seems 
probable that the Thebans were outnumbered by the Lacedaj- 
monians. The mihtary genius of Epaminondas, however, com- 
pensated any inferiority of numbers by novelty of tactics. Up 
to this time Grecian battles had been uniformly conducted by a 
general attack in hne. Epaminondas now first adopted the ma- 
noeuvre, used with such success by Napoleon in modern times, 
of concentrating heavy masses on a given point of the enemy's 
array. Having formed his left wing into a dense column of 50 
deep, so that its depth was greater than its front, he directed it 
against the Lacedaemonian right, containing the best troops in 
their army, drawn up 12 deep, and led by Cleombrotus in person. 
Meanwhile the Theban centre and right were ordered to be kept 
out of action, and in readiness to support the advance cf the left 
wing. The battle began with skirmishes of cavalry in front, in 
which the Lacedaemonian horse were soon driven in. The 
Theban left, the ^Sacred Band with Pelopidas at their head, 
leading the van, now fell with such irresistible weiglit on the 
Lacedaemonian right, as to bear down all opposition. The shock 
was terrible. Cleombrotus himself was mortally wounded in the 
onset, and with ditficulty carried off by his comrades. Kumbers 
of his officers, as well as of his men, were slain, and the whole wing 
was broken and driven back to the camp. On no other part of 
the line was there any serious fighting ; partly owing to the dis- 
position made by Epaminondas, and partly to the lukewaiTnness 
of the Spartan allies, who occupied the centre and part of the 
right wing. The loss of the Thebans was small compared with 
that of the Lacedaemonians. Out of 700 Spartans in the army 
of the latter, 400 had fallen ; and their king also had been slain, 
an event which had not occurred since the fatal day of Thermo- 
pylae. Many of their allies hardly concealed the satisfaction 
which they felt at their defeat ; whilst so great was the depres- 
sion among the Lacedaemonians themselves, that very few were 
found bold enough to propose a renewal of the combat, in order 
to recover the bodies of the slain. The majority decided that a 
truce should be solicited for that pur}X)se. But, though the 
bodies of the fallen were given up, their arms were retained ; and 
five centuries afterwards the shields of the principal Spartan 
officers were seen at Thebes by the traveller Pausanias. 

^ 3. The victory of Louctra was gained within three weeks 
after the exclusion of the Thebans from the peace of Callias. 
The effect of it throughout Greece was electrical. It was every- 
where felt that a new military power had arisen — that tho 



4Y2 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XL 

prestige of the old Spartan discipline and tactics had departed. 
Yet at Sparta itself, though the reverse was the greatest that 
her arms had ever sustained, the news of it was received with 
an assumption of indifierence characteristic of the people. The 
Ephors forbade the chorus of men, who were celebrating in the 
theatre the festival of the Gymnopeedia, to be interrupted. They 
contented themselves with directing the names of the slain 
to be communicated to their relatives, and' with issuing an 
order forbidding the women to wail and mourn. Those whose 
friends had fallen appeared abroad on the morrow with joyful 
countenances, whilst the relatives of the survivors seemed over- 
whelmed with grief and shame. The Ephors then directed their 
attention to the rescue of the defeated army. The whole re- 
maining military force of Sparta, including even the more aged 
citizens, together with what forces could be collected from the 
allies, was placed under the command of Archidamus, son of 
Agesilaus, and transported by sea from Corinth to Creusis, 
which port now proved an invaluable acquisition. 

^ 4. Immediately after the battle the Thebans had sent to 
Jason of Pherai in Thessaly to solicit his aid against the Lacedae- 
monians. "We have already had occasion to mention this despot, 
who was one of the most remarkable men of the period. He was 
Tagus,* or Generalissimo, of all Thessaly ; and Macedonia was 
partially dependent on him. He was a man of boundless ambi- 
tion, and meditated nothing less than extending his dominion 
over the whole of Greece, for which his central situation seemed 
to offer many facilities. Upon receiving the invitation of the 
Thebans, Jason immediately resolved to join them, and marched 
with such rapidity that he forestalled all opposition, though he 
had to proceed through the hostile territories of the Heracleots 
and Phocians. When he arrived, the Thebans were anxious that 
he should unite with them in an attack upon the Lacedaemonian 
camp; but Jason dissuaded. them from the enterprise, advising 
them not to drive the Lacedaemonians to despair, and offering 
his mediation. He accordingly succeeded in effecting a truce, 
by which the Lacedaemonians were allowed to depart from 
Bceotia unmolested. Their commander, however, did not trust 
to this ; but, having given out that he meant to march over 
Mount Cithseron, he decamped in the night to Creusis, and from 
thence proceeded by a difficult road along the side of the rocks 
upon the coast to ^gosthena in the Megarid ; where he was met 
by Archidamus and his army. As the defeated troops were now 
in safety, the object of the latter had been attained, and the 
whole armament was disbanded. 

* Tayoc. 



B.C. 370. JASON OF PHER^. 473 

^ 5. According to Spartan custom, the survivors of a defeat 
were looked upon as degraded men, and subjected to the pe- 
nalties of civil infamy. No allowance was made for circum- 
stances. But those who had fled at Leuctra were three hundred in 
number ; an attempt to enforce against them the usual penalties 
might prove not only inconvenient, but even dangerous ; and on 
the proposal of Agesilaus, they were, for this occasion only, sus- 
pended. The loss of material power which Sparta sustained by 
the defeat was great. The ascendency she had hitherto enjoyed 
in parts north of the Corinthian gulf fell from her at once, and 
was divided between Jason of Plierse, and the Thebans. The 
latter, flushed by success, now panted for nothing but military 
glory, and under the superintendence of Epaminondas devoted 
themselves to an active com-se of warlike training. Their alhance 
was sought on every side. The Phocians were the first to claim 
it, and their example was soon followed by the Eubceans, the 
Locrians, the Malians, and the Heracleots. In this flood-tide of 
power the Thebans longed to take vengeance on their ancient 
enemy Orchomenus, to destroy the town, and to sell the inhabit- 
ants for slaves ; and from this design they were only diverted by the 
mildness and wisdom of Epaminondas. But the Orchomenians 
were forced to make their submission, and were then re-admitted 
as members of the Boeotian confederation. The same lenity was 
not extended to the Thespians, who were expelled from Bceotia, 
and their territory annexed to Thebes. They took refuge, like 
the Platseans, at Athens. 

^ 6. At the same time Jason of Phei-se was also extending his 
influence and power. It was known that he was revolving some 
important enterprise, but it was doubtful whether he would turn 
his arms against the Persians, against the cities of Chalcidice, or 
against the states of southern Greece. After the battle of Leuctra 
the last seemed the most probable. He had announced his inten- 
tion of being present at the Pythian festival, which was to take 
place in August 370 B.C., at the head of a numerous army ; on 
which occasion his sacrifice to the Delphian god was to consist 
of the enormous quantity of 1000 bulls, and 10,000 sheep, goats, 
and swine. But it was unpleasant tidings for Grecian ears to 
learn that he intended to usurp the presidency and management 
of the festival, which were the prerogatives of the Amphictyonic 
Council. In this conjuncture the alarmed Dclphians consulted 
the god as to what they should do in case Jason approached 
their treasury, and received for answer that he would himself 
take care of it. Shortly afterwards the despot was assassinated by 
seven youths as he sat in public to give audience to all comers. 
The death of Jason was felt as a rcUef by Greece, and especiaHy 



i74 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. Xu 

by. Thebes. He was succeeded by his two brothers Polyphron 
and Polydorus ; but they possessed neither his abihty nor his 
power. 

^ 7. The Athenians stood aloof from the contending parties. 
They had not received the news of the battle of Leuctra with 
any pleasure, for they now dreaded Thebes more than Sparta. 
But instead of helping the latter, they endeavoured to prevent 
either from obtaining the supremacy in Greece, and for this pur- 
pose called upon the other states to form a new alliance upon 
the terms of the peace of Antalcidas. Most of the Peloponnesian 
states joined this new league ; but the E leans declined, on the 
ground that they would thus deprive themselves of their sove- 
reignty over the Triphylian cities. 

Thus even the Peloponnesian cities became independent of 
Sparta. But this was not all. Never did any state fall with 
greater rapidity. She not only lost the dominion over states 
which she had exercised for centuries ; but two new political 
powers sprung up in the peninsula, which threatened her own 
independence. The first of these was the Arcadian confedera- 
tion, established a few months after the battle of Leuctra ; the 
second was the new Messenian state, founded by Epaminondas 
two years later. 

It has been related how the Lacedaemonians had some years 
previously broken up Mantinea into its five original villages, 
and thus degraded it from the rank of a city. The Mantineans, 
assisted by the Arcadians of various other quarters, now availed 
themselves of the weakness of Sparta to rebuild their town. 
Its restoration suggested the still more extensive scheme of a 
union of all the Arcadian cities. Hitherto the Arcadians had 
been a race and not a nation, having nothing in common but 
their name. The idea of uniting them into a federal state arose 
with Lycomedes, one of the leading men of the restored Man- 
tinea. It was expected that the Thebans and Argives would 
lend their aid to the project, which was well received throughout 
the greater part of Arcadia, though opposed by Tegea and cer- 
tain other cities jealous of Mantinea. The Spartans would not 
tamely allow such a formidable power to spring up at their very 
doors ; and, accordingly, Agesilaus marched with a Lacedeemo- 
man army against Mantinea (b.c. 370). But the Mantineans 
were too prudent to venture on an engagement till reinforced by 
the Thebans, to whom they had applied for assistance ; and as 
they kept within their walls, Agesilaus, after ravaging their ter- 
ritory, marched back to Sparta. 

^ 8. Ever since the battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas had been 
watching an opportunity for interfering m the afiairs of Pelopon- 



B-CSTO. EPAMINONDAS INVADES LACONIA. 475 

nesus. But his views were not confined to the establishment of 
an Arcadian union. He also proposed to restore the exiled Mes- 
senians to their territory. That race had formerly lived under a 
dynasty of their own kings ; but for the last three centuries 
their land had been in the possession of the Laceda3monians, and 
they had been fugitives upon the face of the earth. The re- 
storation of these exiles, now dispersed in various Hellenic co- 
lonies, to their former rights, would plant a bitter hostile neigh- 
bour on the very borders of Laconia. Epaminondas accordingly 
opened communications with them, and numbers of them flocked 
to his standard during his march into Arcadia, late in the au- 
tumn of 370 B.C. He entered that country shortly after Agesi- 
laus had quitted it, and, in addition to the Arcadians, was 
immediately joined by the Argives and Eleans. The combined 
force, including the Thebans, is estimated at 70,000 men. Epa- 
minondas, who had in reality the chief command, though asso- 
ciated with the other Boeotarchs, "brought with him choice bodies 
of auxiliaries from Phocis, Locris, and other places, and especially 
the excellent cavalry and peltasts of Thessaly. But it was the 
Thcban bands themselves that were the object of universal ad- 
miration ; which, under the inspection of Epaminondas, had 
been brought into the highest state of discipline and efficiency. 
The Peloponnesian allies, elated at the sight of so large and so 
well appointed an army, pressed Epaminondas to invade Laconia 
itself, since his services were no longer required in Arcadia, in 
consequence of the retreat of Agesilaus. Although it was now 
mid-winter, he resolved, after some hesitation, to comply with 
their request. Dividing his army into four parts, he crossed 
without any serious opposition the mountains separating Ar- 
cadia from Laconia, and reunited his forces at Sellasia. From 
thence he marched to Amycla), two or three miles below Sparta, 
where he crossed the river Eurotas, and then advanced cautiously 
towards the capital. 

Sparta, which was wholly unfortified, was now filled with con- 
fusion and alarm. The women, who had never yet seen the face 
of an enemy, gave vent to their fears in wailing and lamentation. 
Moreover, the state was in great danger from her own intestine 
divisions. Not only was she threatened by the customary dis- 
content of the Pcriceci and Helots, but the large class of poor 
and discontented citizens called " Inieriors," looked with anger 
on the wealth and political power of the " Peers."* But the 
emergency was })ressing, and called for decisive measures. TJie 
Ephors ventured on the step of oilering freedom to such llo- 

* See p. 438. 



470 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XL 

lots as would enlist as hoplites for the defence cf the city. The 
call M^as responded to by no fewer than 6000, who now inspired 
fear by their very numbers ; and the alarm was justified and 
heightened by the fact that a considerable body of Periosci and 
Helots had actually joined the Thebans. 

In the midst of these pressing dangers Sparta was saved by 
the vigilance and energy of her aged king Agesilaus. He re- 
pulsed the cavalry of Epaminondas as they advanced towards the 
city ; and so vigorous were his measures of defence, that Epa^ 
minondas abandoned all further attempt upon the city, and 
proceeded southwards as far as Helos and Gythium on the coast, 
the latter the port and arsenal of Sparta. After laying waste 
with fire and sword the valley of the Eurotas, he retraced his 
steps to the frontiers of Arcadia. 

] 9. Epaminondas now proceeded to carry out the two objects 
for which his march had been undertaken ; namely, the conso- 
lidation of the Arcadian confederation, and the establishment of 
the Messenians as an independent community. In the prosecu- 
tion of the former of these designs, the mutual jealousy of the 
various Arcadian cities rendered it necessary that a new one 
should be founded, which should be regarded as the capital of 
the confederation. Consequently, a new city was built on the 
banks of the Helisson, called Megalopolis, and peopled by the 
inhabitants of forty distinct Arcadian townships. Here a synod 
of deputies from the towns composing the confederation, called 
" The Ten Thousand, "=^ was to meet periodically for the de- 
spatch of business. A body of Arcadian troops, called 
Epariti,t was also levied for the purposes of the league. Epa- 
minondas next founded the tovm of Messene. Its citadel was 
placed on the summit of Mount Ithome, which had three cen- 
turies before been so bravely defended by the Messenians against 
the Spartans ; whilst the town itself was seated lower down upon 
the western slope of the mountain, but comiected with its Acro- 
poHs by a continuous wall. The strength of its fortifications 
was long afterwards a subject of admiration. The territory at- 
tached to the new city extended southwards to the Messenian 
gulf, and northwards to the borders of Arcadia, comprising some 
of the most fertile land in Peloponnesus. 

In order to settle the affairs of Arcadia and Messenia, Epami- 
nondas had remained in Peloponnesus four months after the 
legal period of his command had expired ; for which ofience he 
and the other BoBotarchs were arraigned on his return to Thebes. 
But they were honourably acquitted, Epaminondas having ex- 

* MvpCOl. f 'EwufJlTOL 



B.C. 370. FOUNDATION OF MEGALOPOLIS. 477 

pressed his willin^ess to die if the Thebans would record that 
he was put to death because he had humbled Sparta, and taught 
his countrymen to conquer her armies. 

^10. So low had Sparta now sunk, that she was fain to send 
envoys to beg the assistance of the Athenians. This request 
A'as acceded to ; and shortly afterwards an alliance was formed 
between the two states, in which Sparta waived all her claims to 
superiority and headship. It was agreed that the command both 
on land and sea should alternate every five days between Athens 
and Sparta, and that their united forces should occupy Corinth 
and guard the passes of the Onean mountains across the isth- 
mus, so as to prevent the Thebans from again invading Pelopon- 
nesus. Before tliis position Epaminondas appeared with his 
army in the spring of the year B.C. 369 ; and as all his attempts 
to draw on a battle proved unavailing, he resolved on forcing his 
way through the hostile lines. Directing his march just before 
daybreak against the position occupied by the Lacedaemonians, 
he succeeded in surprising and completely defeating them. He 
was thus enabled to form a junction with his allies in Pelopon- 
nesus, whilst the Lacedaemonians and Athenians do not appear 
to have stirred from their position. Sicyon now deserted Sparta 
and joined the Theban alliance ; but the little town of Phlius 
remained faithful to the Lacedaemonians, and successfully re- 
sisted all the attempts made to capture it. The Thebans Avere 
also defeated in an attempt upon Corinth ; and the spirits of 
the Spartan allies were still further raised by the arrival at 
LechEBum of a Syracusan squadron, bringing 2000 mercenary 
Gauls and Iberians, together with 50 horsemen, as a succour 
from the despot Dionysius. After a Avhile, however, accord- 
ing to the usual desultory nature of Grecian warfare, both 
armies returned home without having achieved anything of im- 
portance. 

^ IL Meanwhilethe Arcadians, elate with their newly acquired 
power, not only believed themselves capable of maintaining their 
independence without foreign assistance, but thought themselves 
entitled to share the headship with Thebes, as Athens did with 
Sparta. Lycomedes, whom we have already mentioned as an 
able and energetic citizen of Mantinea, was the chief promoter 
of these ambitious views, and easily flattered the national vanity 
of his countr\'men by appeals to their acknowledged courage and 
hardihood. They responded to his representations by calling 
upon him to lead them into active service, appointed him tlicir 
commander, and chose all the officers whom he nominated. The 
first exploit of Lycomedes was to rescue the Argive troops in 
Epidaurus, where they were in great danger of being cut oil by a 



478 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XL. 

body of Athenians and Corinthians under Chabnas. He then 
inarched into the south-western portion of Messenia, where lie 
penetrated as far as Asine, defeated the Spartan commander 
Geranor, who had drawn out the garrison to oppose him, and 
destroyed the suburbs of the town. It was probably by this 
expedition that the annihilation of the Spartan dominion in that 
quarter was completed. The hardihood and enterprise displayed 
in it excited everywhere both admiration and alarm ; but at 
Thebes it also occasioned jealousy. At the same time circum- 
stances arose which tended to disunite the Arcadians and E leans. 
The former objected to Elis resuming her sovereignty over the 
towns of Triphylia, which they had thought to regain after the 
decay of the Spartan supremacy. 

H2. During the year 368 b.c. the Thebans undertook no ex- 
pedition into Peloponnesus ; but Pelopidas conducted a Theban 
force into Thessaly for the purpose of protecting Larissa and 
other cities against the designs of Alexander, who, by the murder 
of his two brothers, had become despot of Pherse and Tagus of 
Thessaly, Alexander was compelled to solicit peace ; and Pe- 
lopidas, after establishing a defensive league amongst the Tlies- 
sahan cities, marched into Macedonia, when the regent Ptolemy 
entered into an alliance with the Thebans. Amongst the hos- 
tages given for the observance of this treaty was the youthful 
Philip, son of Amyntas, afterwards the celebrated king of Ma- 
cedon, who remained for some years at Thebes. 

Shortly afterwards the Lacedaemonians, under the command 
of Archidamus, supported by the reinforcements sent by Diony- 
sius, succeeded in routing the Arcadians with great slaughter, 
whilst not a single Lacedsemonian fell, whence the victory de- 
rived the name of " the Tearless Battle." The news of this defeat 
of the Arcadians was by no means unwelcome at Thebes, as it 
was calculated to check their presumption, and to show them 
that they could not dispense with Theban aid. 

§ 13. Epaminondas now resolved on another expedition into 
Peloponnesus, with the view of bringing the Achseans into the 
Theban alliance. Until the battle of Leuctra the cities of Achaia 
had been the dependent allies of Sparta ; but since that event 
they had remained free and neutral. On the approach of Epa- 
minondas they immediately submitted, and consented to be en- 
rolled among the alhes of Thebes. That commander, with his 
usual moderation, did not insist upon any change in their go- 
vernments. But this was made a subject of accusation against 
him at home. The Arcadians charged him with having left men 
in power in the Achaean cities who would join Sparta on the first 
opportunity. These accusations, being supported by the enemies 



B.C. 368. THE TEARLESS BATTLR 479 

of Epaminondas, prevailed : his proceedings in Achaia were re- 
i^ersed ; democratic governments were established in the various 
Achaean cities ; and in the ensuing year Epaminondas himself 
was not re-elected as Boeotarch. But tho consequence was that 
the exiles thus driven from the various Achaean cities, watching 
their opportunity, succeeded in efiecting counter-revolutions, and 
afterwards took a decided part with Sparta. 

^ 14. The Thebans now resolved to send an embassy to Persia, 
Ever since the peace of Antalcidas the great King had become 
the recognised mediator between the states of Greece ; and his 
fiat seemed indispensable to stamp the claims of that city which 
pretended to the headship. The recent achievements of Thebes 
miiglit entitle her to aspire to that position ; and at all events 
the alterations which she had produced in the internal state of 
Greece, by the establishment of Megalopolis and Messene, seemed 
to require for their stability the sanction of a Persian rescript. 
For this purpose Pelopidas and Ismenias proceeded to the court 
of Susa apparently in the years 367— 3C 6 b.c. They were accom- 
panied by other deputies from the allies ; and at the same time 
the Athenians sent Timagoras and Leon to counteract their in- 
fluence. Pelopidas may probably have pleaded the former ser- 
vices of Thebes towards Persia at the time of the invasion of 
Greece by Xerxes, as well as in having opposed the expedition 
of Agesilaus into Asia. But the great I'act which influenced the 
decision of the Persian king would doubtless be that Thebes was 
now the strongest state in Greece ; for it was evidently easier to 
exercise Persian ascendency there by her means, than through a 
weaker power. Pelopidas had therefore only to ask his own terms. 
A rescript was issued declaring the independence of Messene and 
Amphipolis ; the Athenians were directed to lay up their ships 
of war in ordinary ; Thebes was declared the head of Greece ; 
and the dispute between Elis and Arcadia on the subject of the 
Triphylian cities was decided in favour of the former power : 
probably at the instance of Pelopidas, and on account of the 
estrangement now subsisting between Arcadia and Thebes. 

The Athenian and Arcadian envoys had attempted in vain to 
secure better terms for their own states. Antiochus, the repre- 
sentative of Arcadia, on his return to Megalopolis, vented his 
displeasure by a most depreciatory report to the Ten Thousand 
of all that he had seen during his journey. There were armies, 
he said, of cooks, confectioners, wine-bearers, and the like, but 
not a single man fit to fight against Greeks ; and even the vaunted 
golden plane-tree itself, he aiiirmed, was too small to a fiord shade 
to a single grasshopper. The Thebans, on the contrary, made 
the most of their success. . Deputies from the allied cities were 



480 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. XL. 

summoned to Thebes to hear the royal rescript read ; but it was 
coldly received by all present. Lycomedes, the Arcadian envoy, 
even protested against the headship claimed for Thebes, and 
asserted that the allied synod should not be exclusively convened 
in that city, but in the actual seat of v^^ar. After some angry 
language, the Arcadians withdrew from the assembly, and the 
other deputies seem to have followed their example. Nor were 
the Thebans more successful in an attempt to get the rescript 
recognized by sending it round to the various cities separately. 

^15. It was, in all probability, during a mission undertaken 
by Pelopidas and Ismenias, for the purpose of procuring the 
acknowledgment of the rescript in Thessaly and the northern 
parts of Greece, that they were seized and imprisoned by Alex- 
ander of Pherse. That tyrant met them at Pharsalus under all 
the appearances of peace, but took occasion of their being with- 
out guards to seize and carry them off to Pherse. Such value 
was attached to the person of Pelopidas that his imprisonment 
induced several of the Thessalian partizans of Thebes to submit 
to Alexander. -Even the Athenians did not disdain to avail 
themselves of this treacherous breach of public faith, and sent 
Autocles with a fleet of 30 triremes and 1000 hoplites to the 
support of Alexander. Meanwhile the justly incensed Thebans 
had despatched an army of 8000 hoplites and 600 cavalry, to 
recover or avenge their favourite citizen. Unfortunately, how- 
ever, they were no longer commanded by Epaminondas, who, 
as we have related, had not been re-elected to the office of 
BcEotarch. Their present commanders were utterly incompe- 
tent. They were beaten and forced to retreat, and the army 
was in such danger from the active pursuit of the Thessalians 
and Athenians, that its destiTiction seemed inevitable. Luckily, 
however, Epaminondas was serving as a hoplite in the ranks. 
By the unanimous voice of the troops he was now called to the 
command, and succeeded in conducting the army safely back to 
Thebes. Here the unsuccessful Bcetarchs were disgraced, and 
Epaminondas, whose reputation now shone forth more brilliantly 
than ever, was restored to the command, and placed at the head 
of a second Theban army destined to attempt the release of Pe- 
lopidas. Directed by his superior skill, the enterprise proved 
successful. Anxious, however, for the life of his friend, Epami- 
nondas avoided reducing Alexander to such extremities as might 
induce him to make away with Pelopidas ; and thus, though the 
main object of the expedition was attained, it was not accom- 
panied with such striking and decisive results as to counter- 
balance the advantages which Alexander had derived from his 
tieacheiy 



B.C. 866. ALLIANCE BETWEEN ARCADIA AND ATHENS. 481 

H6. The acquirement of Oropus was, however, some com- 
pensation to the Thebans for their losses on the other side of 
their frontier. The possession of that town, which Jay on 
the borders of Athens and Thebes, had long been a subject of 
contention between the two states. For many yearg past it had 
been in the hands of the Athenians ; but it was now seized by a 
party of exiles favourable to the Theban interest, and imme- 
diately occupied by a Theban garrison, which deprived the Athe- 
nians of all hopes of retaking it. The Athenians had been dis- 
pleased at the want of zeal manifested by their Peloponnesian 
allies in not assisting them in the aflair of Oropus ; and Lyco- 
medes, who was disgusted with the Theban ascendency, took 
advantage of this feeling to negotiate an alliance between Arcadia 
and Athens. He procured himself to be appointed ambassador 
to that city, where he was favourably received, and prehminary 
arrangements made for an alliance ; but on his way home he 
was assassinated by some Arcadian exiles of the opposite party. 
The negotiations, however, proceeded. CaUistratus was sent 
from Athens as Ambassador to the Arcadian Ten Thousand, 
Avhilst Epaminondas hastened from Thebes, to counteract, if 
possible, the machinations of the eloquent Athenian. But though 
Epaminondas here displayed his ready talent in debate, he was 
unsuccessful. The Athenians concluded an alhance wdth Ar- 
cadia, but at the same time without formally breaking with 
Thebes. 

S^ 17. This connexion rendered it desirable for Athens to secure 
an uninterrupted communication with Peloponnesus, and lor 
this purpose she formed the treacherous design of seizing Co- 
rinth by surprise. She was not only at peace but in alliance 
with that city ; and her auxiliaries were serving in the Corinthian 
forts and outposts. These, however, were to be the instruments 
of her treachery. Under pretence of a reinforcement an arma- 
ment under the cojnmand of Chares was despatched to Corinth. 
But the designs of Athens had reached the ears of the Corinthians, 
who refused to admit Chares into their port of Cenchreee ; and 
at the same time dismissed the other Athenians in their service, 
yet with all the appearance of good will. Though thus saved 
for the moment, this step had jjlaced the Corinthians in a state 
of isolation ; and they therefore resolved to open negotiations 
with Thebes for a general peace. Their overtures were well re- 
ceived by the Thebans. A meeting of the allies was then con- 
vened at Sparta, in which the Corinthians set forth the necessity 
of their case, and endeavoured to induce the rest of the confe- 
derates to follow their example in concluding a peace with 
Thebes, the terms of which were to be the independence of each 

Y 



482 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XL, 

individual city, including Messene ; but without recognizing the 
headship of Thebes, or entering into any formal alliance with 
her. On this basis a peace was accordingly concluded between 
Thebes, Corinth, Phlius, Epidaurus, and perhaps one or two 
other cities ; but as the Thebans made the independence of 
Messene an indispensable condition, Sparta resolutely refused to 
join it, and the larger states of Greece, Thebes, Athens, Sparta, 
Arcadia, and others still remained at war. 

§ 18. Athens availed herself of the distracted condition of 
Greece to extend her maritime empire. She had no longer occa- 
sion to dread any opposition from Sparta ; and she accordingly 
sent a powerful fleet into the ^gean under the command of 
Tiraotheus, who succeeded in conquering Sam.os, and in ob- 
taining possession of Potidsea, Pydna, Methdne, and it is said 
even of Olynthus itself. But in the midst of his success, he was 
menaced by the unexpected appearance of a Theban fleet. Epa- 
minondas, jealous of the miaritime empire of Athens, had per- 
suaded his countrymen to try their strength on a new element. 
Sparta, he said, was humbled ; it was not she, but Athens, 
who was now their prominent enemy ; and he exhorted them 
not to rest content till they had transferred to the Theban Cad- 
raea the Propylaea which adorned the acropolis of Athens. A 
fleet of 100 triremes was constructed, and he himself appointed 
to the command ; whilst envoys were sent to Rhodes, Chios, and 
Byzantium, to induce them to break with Athens. It was with 
this fleet that Epaminondas appeared in the Hellespont in b.c. 
363. He seems, however, to have effected little, — at least no- 
thing splendid is recorded — and this expedition proved both the 
first and last of the Thebans by sea. 

§ 19. It was in the same year that his friend Pelopidas led an 
expedition into Thessaly against Alexander of Pherse. Strong 
complaints of the tyranny of that despot arrived at Thebes, and 
Pelopidas, who probably also burned to avenge his private 
wrongs, prevailed upon the Thebans to send him into Thessaly 
to punish the tyrant. The forces he had collected were far 
inferior in number to those of Alexander ; and when informed at 
Pharsalus, that the tyrant was advancing towards him with a 
great army, he remarked that it was so much the better, since 
there would be more for him to conquer. The battle was fought 
on the hills of Cynoscephalse ; the troops of Alexander were routed ; 
and Pelopidas, observing his hated enemy endeavouring to rally 
them, was seized with such a transport of rage that, regardless of 
his duties as a general, he rushed impetuously forwards and chal- 
lenged him to a single combat. Alexander shrunk back within 
the ranks of his guards, followed impetuously by Pelopidas, who 



B.C. 364. DEATH OF PELOPIDAS. 483 

was soon slain, fighting with desperate bravery. Although the 
army of Alexander was defeated with severe loss, the news of 
the death of Pelopidas deprived the Thebans and their Thessa- 
lian allies of all the joy which they would otherwise have felt 
at their victory. The Thebans, however, subsequently avenged 
the death of their general by sending a fresh force of 7000 hop- 
lites into Thessaly ; with which they compelled Alexander to 
relinquish all his dependencies in that country, to confine him- 
self to the actual limits of Pherae, and to swear allegiance to 
Thebes. The Thebans thus acquired greater influence than they 
had ever before enjoyed in Northern Greece. 

^ 20. Meantime a war had been carried on between Elis and Ar- 
cadia. It has been already remarked, on more than one occasion, 
that the Eleans claimed the sovereignty of the Triphylian towns, 
in which they were backed by Sparta, but opposed by the Arca- 
dians. The Eleans also laid claim to a tract of hilly ground 
lying north of the Alpheus, containing Lasion and some other 
towns which had been included in the Arcadian league. They 
seized Lasion by surprise, but were driven out again by the 
Arcadians, who afterwards took formal possession of the sacred 
district of Olympia. Other acts of hostility had occurred between 
the Eleans and Arcadians, and the former had called in the 
assistance of the Lacedaemonians, but without any decisive 
result. In 364 b.c. the Arcadians were still in possession of 
Olympia ; and as the Olympic festival occurred in that year, 
they availed themselves of their situation to transfer the presi- 
dency of the games from the Eleans to the Pisatans, w^ho had 
long laid claim to it. It was anticipated that the Eleans would 
assert their rights by force ; and the Arcadians prepared to 
resist any attempt of that kind, not only by a large army of 
their own, but also by summoning their allies. The festival had 
already commenced, many of the games had been performed, and 
the wresthng match was going on, when bodies of the Eleans, 
and their allies the Achseans, were observed approaching the 
sacred ground. The Arcadians immediately rushed to arms, and 
formed on the bank of the little river Cladeus, to prevent their 
approach. The Eleans advanced with the utmost boldness, but 
were finally repulsed and obliged to retire. On this occasion 
the temple of the Olympian deity himself was converted into a 
fortress, and the majestic Jove of Phidias looked down with 
calm dignity upon those who were contending for the honour of 
celebrating his festival. The Eleans subsequently avenged them- 
selves by striking the 104th Olympiad out of the list of the 
iestivals. 

^21. Not content with this insult to the Eleans, the Arcadians 



484 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XL. 

carried their insolence to the extent of sacrilege, by despoihng 
the rich temples of Olympia. But this act ripened the seeds 
of disunion which were already springing up among the Arca- 
dians themselves. The assembly of Mantinea passed an act re- 
nouncing all participation in the sacred spoil, and though the 
Ten Thousand attempted at first to seize the leading men at 
Mantinea as traitors to the Arcadian league, the views of the 
Mantineans respecting the employment of the sacred treasures 
were so evidently just, that even their opponents were at length 
shamed into them. Accordingly, a peace was concluded with 
the Eleans, who were restored to all their rights with regard to 
Olympia. Since the Spartans had sujDported the Eleans, the 
Mantineans were naturally brought into close connexion with 
the former ; whilst the rest of the Arcadians, and especially the 
Tegeans, favoured Thebes. Tegea thus became the centre of 
Theban influence in Arcadia, and was occupied by a Theban 
harmost and a garrison of 300 Boeotians. The Thebans viewed 
the success of the Mantineans and Spartan party with suspicion ; 
and when the peace, recently concluded, was sworn to at Tegea, 
they seized the principal members of the Spartan party. The 
news of this treacherous act was received with great indig- 
nation at Mantinea. Heralds were immediately despatched by 
the Mantineans to demand the release of their own citizens. 
Hereupon the Theban harmost released the prisoners, protesting 
that he had been misled by a false report of the approach of 
a Spartan force, prepared to co-operate with a party within the 
walls in order to seize Tegea. The Mantineans and their party, 
however, were not satisfied with this apology, but sent envoys 
to Thebes, demanding the punishment of the harmost. Epami- 
nondas, incensed that a peace had been concluded without the 
sanction of Thebes, justified the harmost's conduct, and bade the 
envoys carry back word that he would himself soon lead an 
army into Arcadia. The Mantineans and their partisans imme- 
diately made preparations for war, and sent ambassadors to 
request the assistance of the LacedtEmonians. 

^ 22. These events occurred in 362 e.g., and in the summer cf 
that year Epaminondas undertook his fourth and last invasion 
of Peloponnesus. The proceedings in Arcadia, which threatened 
to undo all that he had done in that country, and ultii?.iately to 
lead to an alliance between it and Sparta, were the motives 
for his expedition. His army was immerous, and included 
many troops from Northern Greece. He marched Avithout 
opposition to Tegea, where he was joined by such of the 
Arcadians and other Peloponnesians as were favourable to the 
Theban cause. The other party concentrated themselves at 



B.C. 362. BATTLE OF MAKTINEA. 485 

Mantinea, whither the aged Agesilaus was marching with a Lace- 
doemoiiian force, whilst Athenian succours were also expected. 
Epaminondas, whose movements were characterized hy decision 
and rapidity, resolved to surprise Sparta in the absence of Age- 
silaus by a sudden march upon it. Providentially, however, a 
swift Cretan runner overtook Agesilaus in time to warn him of 
the danger. He got back to Sparta early enough to anticipate 
the attempt of Epaminondas ; and though that commander 
actually entered the city, yet he found the streets and houses so 
well defended, that he was fain to retire. The alarm caused by 
this diversion had however occasioned the recall of the Lacedae- 
monian army destined for Mantinea, and Epaminondas took 
advantage of that circumstance to attempt the surprise of that 
place. Fortunately for the Mantineans, the Athenian cavalry 
had reached their city an hour or two before the arrival of 
Epaminondas, and though hungry and tired with their march, 
succeeeded in repulsing the Theban and Thessahan horse. Epa- 
minondas now fell back upon Tegea. 

§ 23. Thus both these well planned manoeuvres were acci- 
dentally frustrated. As the enemy had now succeeded in con- 
centrating their forces at Mantinea, it was clear that a general 
action was unavoidable. The plain between Tegea and Mantinea, 
though 2000 feet above the level of the sea, is shut in on every 
side by lofty mountains. In length it is about ten miles, whilst 
its breadth varies from one to eight. About four miles south of 
Mantinea it contracts to its narrowest dimensions, and here the 
Lacedaemonians and Mantineans took up their position. Epa- 
minondas, in marching northwards from Tegea, inclined to the 
left, so as to skirt the base of Mount Maenalus, which bounds the 
plain on the west. On arriving in sight of the hostile lines, Epa- 
minondas ordered his troops to halt and ground arms. Hence 
the Lacedaemonians inferred that he did not mean to offer battle 
that day ; and so strong was this persuasion, that they left their 
ranks, Avhilst some of the horsemen took off their breastplates 
and unbridled their horses. But meanwhile Epaminondas was 
making his dispositions for an attack. His plan very much re- 
sembled that of the battle of Leuctra. His chief reliance was 
upon the Boeotian troops, whom he had formed into a column of 
extraordinary depth. The enemy at length became aware of his 
intentions and hurried into their ranks ; but they were in no 
condition to receive the onset of the Theban hoplitcs, who 
bore down all before them. The Mantineans and Lacedaj- 
inonians turned and fled, and the rest followed their example. 
The day was won ; but Epaminondas, who fought in the foremost 
ranks, fell pierced with a mortal wound. His fall occasioned 



486 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XL. 

such consternation among his troops, that although the enemy 
were in full flight, they did not know how to use their advantage, 
and remained rooted to the spot. Hence both sides subse- 
quently claimed the victory and erected trophies, though it was 
the Lacedsemonians who sent a herald to request the bodies of 
the slain. 

Epaminondas was carried off the field with the spear-head still 
fixed in his breast. Having satisfied himself that his shield was 
safe, and that the victory was gained, he inquired for lola'idas 
and Daiphantus, whom he intended to succeed him in the com- 
mand. Being informed that both were slain : "Then," he ob- 
served, " you must make peace." After this he ordered the 
spear-head to be withdrawn ; when the gush of blood which 
followed soon terminated his life. Thus died this truly great 
man ; and never was there one whose title to that epithet has 
been less disputed. Antiquity is unanimous in his praise, and 
some of the first men of Greece subsequently took him for their 
model. "With him the commanding influence of Thebes began 
and ended. His last advice was adopted, and peace was con- 
cluded probably before the Theban army quitted Peloponnesus. 
Its basis was a recognition of the status quo — to leave everything 
as it was, to acknowledge the Arcadian constitution and the in- 
dependence of Messene. Sparta alone refused to join it on 
account of the last article, but she was not supported by her 
allies. 

k 24. Agesilaus had lived to see the empire of Sparta extin- 
guished by her hated rival. Thus curiously had the prophecy 
been fulfilled, which warned Sparta of the evils awaiting her 
under a " lame sovereignty," But Agesilaus had not yet aban- 
doned all hope ; and he and his son Archidamus now directed 
their views towards the east as the quarter from which Spartan 
power might still be resuscitated. At the age of 80 the indo- 
mitable old man proceeded with a force of 1000 hoplites to assist 
Tachos, king of Egypt, in his revolt against Persia. The age and 
insignificant appearance of the veteran warrior made him, how- 
ever, a butt for Egyptian ridicule, and he was not intrusted with 
the supreme command. But in spite of this afiront he accom- 
panied the Egyptian army on an expedition into Phcenicia. 
During the absence of Tachos, Nectanebis rose against him, and 
being supported by Agesilaus, obtained the throne of Egypt. 
Nectanebis rewarded this service with a present of 230 talents. 
But Agesilaus did not live to carry this money home to Sparta. 
He died on his road to Cyrene, where he had intended to embark 
for Greece. His body was embalmed in wax, and splendidly 
buried in Sparta. He was succeeded by his son Archidamus III- 




Bust of Plato. 



CHAPTER XLI. 

HISTORY OF THE SICILIAN GREEKS FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF THE 
ATHENIAN ARMAMENT TO THE DEATH OF TIMOLEON. 

§ 1. Revolutions at Syracuse. Dionysius the Elder seizes the despotism. 
§ 2. His successes. § 3. His poetical compositions, Plato visits Sy 
racuse. § 4. Death of Dionysius. His character. Story of Damocles. 
§ 5. Accession of the younger Dionysiua Second visit of Plato. Ban- 
ishment of Dion. Third visit of Plato. § 6. Dion expels Dionysius, 
and becomes master of Syracuse. § 7. Assassination of Dion. § 8. 
Revolutions at Syracuse. The Syracusans invoke the aid of Corinth. 
§ 9. Character of Timoleon. § 10. His successes. Surrender of Diony- 
sius and conquest of Syracuse. §11. Moderation of Timoleon. He 
remodels the constitution. § 12. Defeats the Carthaginians at the 
Crimesus. § 13. Deposes the Sicilian despots. § 14. Retires into a 
private station. His great popularity and deatlu 

k 1. The affairs of the Sicilian Greeks, an important branch of 
the Hellenic race, deserve a passing notice. After the destruc- 
tion of the Athenian armament in B.C. 413, the constitution of 
Syracuse was rendered still more democratical by a new code of 
laws, which Diodes, one of the principal citizens, took the chief 
part in drawing up. Shortly afterwards, in B.C. 410, Hermo- 
crates, the leader of the aristocratical party, who had greatly 
distinguished himself during the Athenian invasion, was ba- 
nished ; and Diodes thus obtained for a time the undisputed 
direction of the Syracusan government. But two years after- 
wards Diodes was in his turn banished in consequence of his 
want of success in the war against the Carthaginians. Mean- 
time Hermocrates had returned to Sicily and collected a con- 
Biderable force at Selinus, from whence he carried on hostilities 



488 ' HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLI 

against the Carthaginians and their allies with considerahle 
success, and thus secured a strong party at Syracuse in his 
favour. Relying upon this circumstance, he endeavoured to effect 
his restoration hy force, but was slain in an attempt to enter 
Syracuse by night, B.C. 407. This state of things opened the 
way for a still more daruig and successful aspirant. This was 
the celebrated Dionysius, the son of a person also named Her- 
mocrates. Dionysius was of humble origin, but of good educa- 
tion, and began life as a clerk in a public office. He had taken 
an active part in the enterprise of Hermocrates just mentioned, 
in which he had been wounded and given out for dead, — a cir- 
cumstance by which he escaped a sentence of banishment. 
After the death of Hermocrates, the domestic discontents of the 
Syracusans were still further fomented by another invasion of 
the Carthaginians in 406 e.g., during which they took and plun- 
dered Agrigentum. Dionysius, who now headed the party of 
Hermocrates, taking advantage of the prevaiUng discontent, in an 
artful address to the assembly attributed the fall of Agrigentum 
to the incompetence of the SjTacusan generals, and succeeded 
in procuring their deposition, and the appointment of others in 
then- stead, of whom he himself was one. His advent to power 
was immediately followed by the restoration of all the exiles of 
his party. His next step was to get rid of his colleagues by ac- 
cusing them of treachery and corruption, and to procure his 
own sole appointment with unlimited and irresponsible au- 
thority. The remaining steps towards a despotism were easy. 
Under pretence that his life had been attempted, he obtained a 
body-guard of 1000 men for his protection ; by whose means he 
made liimself master of Spacuse, and openly seized upon the 
supreme power, b.c. 405. 

§ 2. Dionysius first directed his arms against Naxos, Catana, 
and Leontini, which successively lell into his power either by 
force or treacher)' ; but it was not till b.c. 397 that he considered 
himself sufficiently strong to declare war against Carthage. This 
war was conducted with varying success. In 395—4 Syracuse 
itself seemed on the point of falHng into the hands of the Cartha- 
guiians. The Carthaginian fleet, after obtaming a great naval 
victor}^ at Catana, sailed into the harbour of Syracuse upwards 
of 200 strong. At the same time their army established itself in 
the neighbourhood of the city, and Imilcon, the Carthaginian 
general, took up his head-quarters in the temple of the Olympian 
Jove, within about a mile and a half of the walls, and even occu- 
pied and plundered the suburb of Achradina. The situation of 
Dionysius now seemed desperate. It is even said that he was 
on the point of giving up all for lost and making his escape ; from 



1, 



B.C. 393. DIONYSIUS THE ELDER. 489 

which he was deterred by one of his friends observino;, " that so- 
vereign power was an honourable winding-sheet." A pestilence 
which shortly afterwards broke out in the Carthaginian camp 
proved the salvation of Syracuse. The Carthaginians fell by 
thousands, whilst the Syracusans themselves remained unharmed. 
Dionysius made a successful attack both by sea and land on their 
weakened forces ; and Imilcon was glad to secure a disgraceful 
retreat by purchasing the coimivance of Dionysius for the sum 
of 300 talents. 

After this period the career of Dionysius was marked by great 
though not altogether unvarying success. In 393 the Cartha- 
ginians under Magon once more threatened Syracuse, but were 
again defeated, and compelled to sue for peace. Dionysius 
willingly concluded a treaty with them, since he was anxious to 
pursue his schemes of conquest in the interior of Sicily, and in 
Magna Grascia. By the year 384 he had reduced the greater 
part of the former, and a considerable portion of the latter 
country. He had now arrived at his highest pitch of power, 
and had raised Syracuse to be one of the chief Grecian states, 
second in influence, if indeed second, to Sparta alone. Under 
his sway Syracuse was strengthened and embellished with new 
fortilications, docks, arsenals, and other public building, and 
became superior even to Athens in extent and population. Dio- 
nysius took every opportunity of extending his relations with 
foreign powers, and strengthening himself by alliances. He 
cultivated the friendship of the Lacedaemonians ; and among the 
last acts of his reign was the sending of an auxiliary force in two 
successive years to support them against the increasing power 
of the Thebans. 

§ 3. Dionysius was a warm patron of literature, and was anx- 
ious to gain distinction by his literary compositions. In the midst 
of his political and military cares he devoted himself assiduously 
to poetry, and not only caused his poems to be publicly reciteil 
at the Olympic games, but repeatedly contended for the prize of 
tragedy at Athens. Here he several times obtained the second 
and third prizes; and, finally, just before his death, bore away 
the first prize at the Lena3an festival, with a play called the 
" Ransom of Hector." 

In accordance with the same spirit we find him seeking the 
society of men distinguished in literature and philosophy. 
Plato, who visited Sicily about the year 389 from a curiosity to 
see Mount iEtna, was introduced to Dionysius by Dion. The 
high moral tone of Plato's conversation did not however prove 
so attractive to Dionysius as it had done to Dion ; and the plii- 
losopher was not only dismissed with aversion and dislike, but 



490 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLL 

even, it seems, through the machinations of Dionysius, seized, 
bound, and sold for a slave in the island of ^gina. He M^as, 
how^ever, repurchased by Anniceris of Cyrene, and sent back to 
Athens. 

^ 4. Dionysius died in b.c. 367, after a reign of 38 years. 
Love of power was his ruling passion : the desire of literary 
fame his second. In his manner of life he was moderate and 
temperate ; but he was a stranger to pity, and never suffered 
it to check him in the pursuit of his ends. Although by no 
means deficient in personal courage, the suspicious temper of 
Dionysius rendered him the miserable prey ol" uneasiness in the 
midst of all his greatness, and drove him to take precautions 
for the security of his life even against his nearest iriends and 
relatives. The miseries of absolute, but unlegalized and unpo- 
pular power, cannot be more strongly illustrated than by the 
celebrated story of the despot of Syracuse and his flatterer Da- 
mocles. The latter having extolled the power and majesty, the 
abundant possessions and magnificent palaces which rendered his 
master the happiest of men, Dionysius invited Damocles to try 
what his happiness really was, and then ordered him to be placed 
on a golden couch, decked with coverings of the richest and 
most magnificent embroidery. The sideboards groaned under 
the weight of gold and silver plate ; pages of the choicest beauty 
v/aited on him ; his head was crowned with garlands, and reeked 
with unguents ; the smell of burning odours filled all the apart- 
ment, and the table was covered with the most exquisite viands. 
Damocles now thought himself supremely happy ; but in the 
midst of his enjoyments he happened to cast his eyes towards 
the ceiling, and beheld a naked scimitar suspended over his head 
by a single hair. At this sight his satisfaction vanished in an 
instant, and he entreated to be released from the enjoyment of 
pleasures which could only be tasted at the risk of life.* Such 
was the tyrant's practical illustration of his own envied con- 
dition. 

§ 5. Dionysius was succeeded by his eldest son, commonly 
called the younger Dionysius, who was about 25 years of age at 
the time of his father's death. The elder Dionysius had married 
two wives at the same time. One of these was a Locrian woman 
named Doris ; the other, Aristomache, was a Syracusan, the 
daughter of Hipparinus, one of the most active partisans of 

* " Destrictus ensis ciii super impia 
Cervice pendet, non Siculaj dapes 
Dulcem elaborabunt saporem ; 
Non avium eitharseque cantus 
Somnum reducent." — Hor. Carm. iii. 1. 1*7. 



B.C. 38Y. DIONYSIliS THE YOUNGER. 491 

Dionysius, and sister to Dion, whom we have already had occa- 
sion to mention as the friend of Plato. The marriage with Doris 
proved immediately fruitful, and by her he had three children, 
of whom the eldest, Dionysius, was his successor. But Aristo- 
mache was long childless, much to the chagrin of Dionysius, who, 
attributing the circumstance to the spells and incantations of 
the mother of Doris, caused the latter to be put to death. At 
length Aristomache also bore him children, two sons and two 
daughters. Dionysius having died without appointing any suc- 
cessor, Dion at first attempted to secure the inheritance for his 
youthful nephews, but found himself obliged to relinquish all 
such claims in favour of the son of Doris. The inexperience of 
the young Dionysius, however, inclined him to listen to the 
counsels of Dion, who had always enjoyed the respect and con- 
fidence of his father, and who now became the confidential ad- 
viser of the son. Plato's lofty and ideal conceptions of civil 
government had sunk deep into the mind of Dion, and the 
influence which he now enjoyed over the youthful sovereign 
made him long to seize the opportunity for realizing them in 
practice. To expel the Carthaginians from Sicily, to civilize and 
Hellenize the semi-barbarous Siceliot tribes, and to convert 
Syracuse from a despotism into a constitutional monarchy go- 
verned by equal laws, — these were the projects which floated in 
the imagination of Dion, and which he endeavoured to instil into 
Dionysius. With this view he pursuaded Dionysius to invite 
Plato again to Syracuse, nothing doubting that his eloquence 
and conversational powers would work an immense effect upon 
the youthful monarch. But Plato was now growing old, and had 
already experienced the danger of attempting to instruct despots 
in the sublime, but somewhat visionary theories of perfect go- 
vernment. Nevertheless, after something of a struggle, he sacri- 
ficed his scruples and apprehensions to the pressing instances of 
his friend Dion, and the warm invitation of young Dionysius 
himself The philosopher was received with the greatest honour. 
His illustrious pupil immediately began to take lessons in geo- 
metry ; superfluous dishes disappeared from the royal table ; and 
Dionysius even betrayed some symptoms of a wish to mitigate 
the former rigours of the despotism. But now his old courtiers 
took the alarm; nor does Plato himself appear to have used 
with skill the opportunity for a practical application of his doc- 
trines which chance had thrown in his way. It was whispered 
to Dionysius that the whole was a deep laid scheme on the part 
of Dion for the purpose of efibcting a revolution and placing his 
own nephews on the throne. These accusations had the desired 
effect on the mind of Dionysius ; and an intercepted lettt^r from 



492 UISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XLI. 

Dion to the Carthaginian generals, in which he invited them to 
make their communications through him, aflbrded Dionysius a 
pretext for getting rid of him. In the course of a conversation 
he enticed Dion down to the very brink of the harbour, when 
suddenly producing the intercepted letter, and charging him to 
his face with treason, he forced him to enter a vessel that was 
in readiness to convey him to Italy. The situation of Plato was 
now very critical. Many advised Dionysius to put him to death ; 
but the despot refused to listen to these suggestions. He even in- 
vited Plato to his palace, and treated him with the greatest respect ; 
but he cautiously abstained from any more lessons in a philo- 
sophy which he had now been taught to regard with suspicion 
as designed only to deprive him of his power. Plato was at 
length suffered to escape from the kind of honourable captivity 
in which he was held ; but at the pressing invitation of Diony- 
sius he again reluctantly returned to Syracuse in the hope of 
prevailing upon the tyrant to recall Dion from banishment. In 
this, however, he proved unsuccessful ; nay, Dionysius even pro- 
ceeded to measures of violence against his former guide and 
minister. First the remittances which Dion, who was now 
residing at Athens, was in the habit oi" receiving, were stopped, 
and at length all his large property was confiscated and sold, and 
the proceeds distributed among the personal friends of Diony- 
sius. Plato beheld this injustice towards his friend with grief 
and mortification, but A^'ithout the power of preventing it ; and 
it was with difficulty that he himself at length obtained permis- 
sion to return to Greece. 

§ 6. This event took place early in 360 B.C. ; and at the 
Olympic festival of that year Plato met his friend Dion, and 
acquainted him with the measures which had been taken against 
him by Dionysius. The natural ind ignition of Dion was fur- 
ther inflamed by other acts of the Syracusan tyrant. Dionysius 
compelled Arete, the wife of Dion, and his own half-sister, to 
marry one of his friends, named Timocrates. He also acted in 
the most brutal mamier towards Dion's youthful son. Thus 
wounded in the tenderest points, Dion resolved on revenge. 
The popularity which he. had acquired, not only at Athens but 
at Sparta and in the Peloponnesus, and especially among those 
who were attached to Plato and his teaching, rendered many 
disposed to serve him ; whilst the natural desire of a great 
part of the Syracusan population to recover their liberty, as well 
as the contempt into which Dion^'^^ius had fallen from his 
drunken and dissipated habits, promised success to any enter- 
prise against him, though undertaken /ith ever so small a 
force. 



B.C. 356. DION" CONQUERS SYRACUSK 493 

After two or three years spent in preparations, Dion, in the sum- 
mer of 357 B.C., landed on the coast of Sicily with only 800 men. 
The enterprise was favoured by an imprudent step on the part 
of Dionysius, who had recently sailed with a fleet of 80 vessels 
en an expedition to the coasts of Italy. By a rapid night-march 
Dion appeared unexpectedly before Syracuse ; at dawn his troops 
were beheld from the walls in the act of crossing the little river 
Anapus, first crowning their heads with garlands, and sacrificing 
to the rising sun. Their advance resembled rather the solemn 
procession of a festival than the march of an hostile army. The 
inhabitants, filled with joy and enthusiasm, crowded through 
the gates to welcome Dion as their deliverer, who proclaimed by 
sound of trumpet that he was come for the purpose of putting 
down the despotism of Dionysius, and of liberating not only the 
S^Tacusans, but all the Sicilian Greeks. 

Dion easily rendered himself master of the whole of Syracuse, 
Avith the exception of Ortygia, which was still held by the parti- 
sans of Dionysius. Such was the state in which that tyrant found 
his capital on his return from his Italian expedition. Dionysius 
at first attempted to recover possession of the city by force, but 
havhig been defeated in a sea-fight, he determined to quit Syra- 
cuse, and saded away to Locri in Italy, leaving his son Apollo- 
crates in charge of the citadel (b.c. 356). After his departure, 
dissensions broke out among the besiegers, and Dion was deposed 
from the command ; but the disasters of the Syracusans, aris- 
ing from the incapacity of their new leaders, soon led to his 
recall and to his appointment as sole general with uncontrolled 
authority. Not long after, Apoliocrates was compelled by famine 
to surrender the citadel. 

^ 7. Dion was now master of Syracuse, and in a condition to 
carry out all those exalted notions of political life Avhich he 
had sought to instil into the mind of Dionysius. He seems to 
have contemplated some political changes, probably the esta- 
blishment of a kind of limited and constitutional monarchy, 
after the fashion of Sparta, combined perhaps with the oligarchi- 
cal institutions of Corinth. But this scheme of a constitution 
existed only in his hnagination : his immediate and practical 
acts were tyrannical, and were rendered still more unpopular by 
his overbearing maimers. The Syracusans looked for rei)ublicau 
institutions — for the dismantling of the fortifications of Ortygia, 
the stronghold of despotism — and for the destruction of the 
splendid mausoleum, which had been erected there to tlie me- 
mory of the elder Dionysius, by way of pledge that the despotism 
was really extinct and overthrown. But Dion did nothing of all 
this. Nay, he even caused Heraclides, who had proposed the 



i94 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLI. 

destruction of Ortygia, to be privately assassinated. This act 
increased to the highest pitch the unpopularity under which 
he already laboured. One of his bosom friends — the Athenian 
Callippus — seized the opportunity to mount to power by his 
murder, and, having gained over some of his guards, caused 
him to be assassinated in his own house. This event took place 
in 353, about three years after the expulsion of the Dionysian 
dynasty. 

§ 8. Callippus contrived to retain the sovereign power about 
a twelvemonth. He was ultimately driven out by Hipparinus, 
the nephew of Dion (son of the elder Dionysius by Aristomache), 
who reigned but two years. Nysseus, another of Dion's nephews, 
subsequently obtained the supreme authority, and was in pos- 
session of it when Dionysius presented himself before Syra- 
cuse with a fleet, and became master of the city by treachery, 
about B.C. 346. Dionysius, however, was not able to re-establish 
himself firmly in his former power. Most of the other cities of 
Sicily had shaken off the yoke of Syracuse, and were governed 
by petty despots : one of these, Hicetas, who had established 
himself at Leontini, afforded a rally ing-point to the disaffected 
Syracusans, with whom he joined in making war on Syracuse. 
Meantime, the Carthaginians prepared to take advantage of the 
distracted condition of Sicily. In the extremity of their suffer- 
ings, several of the Syracusan exiles appealed for aid to Corinth, 
their mother-city. The application was granted, and Timoleon 
was appointed to command an expedition destined for the relief 
of Syracuse. 

^ 9. Timoleon was one of those models of uncompromising 
patriotism which we sometimes meet with in the history of 
Greece, and still more frequently in that of Rome, but which, 
under some of its phases, we, in modern times, are at a loss 
whether to approve or to condemn. When a man's country was 
comprised in a small state or a single city, the feeling of patriot- 
ism grew stronger in proportion as it was more condensed ; and 
to this circumstance, as well as to the humanising effects of 
Christianity, may perhaps be chiefly attributed the difference 
between ancient and modern views respecting the duty of a 
patriot. Timoleon was distinguished for gentleness as well as for 
courage, but towards traitors and despots his hatred was intense. 
He had once saved the life of his elder brother Timophanes in 
battle at the imminent peril of his own ; but when Timophanes 
availing himself of his situation as commander of the garrison 
in the Acrocorinthus, endeavoured to enslave his country, Timo- 
leon did not hesitate to consent to his death. Twice before 
had Timoleon pleaded with his brother, beseeching him not to 



B.C. 344. TIMOLEON INVADES SICILY. 495 

destroy the liberties of his country ; but when Timophanes 
turned a deaf ear to these appeals, Timoleon connived at the 
action of his friends who put him to death, whilst he himself, 
bathed in a flood of tears, stood a little way aloof. The action 
was not without its censurers even among the Corinthians them- 
selves : but these were chiefly the adherents of the despotic 
party, whilst the great body of the citizens regarded the conduct 
of Timoleon with love and admiration. In the mind of Timoleon, 
however, their approving verdict was far more than outweighed 
by the reproaches and execrations of his mother. The stings of 
blood-guiltiness and the maternal curse sunk so deep into his 
soul that he endeavoured to starve himself to death, and he was 
only diverted from his purpose by the active interference of his 
friends. But for many years nothing could prevail upon him to 
return to public life. He buried himself in the country far from 
the haunts of men, dragging out the life of a self-condemned 
criminal and exile, till a chance voice in the Corinthian as- 
sembly nominated him as the leader of the expedition against 
Dionysius. 

MO. Roused by the nature of the cause, and the exhortations 
of his friends, Timoleon resolved to accept the post thus oflered 
to him. The prospect however was discouraging. Before he 
sailed, a message arrived from Sicily to countermand the expe- 
dition, Hicetas and the anti-Dionysian party having entered into 
secret negotiations with the Carthaginians, who refused to allow 
any Corinthians to land in Sicily. But the responses of the 
Delphic oracle and the omens of the gods were propitious ; 
especially the circumstance that in the temple of Delphi itself a 
wreath of victory fell from, one of the statues upon the head of 
Timoleon. 

The fleet of Timoleon consisted of only ten triremes, but by 
an adroit stratagem he contrived to elude the Carthaginian fleet 
of twenty sail, and arrived safely at Tauromenium in Sicily, 
where he was heartily welcomed by the inhabitants, Hicetas, 
meanwhile, had made gi-eat progress in the war against Diony- 
sius. He had defeated him in battle, and had made himself 
master of the whole of Syracuse with the exception of Ortygia, 
in which he kept the despot closely besieged. Hicetas, learning 
that Timoleon was advancing to occupy Adranum, hastened 
thither to anticipate him, but was defeated with heavy loss. 
Timoleon now marched upon Syracuse. Dionysius, "W'ho appears 
to have abandoned all hope of ultimate success, judged it better 
to treat with Timoleon than with Hicetas, and accordingly sur- 
rendered the citadel into the hands of the Corinthian leader, 
on condition of being allowed to depart in safety to Corinth, 



496 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cilvp. XIJ. 

B.C. 343. Dionysius passed the remainder of his hfe at Corinth, 
where he is said to have displayed some remnants of his former 
luxury by the fastidious taste which he showed in the choice of 
his viands, unguents, dress, and furniture; whilst his literary in- mU 
clinations manifested themselves in teaching the public singers ■ ■ ' 
and actors, and in opening a school for boys. 

Hicetas still had possession of Achradina ;^ and, since he saw ■ i 
jthat his selfish plans were on the point of failure, he now called II 
in the aid of the whole Carthaginian force lor the reduction of 
Ortygia. The harbour of Syracuse was occupied by 150 Car- 
thaginian ships, whilst an army of 60,000 Carthaginians was 
admitted within the walls of Syracuse. But while Hicetas and 
Magon the Carthaginian general marched with a great part of 
their force to attack the town of Catana, whence the garrison 
of Ortygia was supplied with pro^dsions. Neon, the Corinthian 
commander in Ortygia, watching a favourable opportunity, made 
a sally, defeated the blockading force on all sides, and even ob- 
tained possession of the suburb of Achradina. This unexpected 
success raised the suspicions of Magon, who, fearing that Hi- 
cetas meant to betray him, resolved to quit the island, and 
sailed away with all his forces to Carthage. Notwithstanding 
the defection of his powerful ally, Hicetas attempted to retain 
possession of that part of Syracuse which was still in his power, 
but he was unable to resist the attack of Timoleon, and was 
obliged to abandon the city and return to Leontini. 

n 1 • Thus was the apparently hopeless enterprise of Timoleon 
crowned with entire success in an incredibly short space of time. 
It now remained for him to achieve a still greater victory — 
a victory over himself. He was master of Syracuse and of 
Ortygia, with all its means and resources for establishing a 
despotism in his own favour ; but his first public act was to 
destroy those impregnable fortifications v/hich would have ren- 
dered such a usurpation feasible. All the Syracusans were 
invited to assist in demolishing the walls of Ortygia, and the 
monument of the elder Dionysius, the record of their former 
slavery; and on the ruins of these dreaded works Timoleon caused 
courts of justice to be erected, at once the pledge and instruments 
of equal laws and future freedom. 

Much, however, remained to be done to restore Syracuse to its 
former prosperity, and Sicily in general to a state of liberty and 
order. With this view all exiles were invited to return ; whilst 
Corinth was intreated to co-operate in the work of restoration 
and to become a second time the founder of Syracuse. Two 

* See plan of Syracuse, p. 337. 



B.C. 343 TIMOLEON AT SYRACUSE. 49V 

leading Corinthian citizens were accordingly despatched to assist 
Timoleon and the Syracusans in recasting their constitution, 
which was remodelled on the basis of the laws of Diodes.* 
To remedy the poverty into which Syracuse had been plunged 
by its misfortunes, new colonists were invited to enrol them- 
selves ; and thus a body of 10,000 citizens, including the Syra- 
cusan exiles, was collected at Corinth and transported to Syracuse. 
But larger bodies of Greeks soon poured in from Italy, so that 
altogether the immigrants are reckoned at 60,000. 

^ \2. Meantime, Timoleon was not idle. He attacked Hicetas 
in Leontini, and compelled him to capitulate. But the submis- 
sion of Hicetas was a mere feint in order to gain time for calhng 
in the Carthaginians ; who highly indignant at the precipitate 
retreat of Magon, were anxious to wipe out the disgrace by 
some signal act of vengeance. An army of 70,000 men was 
accordingly disembarked at Lilybaeum. To meet this foi-midable 
force Timoleon could raise only about 12,000 men ; and on his 
march against the enemy this small force was still further re- 
duced by the defection of about 1000 of his mercenaries. With 
the remainder Timoleon marched westwards into the Cartha- 
ginian province. As he was approaching the Crimesus, or Cri- 
missus, a small river which flows into the Plypsa on the south- 
Avestern coast of Sicily, he was saluted by one of those omens 
which so frequently either raised the courage of the Greeks or 
sunk them into despondency. The army was met by several 
mules bearing loads of parsley, the usual ornament of tombs. 
Perceiving the alarm of his sokliers, Timoleon, with great pre- 
sence of mind, gave the omen another and a favourable direction. 
Crowns of parsley were also employed to reward the victors in 
the Isthmian games ; and Timoleon, seizing a handful and 
making a wreath for his own head, exclaimed, " Behold our 
Corinthian symbol of victory ; its unexpected appearance here 
afibrds an unequivocal omen of success." These timely words 
reanimated his men, who now followed him with alacrity. In 
the Jbattle which ensued Timoleon appeared to have been again 
favoured by the gods. In the hottest of the fight a terrific storm 
of hail, rain, and thunder, and lightning beat right in the faces of 
the Carthaginians, and by the confusion which it created enabled 
the Greeks to put them to the rout. The same cause occasioned 
the death of thousands in their retreat, for the river Crimesus, 
swollen by the sudden rain, carried away a great part of those 
who attempted to recross it. Ten thousand Carthaginians are 
said to have perished in the battle, while 15,000 more were 

* See p. 487. 



498 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XLT. 

made prisoners. The remainder fled without stopping to Lily- 
bseum, whence they immediately embarked for Carthage, in t 
without a dread that the anger of the gods would still pursue 
them at sea. 

^3. The victory of the Crimesus brought Timoleon such 
an accession of power and influence, that he now resolved to 
carry into execution his project of expelling all the despots 
from Sicily. The Carthaginians sent another expedition to 
assist these despots, but they were unable to effect anything, 
and were glad to conclude a treaty with Timoleon in b.c. 338. 
While the war still continued with the Carthaginians, Timoleon 
obtained possession of the town of Leontini, as well as of the 
person of Hicetas, whom he caused to be put to death. Ma- 
mercus, despot of Catana, was next deposed and executed by 
order of the public assembly at Syracuse, and the other despots . 
in Sicily soon shared his fate. < 

^ 14. Having thus effected the liberation of the island, Timo- ' 

leon immediately laid down his power. All the reward he received j 

for his great services was a house in Syracuse, and some landed j 

property in the neighbourhood of the city. He now sent for his 
family from Corinth, and became a Syracusan citizen. He con- 
tinued, however, to retain, though in a private station, the 
greatest influence in the state. During the latter part of his 
life, though he was totally deprived of sight, yet when important 
affairs were discussed in the assembly, it was customary to send for 
Timoleon, who was drawn in a car into the middle of the theatre 
amid the shouts and affectionate greetings of the assembled 
citizens. When the tumult of his reception had subsided he 
listened patiently to the debate. The opinion which he pro- 
nounced was usually ratified by the vote of the assembly ; and 
he then left the theatre amidst the same cheers which had 
gi-eeted his arrival. A truly gratifying position I and one which 
must have conferred on Timoleon more real happiness than the 
possession of the most absolute power could ever have be- j 

stowed. In this happy and honoured condition he breathed his 
last in B.C. 336, a few years after the battle of Crimesus. He | 

was splendidly interred at the public cost, whilst the tears of the * 

whole Syracusan population followed him to the grave. i 




View of Delphi and Mount Parnassus. 

BOOK YI. 

THE MACEDO^IAK SUPREMACY. 

B.C. 359—146. 



CHAPTER XLII. 



FROM THE ACCES.SION OF rillLlP TO THE END OF THE SACRED WAR. 

§ 1. State of Greece. § 2. Description of Macedonia. § 3. Kings of 
Macedon. § 4. Character of Philip. § 5. He subdues the Pjeoiiiana 
and Illyrians. §6. His military discipline. §7. Capture of Ainphi- 
polis, and foundation of Philippi. § 8. The Social War. § 9. Com- 
mencement of the Sacred "War. The Phocians seize Delphi. § 10. Suc- 
cesses of the Phocians. § 1 1. Philip interferes in the war. Conquers 
Thessaly. § 12. Philip in Thrace. Demosthenes. § 13. TheOlynthian 
War. § 14. Character of Phocion. Fall of Olynthus. § 15. Progress 

■ of the Sacred War. Embassy to Philip. § 1 6. Conquest of Phocis by 
Philip. Sentence of the Am'phictyonic Council on the Phocians. 

^ 1. The internal dissensions of Greece, which have formed the 
subject of the two preceding books, arc now about to produce 
their natural fruits ; and in the present book we shall have to 



500 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLII. 

relate the downfall of her independence and her suhjugation by a 
foreign power. We have first of all seen Sparta exercising a sort 
of empire of opinion over the other Grecian states, and looked 
up to by them with willing obedience as their traditional and 
chosen leader. After the Persian wars Athens contests the 
palm with her, and, through the confederacy of Delos, becomes 
virtually the head of Greece in material power, if not recognised 
as such by the public opinion of the nation. But Sparta 
and most of the other Grecian states, from jealousy of the 
Athenian supremacy, league together for the purpose of crush- 
ing Athens. After a long struggle, Athens falls into the power 
of her enemies ; and Sparta becomes the ruler of Greece. The 
power which she has thus acquired, she exercises with harsh- 
ness, cruelty, and corruption ; her own allies desert her ; and 
in little more than thirty years after the battle of ^gospotami 
she is in her turn not only deprived of the supremacy, but even 
stripped of a considerable portion of her own ancient territory, 
chiefly through the power and influence of Thebes. For a little 
while Thebes becomes the predominant state ; but she owes 
her position solely to the abilities and genius of Epaminondas, 
and after his death sinks down to her former level. The state 
of exhaustion into which Greece had been thrown by these 
protracted intestine dissensions is already shown by her having 
condescended to throw herself at the feet of Persia, and to make 
her hereditary enemy the arbiter of her quarrels. Athens alone, 
during the comparative state of tranquillity aflx)rded her through 
the mutual disputes of her neighbours, has succeeded in regain- 
ing some portion of her former strength, and becomes the leading 
power in the struggle which now threatens to overwhelm the 
whole of Greece. This new danger comes from an obscure 
northern state, hitherto overlooked and despised, and considered 
as altogether barbarous, and without the pale of Grecian civi- 
lization. 

§ 2. Macedonia — for that is the country of which we are 
speaking — had various limits at different times. Properly, how- 
ever, it may be regarded as separated from Thessaly on the 
south by the Cambunian mountains ; from Illyria on the west 
by the great mountain chain called Scardus and Bernus, and 
which, under the name of Pindus, also separates Thessaly from 
Epirus ; from McEsia on the north by the mountams called Orbe- 
lus and Scomius ; and from Thrace on the east by the river 
Strymon. It is drained by three rivers of considerable size, the 
Axius, the Lydias, and the Haliacmon ; each of which has its 
separate valley, formed by two mountain ranges running south- 
eastwards from the mountains that divide Illyria and Macedonia. 



B.C. 859. HISTORY OF I^IACEDONIA. 601 

All these rivers discharge themselves into the Thermaic gulf. 
The origin of the people who inhabited this tract of country has 
been much disputed. The Greeks themselves looked upon them 
as barbarians, that is, as not of Hellenic origin. They were pro- 
bably an lUpian people, and the similarity of the manners and 
customs, as well as of the languages, so far as they are known, 
of the early Macedonians and lllyrians, seems to establish tho 
identity of the races. 

^ 3. Bat though the Macedonians were not Greeks, their so- 
vereigns claimed to be descended from an Hellenic race, namely, 
that of Temenus of Argos ; and it is said that Alexander I. 
proved his Argive descent previously to contending at the Olympic 
games. Perdiccas is commonly regarded as the founder of the 
monarchy ; of the history of which, however, little is known till 
the reign of Amyntas I., his fifth successor, who was contem- 
porary with the Pisistratidse at Athens. Under Amyntas, who 
submitted to the satrap Megabyzus, Macedonia became subject 
to Persia, and remained so till after the battle of Platsea. The 
reigns of the succeeding sovereigns down to Philip H. present 
little that is remarkable, Avith the exception of that of Arche- 
laus (b.c. 413). This monarch effected much for Macedonia by 
improving the condition of the army, by erecting fortresses to 
check the incursions of his barbarous neighbours, by construct- 
ing roads, and by endeavouring to diffuse among his subjects a 
taste for literature and art. He transferred his residence from 
jEgSB to Pella, which thus became the capital, and he employed 
Zeuxis to adorn his palace there with paintings. He entertained 
many literary men at his court ; such as Agathon and Euripides, 
the latter of whom ended his days at Pella. Archelaus was as- 
sassinated in B.C. 399, and the crown devolved upon Amyntas H., 
a representative of the ancient line. Amyntas left three sons : 
Alexander H., who was assassinated by Ptolemy Alorites ; Per- 
diccas ni., who recovered his brother's throne by slaying Pto- 
lemy, and who fell in battle against the lllyrians ; and lastly, the 
celebrated Philip, of whom we have now to speak. 

M. It has been already mentioned that the youthful Philip 
was one of the hostages delivered to the Thebans as security for 
the peace effected by Pclopidas. His residence at Thebes gave 
him some tincture of Grecian philosophy and literature. It 
seems probable that he made the personal acquaintance of Plato ; 
and he undoubtedly acquired that command over the Greek lan- 
guage which put him on a level with the best orators of the day. 
But the most important lesson which he learned at Thebes Avas 
the art of war, with all the improved tactics introduced by Epa- 
minondas. A* ihe time of Philip's residence, moreover, Thebes 



502 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIL 

was the centre of politicai interest, and he must accordingly have 
had opportunities to become intimately acquainted with the 
views and policy of the various (xrecian powers. The genius 
and character of Philip were well calculated to derive advantage 
from these opportunities. He had great natural acuteness and 
sagacity, so as to perceive at a glance the men to be employed, 
and the opportunities to be improved. His boundless ambition 
was seconded by an iron will, which no danger could daunt and 
no repulse dishearten ; and when he had once formed a project 
he pursued it with untiring and resistless energy. His hand- 
some person, spontaneous eloquence, and apparently frank 
deportment, were of great assistance to him in the prosecution 
of his schemes ; whilst under these seducing qualities Im-ked no 
inconvenient morality to stand between his desires and their 
gratification. Corruption was his instrument as frequently as 
force ; and it was one of his favourite boasts that he had taken 
more towns with silver than with iron.* Yet when force was 
necessary no man could wield it better ; for with the skill of a 
general he united a robustness of constitution which enabled 
him to bear all the hardships of a campaign as well as the 
meanest soldier. 

§ 5. Such was the man who at the age of 23 assumed the go- 
vernment of Macedonia (b.c. 359). It had probably been in- 
trusted to him when his brother Perdiccas set out on the expe- 
dition against the Illyrians in which he fell ; and after that event 
he became the guardian of his brother's infant son. This minority 
induced two pretenders to claim the crown : Pausanias, who was 
supported by the king of Thrace ; and Argseus, whose claims 
were backed by the Athenians with a force of 3000 hoplites, 
because he had engaged to put them in possession of Amphi- 
polis. But by his promises and address Philip contrived to 
propitiate both the king of Thrace and the Athenians ; to the 
latter of whom he made the same offers as Argeeus had done. 
The two pretenders being thus deprived of their supporters, 
were easily got rid of, and Philip was left at hberty to turn his 
arms against the Pseonians and Illyrians, who were threatening 
Macedonia with invasion. The former people were easily sub- 
dued, and Philip then marched against the Illyrians with a force 
of 10,000 men. He was met by Bardylis, the aged chief of 
Illyria, with an army of about the same strength. This was the 
first important engagement fought by Philip. He displayed in 
it the military skill which he had acquired in the school of Epa- 
* " diffidit iirbium 

Portas vir Macedo et submit ajmulos 
Reges muncribus." — Hou. Carm. iii. 16. 13. 



B.C. 359. ACCESSION OF PHILIP. 508 

minondas, and, like that commander, gained the victory by con- 
centrating his forces on one point of the enemy's line. Nearly 
two-thirds of the lUyrian army were destroyed ; and they were 
consequently compelled to submit unconditionally, and to place 
in the hands of Philip the principal mountain passes between 
the two countries. It was after these victories that Philip seems 
to have deposed his nephew, and to have assumed the crown of 
Macedon. This revolution, however, was unattended with harsh- 
ness or cruelty. Philip continued to bring up his nephew at 
court, and ultimately gave him one of his daughters in marriage. 

§ 6. It was natural that success acquired with so much ease 
should prompt a youthful and ambitious monarch to further 
undertakings. In anticipation of future conquests he devoted 
the greatest attention to the training and discipline of his army. 
It was in his Illyrian wars that he is said to have introduced the 
far-famed Macedonian phalanx. But perhaps the greatest of his 
military innovations was the establishment of a standing army. 
We have already noticed certain bodies of this description at 
Argos and Thebes. Philip, however, seems to have retained on 
foot the 10,000 men which he had employed against the Illy- 
rians ; and this standing force was gradually enlarged to double 
the number. Among the soldiers discipline was preserved by 
the severest punishments. Thus we hear of a youth of noble 
birth being scourged for leaving the ranks to get a draught of 
wine at a tavern ; and of another who, though a favourite at 
court, was put to death for a similar offence, aggravated by a 
breach of positive orders. 

§ 7. Philip's views were now turned towards the eastern fron- 
tiers of his dominions, where his interests clashed with those of 
the Athenians. A few years before the Athenians had made 
various unavailing attempts to obtain possession of Amphipolis, 
once the jewel of their empire, but which they had never reco- 
vered since its capture by Brasidas in the eighth year of the Pe- 
loponnesian war. Its situation at the mouth of the Strymon 
rendered it also valuable to Macedonia, not only as a commercial 
port, but as opening a passage into Thrace. The Olynthians 
were likewise anxious to enrol Amphipohs as a member of their 
confederacy, and accordingly proposed to the Athenians to form 
an alliance for the purpose of defending Amphipolis against their 
mutual enemy. An alliance between these two powerful states 
would have proved an insurmountable obstacle to Philip's views ; 
and it was therefore absolutely necessary to prevent this coali- 
tion. Here we have the first instance of Philip's skill and du- 
plicity in negotiation. By secretly promising the Athenians 
that he would put Amphipolis into their hands, if they would 



604 HISTORY OF GREECK Cuap. XLU. 

give him possession of Pydna, he induced them to reject the 
overtures of the Olynthians ; and by ceding to the latter the 
town of Anthemus, he bought off their opposition. He now laid 
siege to Amphipolis, wliich, being thus left unaided, fell into his 
hands (b.c. 358). He then forthwith marched against Pydna, 
which surrendered to him ; but on the ground that it was not 
the Athenians who had put him in possession of this town, he 
refused to give up Amphipolis to them. 

Philip had now just reason to dread the enmity of the Athenians, 
and accordingly it was his policy to court the favour of the 
01}Tithians, and to prevent them, from renewing their negotia- 
tions with the Athenians. In order to separate them more 
effectually, he assisted the Olynthians in recovering Potidsea, 
which had formerly belonged to their confederacy, but was now 
in the hands of the Athenians. On the capture of the town he 
handed it over to the Olynthians ; but at the same time he 
treated the Athenian garrison with kindness, and allowed them 
to return home in safety. Plutarch relates that the capture of 
Potidcsa was accompanied with three other fortunate events in 
the life of Philip ; namely, the prize gained by his chariot at the 
Olympic games, a victory of his general Parmenio over the 
lUyrians, and the birth of his son Alexander. These events 
happened in b.c. 356. 

Pliilip now crossed the Strymon, on the left bank of which 
lay Pangseus, a range of mountains abounding in gold mines. 
Pangeeus properly belonged to the Thracians, but had some- 
times been in the possession of the Athenians, and sometimes 
of the Thasians ; and at this time was held by the latter people. 
Philip conquered the district, and founded there a new town 
called Philippi, on the site of the ancient Thasian town of 
Crenides. By impioved methods of working the mines he made 
them yield an annual revenue of 1000 talents, nearly 250,000/. 
But it was chiefly as a military post that Philippi was valu- 
able to him, and as a means of pushing his conquests farther 
eastwards ; for which, however he was not at present pre- 



§ 8. Meanwhile, Athens was engaged in a war with her allies, 
which has been called the Social War; and which was, perhaps, 
the reason why she was obliged to look quietly on whilst 
Philip was thus aggrandizing himself at her expense. This war 
broke out in b.c. 357. The chief causes of it seem to have been 
the contributions levied upon the allies by the Athenian gene- 
rals, and the re-establishraent of the system of cleruchies, \vhich 
the Athenians had formally renounced when they were beginning 
to reconstruct their empire. However this may be, a coahtiou 



B.C. 357. THE SACRED WAR. 60fi 

was formed against Athens, of which either Byzantium or Rhodes 
was the head, and which was soon joined by Chios, Cos, and 
other places. The insurgents were also assisted by the Carian 
prince, Mausolus. The first step taken by the Athenians in 
order to quell this insurrection was to attack Chios with 60 tri- 
remes, under Chares and Chabrias. The expedition proved un- 
successful. Chabrias was slain whilst gallantly leading the way 
mto the harbour of Chios, and the armament was altogether de- 
feated. We next find Timotheus and Iphicrates employed in 
this war in conjunction with Chares : but the details recorded 
of it are obscure, and sometimes contradictory. Chares got rid 
of his two colleagues on a charge of failing to support him in a 
battle. On this indictment they were subsequently tried, when 
Iphicrates was acquitted ; but Timotheus was condemned, and 
retired to Chalcis, where he soon afterwards died. Athens thus 
lost her best commanders ; and Chares, having obtained the sole 
command, entered the service of the satrap Artabazus, who had 
revolted against Artaxerxes, and was rewarded with a large sum, 
which enabled him to pay his men. He did not succeed, how- 
ever, in reducing the refractory allies to obedience ; and when 
Artaxerxes threatened to support them with a fleet of 300 ships, 
the Athenians were obhged to consent to a disadvantageous 
peace, which secured the independence of the more important 
allies (b.c. 355). The Athenians only succeeded in retaining 
some of the smaller towns and islands, and their revenue from 
them was reduced to the moderate sum of 45 talents. 

§ 9. The Social War tended still further to exhaust the Grecian 
states, and thus pave the way for Philip's progress to the su- 
premacy. Another war, which had been raging during the same 
time, produced the same result even to a greater extent. This 
was the Sacred War, which broke out between Thebes and 
Phocis in the same year as the Social War (b.c. 357). An ill- 
feeling had long subsisted between those two countries. It was 
with reluctance that the Phocians had joined the Theban al- 
liance. In the last campaign of Epaminondas in the Pelopon- 
nesus, they positively reiused their assistance ; and after tho 
death of that leader they seem to have committed some actual 
hostilities against Boeotia. The Thebans now availed themselves 
of the influence which they possessed in the Amphictyonic coun- 
cil to take vengeance upon the Phocians, and accordingly induced 
this body to impose a heavy fine upon the Phocians, because 
they had cultivated a portion of the Cirrha^an plain, which, after 
the first sacred war, had been consecrated to the Deli)hian god,* 
and was to lie waste for ever. The Phocians pleaded that the 
* Sec pp. 50, 51. 
Z 



506 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. XLIL 

payment of the fine would ruin them ; but instead of listening 
to their remonstrances, the Amphictyons doubled the amount, 
and threatened, in case of their continued refusal, to reduce 
them to the condition of serfs. Thus driven to desperation, the 
Phocians resolved to complete the sacrilege with which they had 
been branded, by seizing the very temple of Delphi itself, to the 
possession of which they asserted an ancient right, founded on a 
verse in Homer, in which the " rocky Pytho" was reckoned 
among the Phocian towns.* If they succeeded in seizing the 
temple, not only would all its treasures be at their command, 
but they would even be able to dictate the responses of the 
oracle. The leader and counsellor of this enterprise was Philo- 
melus, who, with a force of no more than 2000 men, surprised 
and took Delphi. The Locrians of Amphissa, who came to the 
rescue of the temple, were defeated by him with great loss. 
Being now master of the temple, Philomelus destroyed the re- 
cords containing the sentence of the Amphictyons, and appealed 
to all Greece against its injustice. At first, however, he care- 
fully abstained from touching the sacred treasure ; but he levied 
large sums on the private property of the Delphians. He then 
fortified the temple afresh ; and, having hired more mercenaries, 
which swelled his force to 5000 men, invaded the Locrian terri- 
tory. After some petty skirmishes, the Locrians were finally 
defeated in a pitched iDattle ; whereupon they applied to the 
Tliebans for assistance. 

§ 10. Meanwhile, Philomelus, being master of the oracle, ex- 
torted a decree from the priestess sanctioning all that he had 
done ; and sent envoys to the principal Grecian cities, including 
Thebes, to vindicate his conduct, and to declare that the treasures 
of Delphi were untouched. The envoys succeeded in obtaining the 
alliance of Sparta and Athens, but from Thebes they were repulsed 
with threats. There, however, the application of the Locrians 
met with a ready acquiescence ; and messages were sent by the 
Thebans to stir up the Thessalians and all the northern tribes 
which belonged to the Amphictyonic Council. The Phocians 
now saw themselves threatened by a powerful combination, 
whilst from Athens, weakened by the social war, and from Sparta, 
hampered by Megalopolis and Messene, they could expect but 
little aid. In this emergency Philomelus threw off the scruples 
which he had hitherto assumed, and announced that the sacred 
treasures should be converted into a fund for the payment of 
mercenaries. Crowds of adventurers now flocked on all sides to 
his standard, and he soon found himself at the head of 10,000 
men. With these he again invaded Locris, and defeated th» 
* Iliad, ii. 51Y. 



B.C. 352. mTERFERENCE OF PHILIP. 507 

Thebans and Thessalians. Subsequently, however, the Thebans 
obtained large remforcements, and having become manifestly the 
strongest, put to death all Phocian prisoners, as behig guilty of 
sacrilege. The war thus assumed the most barbarous character, 
and the Phocians, by way of self preservation, were obliged to 
retaliate. The details of the struggle are not accurately known, 
but it appears that a great battle was at length fought, in which 
the Phocians were defeated and Philomelus killed. The victory, 
however, does not seem to have been sufficiently decisive to 
enable the Thebans to obtain possession of Delphi, and they sub- 
sequently returned home. 

Onomarchus, who succeeded his brother Philomelus in the 
command, carried on the war with vigour and success. He re- 
duced both the western and eastern Locrians, as well as the little 
state of Doris. He then invaded Boeotia, captured Orchome- 
nus, and laid siege to Chseronea; which, however, the Thebans 
compelled him to raise, and drove him back with some Iocs into 
Phocis. 

§11. Such was the state of the Sacred War when Philip first 
began to interfere in it. It was only, however, through his pre- 
vious conquests in Thessaly that he was enabled to do so. Even 
before he could enter that country he had to reduce the town of 
Methone, which lay between him and the Thessalian frontier ; 
and it was at the siege of this place that he lost his eye by an 
arrow. After the capture of Methone, his road lay open into 
Thessaly; and at the invitation of the Aleuadse of Larissa, Avho 
were disgusted with the tyranny exercised by the successors of 
Alexander of Phera3, he undertook an expedition against that 
state. Alexander himself had been despatched through the 
machinations of his wife Thebe, who caused him to be murdered 
by her three half-brothers. These subsequently ascended the 
throne, and exercised a tyranny as harsh as that of their pre- 
decessor. Pherae, it seems, had shown some disposition to assist 
the Phocians ; and when Onomarchus heard that Philip was 
marching against it, he sent his brother, Phayllus, with a force 
of 7000 men to its assistance. Philip defeated Phayllus, but 
was subsequently routed and compelled to retreat by Onomar- 
chus in person. The latter then turned his arms against Coro- 
nea, which he reduced ; but the news that Philip had re-entered 
Thessaly at the head of 20,000 men, soon compelled him again 
to march thither. Philip now assumed the character of a cham- 
pion of the Delphic god, and made his soldiers wear wreaths of 
laurel, plucked in the groves of Tcmpe. Onomarchus was at the 
head of about an equal number of men ; but in the encounter 
which ensued, apparently near the gulf of Pagastc, he was slahi, 



608 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLII. 

and his army totally defeated (b.c. 352). This victory made 
Philip master of Thessaly. He now directed his march south- 
wards with the view of subduing the Phocians ; but upon 
reaching Thermopylae, he found the pass guarded by a strong 
Athenian force, and was compelled, or considered it more prudent, 
to retreat. 

§ 12. After his return from Thessaly, Philip's views were di- 
rected towards Thrace and the Chersonese ; but he first carried 
his arms so far into the interior of the country that the Athe- 
nians could learn nothing of his movements. It was at this 
juncture that Demosthenes stepped forwards as the proclaimed 
opponent of Philip, and delivered the first of those celebrated 
orations which from their subject have been called " the Philip- 
pics." Since the cstablisliment of democracy at Athens a cer- 
tain degree of ability in public speaking was indispensable to a 
public man. Hitherto, however, the leading men ol' Athens had, 
like Cimon and Pericles, been statesmen and warriors, as well as 
orators. But the great progress made in the art of rhetoric, as 
well as in the art of war since the improved tactics introduced 
by Epaminondas, had now almost completely separated the pro- 
fessions of the orator and the soldier. Phocion, the contempo- 
rary of Demosthenes, was the last who combined the provinces 
of the two. The ears of the Athenians had become fastidious. 
They delighted in displays of oratorical skill ; and it was this 
period which produced those speakers who have been called by 
way of eminence " the Attic orators." Demosthenes, the most 
famous of them all, was born in b.c. 382-381. Having lost his 
father at the early age of seven, his guardians abused their trust, 
and defrauded him of the greater part of his paternal inheritance. 
This misfortune, however, proved one of the causes which tended 
to make him an orator. Demosthenes, as he advanced towards 
manhood, perceived with indignation the conduct of his guar- 
dians, for Avhich he resolved to make them answerable when the 
proper opportunity should arrive, by accusing them himself 
before the dicastery. The weakness of his bodily frame, which 
unfitted him for the exercises of the gymnasium, caused him to 
devote himself with all the more ardour to intellectual pursuits. 
He placed himself under the tuition of Isaeus, who then enjoyed 
a high reputation as an advocate ; and when he had acquired 
a competent degree of skill, he pleaded his cause against his guar- 
dians, and appears to have recovered a considerable portion of 
his estate. This success encouraged him to speak in the public 
assembly ; but his first attempt proved a failure, and he retired 
from the bema amidst the hootings and laughter of the citizens. 
The more judicious and candid among his auditors perceived, 



B.C. 352. DEMOSTHENES. FIRST PHILIPPIC. 509 

however, marks of genius in his speech, and rightly attributed 
his faihire to timidity and want of due preparation. Eunomus, 
an aged citizen who met him wandering about the Piraeus in a 
state of dejection at his ill success, bade him take courage and 
persevere. "Your manner of speakmg," said he, "very much 
resembles that of Pericles ; you fail only through want of con- 
fidence. You are too much disheartened by the tumult of a 
popular assembly, and you do not take any pains even to acquire 
that strength of body which is requisite for the bema." Struck 
and encouraged by these remarks, Demosthenes withdrew awhile 
from public life, and devoted himself perseveringly to remedy 
his defects. They were such as might be lessened, if not re- 
moved, by practice, and consisted chiefly of a weak voice, 
imperfect articulation, and ungraceful and inappropriate action. 
He derived much assistance from Satyrus, the actor, who exer- 
cised him in reciting passages from Sophocles and Euripides. 
He studied the best rhetorical treatises and orations, and is said 
to have copied the work of Thucydides with his own hand no 
fewer than eight times. He shut himself up for two or three 
months together in a subterranean chamber in order to practise 
composition and declamation. It may also be well supposed 
that he devoted no inconsiderable part of his attention to the 
laws of Athens and the politics of Greece. His perseverance was 
crowned with success ; and he who on the first attempt had 
descended from the bema amid the ridicule of the crowd, became 
at last the most perfect orator the world has ever seen. 

M3. Demosthenes had established himself as a public speaker 
before the period which we have now reached ; but it is chiefly 
in connexion with Philip that we are to view him as a statesman 
as well as an orator. Philip had shown his ambition by the con- 
quest of Thessaly, and by the part he had taken in the Sacred 
"War ; and Demosthenes now began to regard him as the enemy 
of the liberties of Athens and of Greece. In his first " Philippic" 
Demosthenes tried to rouse bis countiymen to energetic meas- 
ures against this formidable enemy ; but his warnings and exhor- 
tations produced little eflect, for the Athenians were no longer 
distinguished by the same spirit of enterprise which had cha- 
racterized them in the days of their supremacy. It is true they 
were roused to momentaiy action towards the end of B.C. 352 
by the news that Philip was besieging the fortress of Herajum on 
the Propontis ; but the armament which they voted, upon receiv- 
ing the news, did not sail till the autumn of r..c. 351, and then 
on a reduced scale under the command of Charidrmus. For the 
next two years no important step was taken to curb the growing 
power of Philip ; and it was the danger of Olynthus, which first 



610 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XUI. 

induced the Athenians to prosecute the war with a httle more 
energ}^ 

In 350 B.C., Phihp having captured a town in Chalcidice, 01}ti- 
thus hegan to tremble for her own safety, and sent envoys to 
Athens to crave assistance. OljTithus was still at the head of 
thirty-two Greek towns, and the confederacy was a sort of coun- 
terpoise to the power of Philip. It was on tliis occasion that 
Demosthenes dehvered liis three OljTithaic orations, in which 
he warmly advocated an alhance with Olynthus. 

M4. Demosthenes was opposed by a strong party, with which 
Phocion commonly acted. Phocion is one of the most singular 
and original characters in Grecian history. Naturally simple, 
upright, and benevolent, his manners were nevertheless olten 
rendered repulsive by a tinge of misanthropy and cynicism. He 
viewed the multitude and their afiairs with a scorn which he 
was at no pains to disguise ; receiving their anger with indiffer- 
ence, and their praises with contempt. When a response from 
Delphi amiounced to the Athenians that though they were 
themselves unanimous, there was one man who dissented from 
them, Phocion stepped forwards, and said : "Do not trouble 
yourselves to seek for this refractor}'" citizen ; — I am he, and I 
like nothing that you do." On another occasion, when one of 
his speeches was received with general applause, he turned round 
to his friends, and inquired, " Have I said anything bad ?" Pho- 
cion' s whole art of oratory consisted in condensing his speeches 
into the smallest possible compass, without any attention to the 
smoothness of his periods, or the grace of his language. Yet 
their terse and homely vigour was often heightened by a sort of 
dry humour, which produced more effect than the most studied 
efibrts of oratory. " AYhat, at your meditations, Phocion ?" 
inquired a friend, who perceived him wrapt up in thought. — 
" Yes," he replied, " I am considering whether I can shorten 
what I have to say to the Athenians." His known probity also 
gave him weight with the assembly. He was the only statesman 
of whom Demosthenes stood in awe ; who was accustomed to 
say when Phocion rose, " Here comes the pruner of my 
periods." But Phocion's desponding views, and his mistrust of 
the Athenian people, made him an ill statesman at a period 
which demanded the most active patriotism. He doubtless 
injured his country by contributing to check the more enlarged 
and patriotic views of Demosthenes ; and though his own con- 
duct was pure and disinterested, he unintentionally threw his 
weight on the side of those who, like Demades and others, were 
actuated by the basest motives. This division of opinion ren- 
dered the operations of the Athenians for the aid of the 01}ti- 



B.C. 347. PHILIP TAKES OLYNTHUS. 611 

thiaiis languid and desultory. Town after town of the confe- 
deracy fell before Philip ; and in B.C. 348, or early in 347, he laid 
siege to Olynthus itself. The city was vigorously defended ; but 
Philip at length gained admission through the treachery of Las- 
tlienes and Euthycrates, two of the leading men, when he 
razed it to the ground and sold the inhabitants into slavery. 
The whole of the Chalcidian peninsula thus became a Macedo- 
nian province. Philip celebrated his triumph at Diura, a town 
on the borders of Thessaly ; where, on the occasion of a festival 
to the Muses, instituted by Archelaus, he amused the people 
with banquets, games, and theatrical entertainments. 

^15. The prospects of Athens now became alarming. Her 
possessions in the Chersonese were threatened, as well as the 
freedom of the Greek towns upon the Hellespont. At this junc- 
ture Demosthenes endeavoured to persuade the Athenians to 
organize a confederacy among the (xrecian states for the purpose 
of arresting a power which seemed to threaten the liberty of 
all ; and in this he was seconded by some of those politicians 
who usually opposed him. But though steps were taken towards 
this object, the attempt entirely failed. The attention of the 
Athenians was next directed towards a reconciliation with 
Tuebes. The progress of the sacred war, to which we must now 
briefly revert, seemed favourable to such a project. After the 
death of Onomarchus, his brother Phayllus had assumed the 
command of the Phocians ; and as the sacred treasure was still 
unexhausted he succeeded in obtaining large reinlbrcements of 
troops. The Spartans sent 1000 men; the Achaeans 2000 ; the 
Athenians 5000 foot and 400 horse under Nausicles. With these 
forces Phayllus undertook a successful invasion of Boeotia ; and 
afterwards attacked the Epicncmidian Locrians, and took all 
their towns except Naryae. But in the course of the year Phayllus 
died, and was succeeded in the conduct of the war by Mnaseas, 
guardian of Phalaecus, the youthful son of Onomarchus. Mnaseas, 
however, was soon slain, and Phala3cus himself then assumed the 
command. Under him the war was continued between the Pho- 
cians and Thebans, but without any decisive success on either side. 
The treasures of Delphi were nearly exhausted, and on the other 
hand the war was becoming every year more and more burthen- 
some to the Thebans. It was at this juncture that the Athe- 
nians, as before hinted, were contemplating a peace with Thebes ; 
nor did it seem improbable that one might be concluded not 
only between those two cities, but among the Grecian states 
generally. It seems to have been this aspect of affairs tliat 
induced Philip to make several indirect overtures to the Athe- 
nians in the summer of bc. 347. In spite of subsidies from 



612 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIL 

Delphi tlie war had been very onerous to them, and they received 
these advances with joy, yet not without suspicion, as they were 
quite unable to divine Philip's motives for making them. On 
the motion of Philocrates, however, it was decreed that ten am- 
bassadors should be despatched to Philip's court. Philocrates 
himself was at the head of them, and among the rest were the 
rival orators, Demosthenes and ^schines, and the actor Aristo- 
demus. We have, however, no particulars on which we can rely 
respecting this embassy. All that we can gather respecting it is 
from the personal recriminations of Demosthenes and ^schines, 
and we can only infer on the whole that it was a miserable 
failure. Philip seems to have bribed some of the ambassadors, 
and to have cajoled the rest by his hospitable banquets and his 
winning and condescending manners. Nothing decisive was done 
respecting Amphipolis or the Phocians ; and as far as we can 
learn the whole fruits of the embassy were some vague promises 
on the part of Philip to respect the Athenian possessions in 
Thrace. Soon after the return of Philocrates and his colleagues, 
Antipater, Parmenio, and Eurylochus, three of Philip's most dis- 
tinguished generals and statesmen, came on a mission to Athens, 
where they were entertained by Demosthenes. The basis of a 
treaty of peace and alliance seems now to have been arranged, in 
which Philip dictated his own terms. Another embassy, con- 
sisting probably of the former ten, was appointed to procure the 
ratification of this treaty by Philip ; and on the news that he 
was invading the dominions of Cersobleptes, they were directed 
to hasten their departure, and to seek that monarch in whatever 
quarter he might be. With this view they proceeded to the 
port of Oreus in Euboea; but instead of following the advice of 
Demosthenes, and embarking for the Hellespont, which they 
might have reached in two or three days, they wasted some time 
at that place, and then proceeded by a circuitous route to Pella : 
hence they did not reach that city till upwards of three weeks 
after quitting Athens. Here they met ambassadors from other 
states concerned in the progress of the sacred war, as Thebes, 
Phocis, Sparta, and Thessaly ; but Philip was still in Thrace, and 
they had to wait a month for his return. Even when he arrived 
at Pella, he delayed the final ratification of the treaty, and per- 
suaded the ambassadors to accompany him on his march to 
Pherse in Thessaly, under pretence that he desired their media- 
tion between the Pharsalians and Halus ; though liis real motive 
undoubtedly was to gain time for invading Phocis. He at length 
swore to the treaty in Pherss ; but the Phocians were express]y 
excluded from it. 

§16. Scarcely had the Athenian ambassadors returned homo 



A 



B.C. 34i.. END OF THE SACRED WAR. 613 

when Philip began his march towards Thermopyla3. Demosthenes, 
on his return, protested against the acts of his colleagues, and 
his representations had such an effect, that the ambassadors 
were not honoured with the usual vote of thanks. The main 
charge which he brought against his colleagues, and against 
^schines in particular, was that of having deluded the people 
with false hopes respecting Philip's views towards Athens. But 
the opposite party had possession of the popular ear. Not only 
was nothing done for the Phocians, but a decree was even passed 
to convey the thanks of Athens to Philip, and to declare that 
unless Delphi was delivered up by the Phocians to the Amphic- 
tyons, the Athenians would help to enforce that step. The am- 
bassadors were again directed to carry this decree to Philip ; but 
Demosthenes was so disgusted with it that he refused to go, and 
^schines also declined on the plea of ill-health. 

The Phocians now lay at the mercy of Philip. As soon as the 
king had passed the straits of Thermopylae, Phalsecus secured 
his own-safety by concluding a treaty with Philip, by which he 
was permitted to retire into the Peloponnesus with 8000 mer- 
cenaries. When Philip entered Phocis all its towns surrendered 
unconditionally at his approach. Philip then occupied Delphi, 
where he assembled the Amphictyons to pronounce sentence 
upon those who had been concerned in the sacrilege committed 
there. The council decreed that all the cities of Phocis, except 
Aba3, should be destroyed, and their inhabitants scattered into 
villages containing not more than fifty houses each ; and that 
they should replace by yearly payments the treasures of the 
temple estimated at the enormous sum of 10,000 talents, or 
nearly two millions and a half sterling. Sparta was deprived 
of her share in the Amphictyonic privileges ; the two votes in' 
the Council possessed by the Phocians were transferred to the 
kings of Macedonia ; and Philip was to share with the Thebans 
and Thessalians the honour of presiding at the Pythian games. 
These were no slight privileges gained by Philip. A seat in the 
Amphictyonic council recognized him at once as a Grecian 
power, and would afford him occasion to interfere in the affairs 
of Greece. Thebes recovered the places which she had lost in 
Bceotia. Such was the termuiation of the Sacred War (b.c. 
34G). 




The Plain of Cheronea 



CHAPTER XLIII. 



FROM THE END OF THE SACRED WAR TO THE DEATH OF PHILIP. 



§ 1. Results of the Sacred War. § 2. Macedonian embassy to Athens. 
Second Fhilippic. §3. Philip's expedition into Thrace. §4. Third 
Philippic. Progress of Philip. Siege of Perinthus. § 5. Phocion's 
success in Enboea. § 6. Declaration of war between Athens and 
Macedon. Phocion compels Philip to evacuate the Chersonese. § 7. 
Charge of sacrilege against the Amphissians. § 8. Philip appointed 
general by the Amphictyons to conduct the war against Amphissa. 
§ 9. He seizes Elatea. League between Athens and Thebes. § 10. 
Battle of Chseronea. § 11. Philip's extravagant joy for his victory. 
§ 12. Congress at Corinth. Philip's progress through the Peloponne- 
sus. § 13. Philip's Domestic quarrels. § 14. Preparations for the 
Persian expedition. §15. Assassination of Philip. 

k 1 . The result of the Sacred War rendered Macedon the lead- 
ing state in Greece. Philip at once acquired by it military glory, 
a reputation for piety, and an accessioii of power. His ambitious 
designs were now too plain to be mistaken. The eyes of the 
blindest among the Athenians were at last opened ; the pro- 
moters of the peace which had been concluded with Philip 
incurred the hatred and suspicion of the people ; whilst on the 
other hand Demosthenes rose higher than ever in public favour. 
They showed their resentment against Philip by omitting to 
send their usual deputation to the Pythian games at which the 
Macedonian monarch presided. 



B.C. 344. -'SECOND PHILIPPIC. 616 

It was either this omission, or the unwillingness of the Athe- 
nians to acknowledge Phihp as a member of the Amphictyonic 
league, that induced him to send an embassy to Athens for the 
purpose of settling a point which neither his dignity nor his 
interest would permit to lie in abeyance. It was generally felt 
that the question was one of peace or war. Yet the Athenians 
were so enraged against Philip that those who were for main- 
taining peace with him could hardly obtain a hearing in the as- 
sembly. On this occasion we have the remarkable spectacle of 
^schines and Demosthenes speaking on the same side, though 
from widely different motives. The former adhered to his usual 
corrupt policy in favour of Philip ; whilst Demosthenes, in sup- 
porting him, was actuated only by views of the most sagacious 
and disinterested policy. These he detailed and enforced in his 
Oration On the Peace, in which he persuaded the Athenians not 
to expose themselves at that time to the risk of a war with Philip, 
supported, as he would be, by the greater part of Greece. 

k 2. Phihp had now succeeded to the position lately occupied 
by Thebes, and in virtue of it prepared to exercise the same in- 
fluence which that state had previously enjoyed in the Pelopon- 
nesus. He declared himself the protector of the Messenians, and 
the friend and ally of the Megalopolitans and Argives. Demos- 
thenes was sent into Peloponnesus to endeavour to counteract 
Philip's proceedings in the peninsula ; but his mission led to no 
result. During his stay there, he had openly accused Philip of 
perfidy ; and that monarch now sent an embassy to Athens, ac- 
companied by envoys from Argos and Messene, to complain of so 
grievous an accusation. It was on this occasion that the second 
Philippic of Demosthenes was delivered, which was chiefly 
directed against the orators who supported Philip (b.c. 344). In 
the following year a prosecution was instituted against iEschines 
and Philocrates for " malversation in their embassy " to the 
Macedonian court. The latter, conscious of his guilt, evaded 
the trial by flight ; and ^schines, who defended himself with 
great skill, was acquitted by only thirty votes. ^ 

^ 3. Meanwhile, in r>.c. 344, Philip overran and ravaged 
Illyria ; and subsequently employed himself in regulating tlie 
affairs of Thessaly, where he occupied Pherae with a permanent 
Macedonian garrison. He was likewise busied with preparations 
ibr the still vaster projects which he contemplated, and which 
embraced an attack upon the Athenian colonies, as well as upon 
the Persian empire. P'or this purpose he had organized a con- 
siderable naval force as well as an army ; and in the spring of 

* See the speeches of Demosthenes and iEschines ttcqI TraQarrQeafSeiac. 



510 HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. XLIIL 

342 B.C. he set out on an expedition against Thrace His pro- 
gress soon appeared to menace the Chersonese and the Athenian 
possessions in that quarter ; and at length the Athenian troops 
under Diopithes came into actual collision with the Macedonians, 
whilst the former were engaged in defending their allies from the 
encroachments of the Cardians, who were under the protection 
of Philip. Diopithes likewise invaded that part of Thrace which 
had submitted to Philip, and, besides committing several acts of 
violence, seized a Macedonian envoy, who had come to treat for 
the release of some prisoners, and refused to dismiss him without 
a considerable ransom. 

§ 4. Philip despatched a letter of complaint and remonstrance 
to the Athenians on the subject of these attacks, which gave 
occasion to the speech of Demosthenes On the Chersonese (b.c. 
341), in which he directed the attention of the people from the 
more immediate subject of the character and proceedings of Dio- 
pithes to the more general question of the best means of resist- 
ing Philip. This oration was soon followed by the Third 
Philippic, a still more vigorous call to action. Our accounts of 
Philip's movements at this time are scanty and uncertain. 
Diopithes was retained in the command of the Athenian troops ; 
and Philip must have continued gradually to push his conquests, 
since in this year (341) we find him begimiing to attack the 
Greek cities north of the Hellespont. He first besieged and 
captured Selymbria on the Propontis, and then turned his arms 
against Perinthus. The latter city was not only strong by na- 
ture, being seated on a lofty promontory surrounded on two 
sides by the sea, but also Avell fortified. It was built on a series 
of terraces rising one above another ; so that Avhen Philip, by 
means of the improved artillery which he employed on this oc- 
casion, had succeeded in battering down the outer wall, he found 
himself in front of a fresh rampart, formed by houses standing 
on higher ground, and connected together by a wall carried 
across the streets. In this siege Philip was assisted by his 
fleet, which had previously intercepted and captured twenty 
Athenian vessels laden with corn. But all his efforts to capture 
Perinthus proved unavailing, as both the Byzantines and the 
Persians — :;he latter probably at the instigation of the Athenians 
— continually found means to supply it with arms and provi- 
sions. Finding his progress thus checked, Philip left half of 
his army to prosecute the siege, and with the remainder pro- 
ceeded to the attack of Byzantium itself, which he hoped to 
find unprepared. 

k 5. Meanwhile, the arms of Athens, under the conduct of 
Phocion, had been successful in Euboea, whither Demosthenes 



B.C. 341. PHOCION'S SUCCESS IN EUBCEA. 617 

had roused his countrjTneii to send an expedition in the autumn 
of 3.1:1 B.C., for the purpose of counteracting the influence of 
Macedon in that quarter, and thus erecting another barrier 
against the encroachments of Phihp. Oreus and Eretria, t\vo of 
the principal cities in the island, were in the hands of despots 
supported by Philip ; but Callias of Chalcis having formed a plan 
to reduce all Euboea under his own dominion, Demosthenes 
seized the opportLuiity to unite the Athenian aiins with his ; and 
Phocion, with the assistance of Callias, expelled the despots 
Clitarchus and Philistides from Eretria and Oreus. For his 
advice on this occasion the Athenians honoured Demosthenes 
with a golden crown. The same Callias, or perhaps an Athenian 
commander of that name, also did good service at this time by 
a naval expedition into the gulf of Pagasae, when he took the 
towns on the coast, and made prize of a considerable quantity of 
Macedonian merchantmen. 

§ 6. Although Athens and Macedon were still nominally at 
peace, it is evident that the state of things just described was 
incompatible with its further maintenance. Philip addressed a 
long letter, or rather manifesto, to the Athenians (which has 
come down to us) in which he complained of the acts by 
which they had violated the existing treaty, recapitulated the 
legitimate grounds which he had for hostility, and concluded 
with a sort of declaration of war. Demosthenes was not behind 
hand in accepting this challenge. He excited liis countrymen to 
pass a decree for war, to take down the column on which the 
treaty had been inscribed, and to equip a fleet for the imme- 
diate relief of Byzantium, then besieged by Philip. The expe- 
dition was intrusted to Chares, in whose hands it proved a 
miserable failure ; though he perfectly succeeded in making 
both himself and the Athenian name odious and suspected 
among the allies, by his oppressions and by the large sums 
which he extorted under the name of benevolences. The 
orators of the Macedonian party took occasion from the ill 
success of Chares to disgust the Athenians with the war, 
who began to repent of having sent any succours to By- 
zantium. But Phocion, who did not act with those orators 
on this occasion, stood up and told the people — " That they 
^'should not be angry at the distrust of their allies, but rather at 
their own generals, who were altogether unworthy of confidence. 
It is they, said he, who cause you to be suspected by tlie veiy 
people who cannot be saved without your help." The Athenians 
were so stmck with these representations, that they immediately 
superseded Chares, and appointed Phocion in his place. Phocion 
sailed with one hundred and twenty triremes ; and his high 



518 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap, XLUI 

reputation for probity and honour caused him to be imme- 
diately admitted with his forces within the walls of Byzantium. 
Philip was now forced to raise the siege not only of that town, 
but of Perinthus also, and finally to evacuate the Chersonesus 
altogether. For these acceptable services the grateful Byzan- 
tians erected a colossal statue in honour of Athens. 

After his repulse from the Chersonesus, Philip marched to the 
aid of Atheas, king of the Scythians, who had invoked his assist- 
ance against the tribes on the banks of the Danube. Before he 
arrived, however, the danger had ceased, and Atheas dismissed 
him with an insulting message. Hereupon Philip crossed the 
Danube, defeated the Scythians, and returned with an immense 
booty. But as he was passing through the country of the Tri- 
balli they demanded a share of the spoil ; and upon being 
refused, gave battle to the Macedonians, in which Philip was so 
severely wounded that he was reported to be dead. Probably 
Philip's chief object in undertaking this expedition was to with- 
draw the attention of the Greeks from his ambitious projects, 
and to delude them into the belief that other affairs were now 
engaging his attention. But meanwhile his partizans were not 
idle, and events soon occurred which again summoned him into 
the heart of Greece. 

§ 7. In the spring of 339 B.C. ^Eschines was appointed with 
three others to represent Athens in the Amphictyonic Council. 
In this assembly the deputies of the Locrians of Amphissa, 
stimulated, it is said, by the Thebans, charged the Athenians 
with sacrilege for having, in commemoration of their victory 
over the Persians and Thebans, dedicated some golden shields in 
a chapel at Delphi before it had been regularly consecrated. 
The Locrians themselves, however, were, it seems, amenable to 
a similar charge, for having cultivated and used for their own 
benefit the very land which had been the subject of the Sacred 
War against the Phocians ; and ^Eschines, irritated by the lan- 
guage of the deputies from Amphissa, denounced them as guilty 
of sacrilege. A proclamation was in consequence issued requir- 
ing all the Dclphians, as well as the members of the Amphic- 
tyonic Council, to assemble and vindicate the honour of the 
god ; and on the following day they marched down to Cirrha 
with spades and pickaxes, and destroyed some buildings which 
the Amphissians had erected there. But as they returned, the 
Amphissians lay in wait for them, and they narrowly escaped 
with their lives. Hereupon, the Amphictyons issued a decree, 
naming a certain day on which the Council was to assemble 
at Thermopylae, for the purpose of bringing the Amphissians to 
justice. 



B.C. 838. PHILIP GENERAL OF THE AMPHICTYONS. 519 

§ 8. JEschines was strongly suspected of having adopted the 
conduct which he pursued on this occasion in order to play 
into the hands of Phihp. Demosthenes procured a decree, pre- 
venting any Athenians from attending the council at Thermo- 
pylae ; and the Thebans, who were friendly to the Amphissians, 
also absented themselves. But, with these exceptions, the 
meeting was attended by deputies from the other Grecian 
states ; war was declared against the Amphissians ; and Cotty- 
phus was appointed to lead an army against them. Demosthenes 
asserts that this expedition failed ; but according to other 
accounts it was successful, and a fine was laid upon the Am- 
phissians, which, however, they refused to pay. Accordingly, at 
the next ordinary meeting of the Amphictyons, either in the 
autumn of 339 or spring of 338, Philip, who had now returned 
I'rom Thrace, was elected their general for the purpose of carry- 
ing out the decree against Amphissa. • 

§ 9. Early in 338 Philip marched southwards ; but instead of 
proceeding in the direction of Amphissa, he suddenly seized 
Elatea, the chief town in the eastern part of Phocis, and began 
to restore its fortifications ; thus showing clearly enough that 
his real design was against Boeotia and Attica. Intelligence of 
this event reached Athens at night, and caused extraordniary 
alarm. The market was cleared of the retail dealers, who com- 
monly occupied it ; their wicker booths were burned ; and the 
whole city prepared as if for an immediate siege. At daybreak, 
on the following morning, the Five Hundred met in the senate 
house, and the people assembled in the Pnyx, where the news was 
formally repeated. The herald then gave the usual invitation to 
speak, but nobody was inclined to come forwards. At length 
Demosthenes ascended the bema, and calmed the fears of the 
people by pointing out that Philip was evidently not acting in 
concert with the Thebans, as appeared from the fact of his 
having thought it necessary to secure Elatea. He then pressed 
upon the assembly the necessity for making the most vigorous 
preparations for defence, and especially recommended them to 
send an embasssy to Thebes, in order to persuade the Thebans 
to unite with them against the common enemy. This advice 
was adopted, and ten envoys were appointed to proceed to 
Thebes, amongst whom was Demosthenes himself A counter- 
embassy had already arrived in that city from Macedonia and 
Thessaly, and it was with great difiiculty that the Athenian 
envoys at length succeeded in persuading the Theb;ius to shut 
their gates against Philip. Athens had made vigorous pn.'jiara- 
tions, and had 10,000 mercenaries in her service. Philip, on the 
other hand, was at the head of 30,000 men ; but after the con 



620 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIII. 

elusion of the alliance between Thebes and Athens he did not 
deem it prudent to march directly against the latter city, and 
therefore proceeded toward Amphissa, as if in prosecution of 
the avowed object of the war. He sent a manifesto to his 
allies in Peloponnesus requiring their assistance in what he re- 
presented as a purely religious object ; but his application was 
coldly received. 

MO. The details of the war that followed are exceedingly ob- 
scure. Philip appears to have again opened negotiations with 
the Thebans, which failed ; and we then find the combined 
Theban and Athenian armies marching out to meet the Mace- 
donians. The former gained some advantage in two engage- 
ments ; but the decisive battle was fought on the 7th of August, 
in the plain of Chseronea in Boeotia, near the frontier of Phocis. 
In the Macedonian army was Philip's son, the youthful Alex- 
ander, who was intrusted with the command of one of the wings ; 
and it was a charge made by him on the Theban sacred band, 
that decided the fortune of the day. The sacred band was cut 
to pieces, without flinching from the ground which it occupied, 
and the remainder of the combined army was completely 
routed. Demosthenes, who was serving as a foot-soldier in the 
Athenian ranks, has been absurdly reproached with cowardice 
because he participated in the general flight. An interest- 
ing memorial of this battle still remains. The Thebans, who 
fell in the engagement, were buried on the spot, and their 
sepulchre was surmounted by a lion in stone, as an emblem 
of their courageous spirit. This lion was still seen by Pau- 
sanias, when he visited ChBeronea in the second century of 
the Christian era. It afterwards disappeared, though the site 
of the sepulchre continued to be marked by a large mound 
of earth ; but a few years ago this tumulus was excavated, 
and a colossal lion discovered, deeply embedded in its in- 
terior. 

The battle of Chseronea crushed the liberties of Greece, and 
made it in reality a province of the Macedonian monarchy. 

To Athens herself the blow was almost as fatal as that of 
JEgospotami. Such was the consternation it created in that 
city that many of the wealthier citizens prepared for immediate 
flight ; and it was found necessary to arrest emigration by a 
decree which made it a capital offence. Demosthenes roused 
his fellow-citizens by his energy and eloquence to adopt the 
most vigorous measures for defending the city, and contributed 
three talents out of his own private fortune towards the repair 
of the walls. He was appointed to pronounce the funeral ora- 
tion over those slain at Chseronea ; a proof that the Athenians 



B.C. S38. BATTLE OF CHiERONEA. 521 

did not consider him guilty of any dereliction of duty in that en- 
gagement ; but Lysicles, the Athenian general, was brought to 
trial, and condemned to death. 

§11- The exultation of Philip at his victory knew no bounds. 
He celebrated his triumph with drunken orgies ; and reeling from 
the banquet to the field of battle, he danced over the dead, at 
the same time singing and beating time to the opening words of 
the decree of Demosthenes, which happened to have the rhythm 
of a comic Iambic verse.* It is said that the orator Demades 
put an end to this ridiculous and unroyal exhibition by remind- 
ing Philip, " That though fortune had placed him in the position 
of Agamemnon, he preferred playing the part of Thersites." 
But when Philip had returned to his sober senses, the manner 
in which he used his victory excited universal surprise. He dis- 
missed the Athenian prisoners not only without ransom, but 
with all their baggage, and some of them he even provided with 
new apparel. He then voluntarily offered a peace on terms more 
advantageous than the Athenians themselves would have ven- 
tured to propose. They were, indeed, required to relinquish a 
part of their foreign dependencies ; but they were in some de- 
gree compensated for this by being put in possession of Oropus, 
of which the Thebans were now deprived. Philip, indeed, seems 
to have regarded Athens with a sort of love and respect, as the 
cen'.re of art and refinement, for his treatment of the Thebans 
wao very different, and marked by great harshness and severity. 
They were compelled to recall their exiles, in whose hands the 
government was placed, whilst a Macedonian garrison was esta- 
blished in the Cadmea. They were also deprived of their 
sovereignty over the Boeotian towns, and Plataea and Orcho- 
menus were restored, and again filled with a population hostile 
to Thebes. 

M2. But the mildness of Philip's conduct towards Athens, 
though it bore the appearance of magnanimity, and afforded 
matter for triumph to the orators of the peace party, was, after 
all, perhaps in no small degree the result of policy. It was 
by no means certain that, if Philip laid siege to Athens, he 
would be able to take the city ; at all events, the siege would 
be a protracted one ; the exasperated Thebans lay in his rear ; 
and the attempt would certainly delay the more brilliant enter- 
prise which he had long meditated against Persia. For this lat- 
ter purpose he now convened a congress of the Grecian states at 
Corinth, though its ostensible object was the settlement of the 
affairs of Greece. Sparta was the only state unrepresented in 

* Arijuoa&evT}^ AyMoadivovg Uaiavuvc rai' tlnev. 



522 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLUL 

this assembly. War was declared against Persia, Philip was 
appointed generalissimo of the expedition, and each state wari 
assessed in a certain contingent of men or ships. But before ho 
returned to the north of Greece, he determined to chastise 
Sparta for her ill-disguised hostility. His march through Pelo- 
ponnesus, and back by the western coast, though he here and 
there met with resistance, resembled rather a royal progress 
than an expedition into a hostile country. The western states 
north of the isthmus now submitted to his authority, and a Ma- 
cedonian garrison was placed in Ambracia. Byzantium also 
executed a treaty with Philip, which was virtually an act of 
subjection. Having thus established his authority throughout 
Greece, he returned to Macedonia in the autumn of b.c. 338, in 
order to prepare for his Persian expedition. 

§ 13. But the fortmie of Philip, which had triumphed over all 
his foreign enemies, was destined to be arrested by the feuds 
which arose in the bosom of his own family. Soon after his 
return to Macedonia, and probably in the spring of 337, he cele- 
brated his nuptials with Cleopatra, the beautiful niece of Attalus, 
one of his generals. He had already several wives, for he had 
adopted the eastern custom of polygamy ; but it was Olym.pias, 
daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus, by whom Philip had 
become the father of Alexander, who regarded herself as his 
legitimate queen ; a violent and imperious woman, who prided 
herself on the ancient nobility of her family, which traced its 
descent from Pyrrhus, son of Achilles. The banquet which fol- 
lowed the wedding was marked by an extraordinary scene. 
When the cup had freely circulated, and wine had begun to 
unlock the hearts of the guests, Attalus uncautiously disclosed 
the ambitious views with which his daughter's marriage had 
inspired him, by calling upon the company to invoke the gods to 
bless the union they were celebrating with a legitimate heir to 
the throne. Fired at this expression, which seemed to convey a 
reflection on his birth, the young prince Alexander hurled his 
goblet at Attalus, exclaiming, " Am I then called a bastard ?" 
Philip at these words started from his couch, and seizing his 
sword, rushed towards Alexander, whom he would probably have 
slain, had not his foot slipped and caused him to fall. Alexander 
rose and left the banqueting-hall ; but as he withdrew levelled a 
taunt at his prostrate parent. " Behold the man," he exclaimed, 
" who was about to pass from Europe to Asia, but who has been 
overthrown in going from one couch to another I" 

Alexander and his mother Olympias now hastened to quit 
Macedonia. The latter found refuge at the court of her brother 
Alexander, king cf Epirus, whilst the former took up his abodo 



B.C. 836. ASSASSINATION OF PHILIP. 523 

in Illyria. The fugitives appear to have stirred up both these 
countries to wage war against Phihp, who however at length 
contrived to efiect a show of reconciliation. Through the me- 
diation of a friend, he induced Alexander to return to Pella ; and 
he averted the hostility of his brother-in-law, the king of Epirus, 
by ofiering him the hand of his daughter, Cleopatra. Olympias 
was now compelled to return to Philip's court ; but both she 
and Alexander harboured an implacable resentment against him. 

H4. These domestic disturbances delayed Philip's expedition 
during the year 337 ; but in the following spring he appears to 
have sent some forces into Asia, under the command of Attains, 
Parmenio, and Amyntas. These were designed to engage the 
Greek cities of Asia in the expedition, and to support the dis- 
aflected subjects of Persia. But before quitting Macedonia, 
Philip determined to provide for the safety of his dominions by 
celebrating the marriage of his daughter with Alexander of 
Epirus. It was solemnized at iEgse, the ancient capital of Mace- 
donia, with much pomp, includnig banquets, and musical and 
theatrical entertainments. Most of the Greciiai towns sent their 
deputies to the festival, bringing crowns of gold ana other 
presents to the king. Bat a terrible catastrophe was mipend- 
ing, v/hich several omens are said to have predicted. The oracle 
of Delphi, when consulted by Philip, as head of the Amphic- 
tyons, respecting the issue of his eastern expedition, responded 
with its usual happy ambiguity — " The bull is crowned, every- 
thing is ready, and the sacrificer is at hand." And the player 
Neoptolemus, who had been engaged to recite some verses during 
the nuptial banquet, chose an ode which spoke of power, pride, 
and luxury, and of the rapid and stealthy approach of death, 
which terminates in a moment the most ambitious expectations. 

H5. The day after the nuptials was dedicated to theatrical 
entertainments. The festival was opened with a procession of 
the images of the twelve Olympian deities, with which was asso- 
ciated that of Philp himself. The monarch took part in the 
procession, dressed in white robes, and crowned Mdth a chaplet. 
A little behind him walked his son and his new son-in-law, 
whilst his body-guards followed at some distance, in order that 
the person of the sovereign might be seen by all his subjects. 
"Whilst thus proceeding through the city, a youth suddenly 
rushed out of the crowd, and drawing a long sword which lie 
had concealed under his clothes, plunged it into Pliilip's side, 
who fell dead upon the spot. The assassin was pursued by some 
of the royal guards, and having stumbled in his fhght, was de- 
spatched before he could reach the place where horses had been 
provided for his escape. His name was Pausanias. He was a 



524 HISTORY OF GREECE. chap. XLIIL 

youth of noble birth, and we are told that his motive for taking 
Philip's life was that the king had refused to punish an outrage 
which Attains had committed against him. Both Olympias and 
her son Alexander were suspected of being concerned in the 
murder. Olympias is said to have prepared the horses for the 
escape of the assassin ; and it is certain that she manifested an 
extravagant satisfaction at Philip's death. The suspicion that 
Olympias was privy to her husband's assassination is consider- 
ably strengthened by the improbability that Pausanias, without 
jincitement from some other quarter, should have avenged him- 
self on Philip rather than on Attains, the actual perpetrator of 
the injury which he had received. With regard to Alexander, 
however, there is no evidence worth a moment's attention to 
inculpate him ; and though an eminent historian^ has not 
scrupled to condemn him as a parricide, yet we should hesitate 
to brand him, on such slender suspicions, with a crime which 
seems foreign to his character. 

Thus fell Phihp of Macedon in the twenty-fourth year of his 
reign and forty-seventh of his age (b.c. 336). When we reflect 
upon his achievements, and how, partly by pohcy and partly by 
arms, he converted his originally poor and distracted kingdom 
into the mistress of Greece, we must acknowledge him to have 
been an extraordinary, if not a great man, in the better sense of 
that term. His views and his ambition were certainly as large 
as those of his son Alexander, but he was prevented by a pre- 
mature death from carrying them out ; nor would Alexander 
himself have been able to perform his great achievements had 
not Philip handed down to him all the means and instruments 
which they required. 

* Niebuhr. 




Bust of Demosthenes. 




Battle of Issus. From a Mosaic at Pompeii. 

CHAPTER XLIV. 

ALEXiVNDER THE GREAT. 

§ 1. Education of Alexander. § 2. Rejoicings at Athens for Philip'3 
death. Movements in Greece. § 3. Alexander overawes the malcon- 
tents, and is appointed generalissimo for the Persian war. § 4. Alex- 
ander subdues the Triballians, Getse, Illyrians, and Taulantians, 
§ 5. Revolt and destruction of Thebes. § 6. Alexander prepares to 
invade Persia. Kature of that empire. § 1. Alexander crosses the 
Hellespont. § 8. Battle of the Granicus. § 9. Alexander overruns 
Asia Minor. The Gordian knot. § 10. March through Cilicia. Bat- 
tle of Issus. Victory. §11. Conquest of Phoenicia. Siege of Tyre. 
§ 12. Alexander marches into Egypt. Foundation of Alexandria. 
Oracle of Amnion. §13. Battle of Arbela. § 14. Alexander takes 
possession of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. § 15. March to Ecba- 
tana, and pursuit of Darius. Death of Darius. § 1 6. March through 
Ilyrcania, Asia, and Drangiana. Conspiracy of Philotas. § 17. 
Alexander crosses the Oxus. Death of I3essus. Reduction of Sog- 
diana. Alexander marries Roxana. §18. Murder of Clitus. §19. 
Plot of the pages. Alexander invades the Penjab, and defeats Porus. 
Marches as far as the Hyphasis. § 20. Descent of the Hydaspes and 
Indus. § 21. March through Gedrosia. Voyage of Nearchus. §22. 
Arrival at Susa, Intermarriages of the Greeks and Persians. Mutiny 
of the arm3\ § 23. Death of Hepha?stion. Alexander takes up liia 
residence at Babylon- His death. § 24. Character. 

§ 1. Notwithstanding the suspicions of Olympias and Alex- 
ander, it does not appear that Philip had ever really entertained 
the desifrn of dcprivinfr Alexander of the throne. At tlie time 
of his father's death he was in his twentieth year, having been 
born in b.c. 35C. At a vciy lender age lie displayed a spirit 



526 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIV. 

which endeared him to his father. His early education was en- 
trusted to Leonidas. a kinsman of his mother, a man of severe 
and parsimonious character, who trained him with Spartan 
simpUcity and hardihood ; whilst Lysimachus, a sort of under- 
governoi:, early inspired the young prince with ambitious notions, 
by teaching him to love and emulate the heroes of the Ihad. 
According to the traditions of his family, the blood of Achilles 
actually ran in the veins of Alexander ; and Lysimachus nour- 
ished the feeling which that circumstance was calculated to 
awaken by giving him the name of that hero, whilst he called 
Philip Peleus, and himself Phoenix. But the most striking fea- 
ture in Alexander's education was, that he had Aristotle for 
his teacher, and that thus the greatest conqueror of the mate- 
rial world received the instructions of him who has exercised 
the most extensive empire over the human intellect. It was 
probably at about the age of thirteen that he first received the 
lessons of Aristotle, and they can hardly have continued more 
than three years, for Alexander soon left the schools for the 
employments of active life. At the age of sixteen we find him 
regent of Macedonia during Philip's absence ; and at eighteen 
we have seen him fillmg a prominent military post at the battle 
of Chseronea. 

§ 2. On succeeding to the throne, Alexander announced his in- 
tention of prosecuting his father's expedition into Asia ; but it 
was first necessary for him to settle the affairs of Greece, w^here 
the news of Philip's assassination, and the accession of so yomig 
a prince, had excited in several states a hope of shaking off the 
Macedonian yoke. Athens was the Centre of these movements. 
Demosthenes, who was informed of Philip's death by a special 
messenger, resolved to avail himself of the superstition of his 
fellow citizens by a pious fraud. He went to the senate-house 
and declared to the Five Hundred that Jove aud Athena had 
forewarned him in a dream of some great blessing that was in 
store for the commonwealth. Shortly afterwards public couriers 
arrived with the news of Philip's death. Demosthenes, although 
in mourning for the recent loss of an only daughter, now came 
abroad dressed in white, and crowned with a chaplet, in which 
attire he was seen sacrificing at one of the public altars. Ho 
also moved a decree that Philip's death should be celebrated by 
a public thanksgivir^. and that religious honours should be paid 
to the memory of Pausanias. Phocion certainly showed a more 
generous spirit in disapproving of these proceedings. " Nothing," 
he observed, " betrays a more dastardly turn of mind than ex- 
pressions of jo;^ for the death of an enemy. And truly you have 
fine reason to rejoice, when the army you fought with at Chae- 



B.C. 336. ACCESSION OF ALEXANDER. 527 

ronea is only reduced by one man I" In this last remark, indeed, 
he depreciated the abilities of Philip, as much as Demosthenes 
was inclined to underrate the abilities of Alexander. During 
his embassy to Pella, the Athenian orator had conceived a mean 
opinion of the youthful prince, whom he now compared to 
Homer's Margites, and assured the Athenians that he would 
spend all his time in either prosecuting his studies, or inspect- 
ing the entrails of victims. At the same time Demosthenes 
made vigorous preparations for action. He was aheady in cor- 
respondence with the Persian court for the purpose of thwarting 
Philip's projected expedition into Asia ; and he now despatched 
envoys to the principal Grecian states for the purpose of ex- 
citing them against Macedon. Sparta, and the whole Pelopon- 
nesus, with the exception of Megalopolis and Messenia, seemed 
inclined to shake off their compulsory alliance. Even the Thebans 
rose against the dominant oligarchy, although the Cadmea was 
in the hands of the Macedonians. 

§ 3. Bat the activity of Alexander disconcerted all these move- 
ments. He retained the Thessalians in obedience partly by 
flattery, partly by a display of force, and having marched through 
their territory, he assembled the Amphictyonic Council at Ther- 
mopylae, Avho conferred upon him the command with which they 
had invested his father during the Sacred War. He then ad- 
vanced rapidly upon Thebes, and thus prevented the meditated 
revolution. The Athenians were now seized with alarm, and 
sent an embassy to deprecate the wrath of Alexander, and to 
otier to him the same honours and privileges which they had 
before conferred upon Philip. Demosthenes was appointed one 
of the envoys, but when he had proceeded as far as the confines 
of Attica, he was filled with apprehension respecting Alexander's 
intentions, and found a pretence for returning home. The other 
ambassadors were graciously received, and their excuses accepted. 
Alexander then convened a general congress at Corinth, which, 
as on the former occasion, was attended by all the Grecian states 
except Sparta. Here he was appointed generalissimo for the 
Persian war in place of his father. Most of the philosophers and 
persons of note near Corinth came to congratulate him on this 
occasion ; but Diogenes of Sinope, who was then living in one of 
the suburbs of Corinth, did not make his appearance. Alex- 
ander therefore resolved to pay a visit to the eccentric cynic, 
whom he found basking in the sun. On the approach of Alex- 
ander with a numerous retinue, Diogenes raised himself up a 
little, and the monarch aHably inquired how he could serve him ? 
" By standing out of my sunshine," replied the churlisli philo- 
sopher. Alexander was struck with surprise at a beliaviour to 



528 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIV, 

which he was so Httle accustomed ; but whilst his courtiers were 
ridicuhng the manners of the cynic, he turned to them and said, 
** Were I not Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes." 

§ 4. The result of the Congress might be considered a settle- 
ment of the affairs of Greece. Alexander could very well afford 
to despise Sparta's obsolete pretensions to the supremacy of 
Greece, and did not deem it worth while to undertake an expe- 
dition for the purpose of bringing her to reason. He then re- 
turned to Macedonia, in the hope of being able to begin his 
Persian expedition in the spring of B.C. 335 ; but reports of dis- 
turbances among the Thracians and Tribalians diverted his 
attention to that quarter. He therefore crossed Mount Haemus 
(the Balkan) and marched into the territory of the Tribalhans, 
defeated their forces, and pursued them to the Danube, where 
they fortified themselves in an island. Leaving them in that 
position, Alexander crossed the river by means of a fleet which 
he had caused to be sent from Byzantium, and proceeded to 
attack the Geta?. The barbarians fled at his approach, and 
Alexander, who had acquired a large booty, regained the banks 
of the Danube, where he received the submissions of the Danu- 
bian tribes, and admitted them into the Macedonian alliance. 
Thence he marched against the Illyrians and Taulantians, who 
were meditating an attack upon his kingdom, and speedily re- 
duced them to obedience. 

§ 5. During Alexander's absence on these expeditions, no 
tidings were heard of him for a considerable time, and a report 
of his death was industriously spread in Southern Greece. The 
Thebans rose and besieged the Macedonian garrison in the 
Cadmea, at the same time inviting other states to declare their 
independence. Demosthenes was active in aiding the move- 
ment. He persuaded the Athenians to furnish the Thebans 
with subsidies, and to assure them of their support and alliance. 
But the rapidity of Alexander again crushed the insurrection in 
the bud. Before the Thebans discovered that the report of liis 
death was false, he had already arrived at Onchestus in Boeotia, 
Alexander was w^ilhng to afford them an opportunity for repent- 
ance, and marched slowly to the foot of the Cadmea. But the 
leaders of the insurrection, believing themselves irretrievably 
Compromised, replied with taunts to Alexander's proposals for 
peace, and excited the people to the most desperate resistance. 
k.n engagement was prematurely brought on by one of the ge- 
nerals of Alexander, in which some of the Macedonian troops 
were put to the rout ; but Alexander coming up with the phalanx, 
whilst the Thebans were in the disorder of pursuit, drove them 
back in turn and entered th« gates along with them, when a 



B.C. 336. ALEXANDER DESTROYS THEBES. 629 

fearful massacre ensued, committed principally by the Thraciana 
in Alexander's service. Six thousand Thebans are said to have 
been slain, and thirty thousand were made prisoners. The doom 
of the conquered city was referred to the allies, who decreed her 
destruction. The grounds of the verdict bear the impress of a 
tyrannical hypocrisy. They rested on the conduct of the The- 
bans during the Persian war, on their treatment of Platsea, and 
on their enmity to Athens. The inhabitants were sold as slaves, 
and all the houses, except that of Pindar, were levelled with the 
ground. The Cadmea was preserved to be occupied by a Ma 
cedonian garrison. Thebes seems to have been thus harshly 
treated as an example to the rest of Greece, for towards the 
other states, which were now eager to make their excuses and 
submission, Alexander showed much forbearance and lenity. 
The conduct of the Athenians exhibits them deeply sunk in de- 
gradation. When they heard of the chastisement inflicted upon 
Thebes, they immediately voted, on the motion of Demosthenes, 
that ambassadors should be sent to congratulate Alexander on 
his safe return from his northern expeditions, and on his recent 
success. Alexander in reply wrote a letter, demanding that 
eight or ten of the leading Athenian orators should be delivered 
up to him. At the head of the list was Demosthenes. In this 
dilemma, Phocion, who did not wish to speak upon such a 
question, was loudly called upon by the people for his opinion ; 
when he rose and said that the persons whom Alexander de- 
manded had brought the state into such a miserable plight that 
they deserved to be surrendered, and that for his own part he 
should be very happy to die for the commonwealth. At the 
same time he advised them to try the effect of intercession with 
Alexander ; and it was at last only by his own personal applica- 
tion to that monarch, w4th whom he was a great favourite, that 
the orators were spared. According to another account, how- 
ever, the wrath of Alexander was appeased by the orator De- 
mades, who received from the Athenians a reward of five 
talents for his services. It was at this time that Alexander is 
said to have sent a present of 100 talents to Phocion. But 
Phocion asked the persons who brought the money — " Why he 
should be selected for such a bounty?" "Because," they re- 
phed, " Alexander considers you the only just and honest man." 
" Then," said Phocion, " let him sufler me to be what I seem, 
and to retain that character." And when the envoys went to 
his house and beheld the frugality with which he lived, they 
perceived that the man who refused such a gift was wealthier 
than he who offered it. 

H>. Having thus put liie alfairs of Greece on a satisfactory 
2 A 



530 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIV. 

footing, Alexander marched for the Hellespont in the spring of 
B.C. 334, leaving Antipater regent of Macedonia in his absence, 
with a force of 12,000 foot and 1500 horse. Alexander's own 
army consisted of only about 30,000 foot and 5000 horse. Of 
the infantry about 12,000 were Macedonians, and these composed 
the pith of the celebrated Macedonian phalanx. Such was the 
force with which he proposed to attack the immense but ill- 
cemented empire of Persia, which, like the empires of Turkey or 
Austria in modem times, consisted of various nations and races 
with different religions and manners, and speaking different lan- 
guages ; the only bond of union being the dominant military 
power of the ruling nation, which itself formed only a small 
numerical portion of the empire. The remote provinces, like 
those of Asia Minor, were administered by satraps and military 
governors who enjoyed an almost independent authority, fre- 
quently transmitting their provinces, like hereditary iiefs, to 
their heirs, and sometimes, as we have already seen in the 
course of this history, defying their sovereign or their brother 
satraps in open war. The expedition of Cyrus, and the subse- 
quent retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks, had shown how easy 
it was for a handful of resolute and well-disciplined men to 
penetrate into the very heart of an empire thus W'eakened by 
disunion, and composed for the most part of an unwarlike popu- 
lation, and we are not therefore surprised at the confidence with 
which Alexander set out upon his expedition. Before he de- 
parted he distributed most of the crown property among his 
friends, and when Perdiccas asked him what he had reserved 
for himself he replied, "My hopes." 

^ 7. A march of sixteen days brought Alexander to Sestos, 
where a large fleet and a number of transports had been collected 
for the embarkation of his army. Alexander steered with his 
own hand the vessel in which he sailed towards the very spot 
where the Achseans were said to have landed when proceeding 
to the Trojan war. When half the passage had been completed, 
he propitiated Poseidon and the Nereids with the sacrifice of a 
bull and with hbations from a golden goblet ; and as his trireme 
neared the shore, he hurled his spear towards the land, by way 
of claiming possession of Asia. He was, as we have said, a great 
admirer of Homer, a copy of whose works he always carried with 
him; and on landing on the Asiatic coast he made it his first 
business to visit the plain of Troy. A temple of Athena still 
existed there, and the veiy altar was pointed out to him at which 
Neoptolemus was said to have slain Priam. Alexander then 
proceeded to Sigeum, where he crowned with a garland the pillar 
said to mark the tumulus of his mythical ancestor AchiUes, and 



B.C. 334. BATTLE OF THE GKANICUS. 631 

according to custom, ran round it naked with his friends, whilst 
Hephsestion paid similar honours to the tomb of Patroclus. 

^ 8. Alexander then rejoined his army at Arisbe, near Abydos, 
and marched northwards along the coast of the Propontis. The 
satraps of Lydia and Ionia, together with other Persian generals, 
were encamped near Zelea, a town on the Granicus, with a force 
of 20,000 Greek mercenaries, and about an equal number of 
native cavalry, with which they prepared to dispute the passage 
of the river. A Rhodian, named Memnon, had the chief com- 
mand. The veteran general Parmenio advised Alexander to 
delay the attack till the following morning ; to which he replied, 
that it would be a bad omen at the beginning of his expedition, 
if, after passing the Hellespont, he should be stopped by a paltry 
stream. He then directed his cavalry to cross the river, and 
followed himself at the head of the phalanx. The passage, how- 
ever, was by no means easy. The stream was in many parts so 
deep as to be hardly fordable, and the opposite bank was steep 
and rugged. The cavalry had great difficulty in maintaining 
their groundtill Alexander came up to their relief. He imme- 
diately charged into the thickest of the fray, and exposed himself 
so much, that his life was often in imminent danger, and on one 
occasion was only saved by the interposition of his friend Clitus. 
Having routed the Persians, Alexander next attacked the Greek 
mercenaries, 2000 of whom were made prisoners, and the rest 
nearly all cut to pieces. In this engagement Alexander killed 
two Persian officers with his own hand. After the battle he 
visited the wounded, and granted immunity from all taxation to 
the famihes of the slain. He also sent 300 suits of Persian 
armour to Athens, to be dedicated to Athena in the Acropolis ; 
a proceeding by which he hoped, perhaps, further to identify his 
cause as the common cause of Hellas against the barbarians, as 
well as to conciliate the Athenians, from whose genius he wished 
to receive an adequate memorial of his exploits. 

§ 9. Alexander now marched southwards towards Sardis, which 
surrendered before he came within sight of its walls. Having left 
a garrison in that city he arrived after a four days' march before 
Ephesus, which likewise capitulated on his approach. Magnesia, 
Tralles, and Miletus next fell into his hands, the last after a 
short siege. Halicarnassus made more resistance. It Mas de- 
fended by Ephialtes, an Athenian exile, supported by Memnon, 
whose head-quarters were now in the island of Cos. It was 
obliged to be regularly approached ; but at length Memnon, 
finding it no longer tenable, set fire to it in the night, and 
crossed over to Cos. Alexander caused it to be raz.ed to the 
ground, and leaving a small force to reduce the garrison, which 



532 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XLIV. 

had taken refuge in the citadels and forts, pursued his march 
along the southern coast of Asia Minor, with the view of seizing 
those towns which might afford shelter to a Persian fleet. The 
winter was now approaching, and Alexander sent a considerable 
part of his army under Parmenio into winter-quarters at Sardis. 
He also sent back to Macedonia such officers and soldiers as had 
been recently married, on condition that they should return in 
the spring with what reinforcements they could raise ; and with 
the same view he despatched an officer to recruit in the Pelopon- 
nesus. Meanwhile he himself with a chosen body proceeded 
along the coasts of Lycia and Pamphylia, having instructed Par- 
menio to rejoin him in Phrygia in the spring, with the main 
body. After he had crossed the Xanthus, most of the Lycian 
towns tendered their submission, and Phaselis presented him 
with a golden crown. On the borders of Lycia and Pamphylia, 
Mount Climax, a branch of the Taurus range, runs abruply into 
the sea, leaving only a narrow passage at its foot, which is fre- 
quently overflowed. This was the case at the time of Alex- 
ander's approach. He therefore sent his main body by a long 
and difficult road across the mountains to Perge ; but he himself, 
who loved danger for its own sake, proceeded with a chosen 
band along the shore, wading through water that was breast- 
high for nearly a whole day. From Perge he advanced against 
Aspendus and Side, which he reduced ; and then forcing his way 
northM^ards through the barbarous tribes which inhabited the 
mountains of Pisidia, he encamped in the neighbourhood of Gor- 
dium in Phrygia. Here he was rejoined by Parmenio and by 
the new levies from Greece. Gordium had been the capital of 
the early Phrygian kings, and in it was preserved with super- 
stitious veneration the chariot or waggon in which the celebrated 
Midas, the son of Gordius, together with his parents, had entered 
the town, and in conformity with an oracle had been elevated to 
the monarchy. An ancient prophecy promised the sovereignty 
of Asia to him who should untie the knot of bark which fastened 
the yoke of the waggon to the pole. Alexander repaired to the 
Acropolis, where the waggon was preserved, to attempt this ad- 
venture. "Whether he undid the knot by drawing out a peg, or 
cut it through with his sword, is a matter of doubt ; but that he 
had fulfilled the prediction was placed beyond dispute that very 
night by a great storm of thunder and lightning. 

^ 10. In the spring of 333, Alexander pursued his march east- 
wards, and on arriving at Ancyra received the submission of the 
Paphlagonians. He then advanced through Cappadocia without 
resistance ; and forcing his way through the passes of Mount 
Taurus(the Pylce C^Z^6'^V^), he descended into the plainsof Cilicia. 



13.C. 833. BATTLE OF ISSUS. 633 

Hence he pushed on rapidly to Tarsus, which he found abandoned 
by the enemy. Whilst still heated with the march, Alexander 
plunged into the clear but cold stream of the Cydnus, which runs 
by the town. The result was a fever, which soon became so 
violent as to threaten his life. An Acarnanian physician, named 
Philip, Avho accompanied him, prescribed a remedy ; but at the 
same time Alexander received a letter informing him that Philip 
had been bribed by Darius, the Persian king, to poison him. He 
had, however, too much confidence in the trusty Philip to beheve 
the accusation, and handed him the letter whilst he drank the 
di'aught. Either the medicine, or Alexander's youthlul consti- 
tution, at length triumphed over the disorder. After remaining 
some time at Tarsus, he continued his march along the coast to 
Mallus, where he first received certain tidings of the great Persian 
army, commanded by Darius in person. It is said to have con- 
sisted of 600,000 fighting men, besides all that train of attendants 
which usually accompanied the march of a Persian monarch. 
This immense force was encamped on the plains of Sochi, where 
Amyntas, a Greek renegade, advised Darius to await the approach 
of Alexander. But Darius, impatient of delay, and full of vain- 
glorious confidence in the number of his forces, rejected this 
advice, and resolved to cross the mountains in quest of his Ice. 
Alexander had meantime passed through Issus ; had secured the 
whole country from that place to the maritime pass called the 
Gates of Syria and Cilicia, and had pushed forwards to Myrian- 
drus, where he was detained by a great storm of wind and rain. 
Meanwhile Darius had crossed Mount Amanus, more to the 
north, at a pass called the Amanic Gates, and had thus got into 
Alexander's rear ; who heard with joy that the Persians were 
moving along the coast to overtake him. By this movement, 
however, Issus had fallen into the hands of the Persians. Alex- 
ander now retraced his steps to meet Darius, whcm he icund 
encamped on the right bank of the little river Pinarus. The 
Persian monarch could hardly have been caught in a more un- 
favourable position, since the narrow and rugged plain between 
Mount Amanus and the sea afibrded no scope ibr the evolutions 
of large bodies, and thus entirely deprived him of the advantage 
of his numerical superiority. Alexander reoccupied the pass 
between Syria and Cilicia at midnight, and at day-break began 
to descend into the plain of the Pinarus, ordering his troops to 
deploy into line as the ground expanded, and thus to arrive in 
battle array before the Persians. Darius had thrown 30,000 
cavalry and 20,000 infantiy across the river, to check the advance 
of the Macedonians ; whilst on the right bank were drawn up his 
choicest Persian troops to the number of 60,000, together with 



634 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chat. XLIV. 

30,000 Greek mercenaries, who formed the centre, and on whom 
he chiefly rehed. These, it appears, were all that the breadth 
of the plani allowed to be drawn up m line. The remainder of 
the vast host were posted in separate bodies in the farther parts 
of the plain, and were unable to take any share in the combat. 
Darius took his station in the centre of the line in a magnificent 
state chariot. The banks of the Pinarus were in many parts 
steep, and where they were level Darius had caused them to be 
intrenched. As Alexander advanced, the Persian cavalry which 
had been thrown across the river were recalled ; but the 20,000 
infantry had been driven into the mountains, w^here Alexander 
held them in check with a small body of horse. The left wing 
of the Macedonians, under the command of Parmenio, was ordered 
to keep near the sea, to prevent beuig outflanked. The right 
wing was led by Alexander in person, who at first advanced 
slowly ; but when he came within shot of the Persian arrows he 
gave the order to charge, rushed impetuously into the water, 
and was soon engaged in close combat with the Persians. The 
latter were immediately routed ; but the impetuosity of the 
charge had disarranged the compact order of the Macedonian 
phalanx, and the Greek mercenaries took advantage of this cir- 
cumstance to attack them. This manoeuvre, however, was de- 
feated by Alexander, who, after routing the Persians, wheeled 
and took the Greeks in flank. But what chiefly decided the 
fortune of the day was the timidity of Darius himself, who, on 
beholding the defeat of his left wing, immediately took to flight. 
His example was followed by his whole army ; and even the 
Persian cavalr\^ which had crossed the river, and was engaging 
the Macedonian left with great bravery, was compelled to follow 
the example. One hundred thousand Persians are said to have 
been left upon the field. On reaching the hilis Darius threw 
aside his royal robes, his bow and shield, and mounting a fleet 
courser, was soon out of reach of pursuit. The Persian camp 
became the spoil of the Macedonians ; but the tent of Darius, to- 
gether with his chariot, robes and arms, was reserved for Alexander 
himself It was now that the Macedonian king first had ocular 
proof of the nature of Eastern royalty. One compartment of tne 
tent of Darius had been fitted up as a bath, which steamed with 
the richest odours ; whilst another presented a magnificent pavi- 
lion, containing a table richly spread for the banquet of Darius. 
But from an adjoining tent issued the wail of I'emalc voices, 
where Sisygambis the mother, and Statira the wife ol" Darius, 
were lamenting the supposed death of the Persian monarch. 
Alexander sent to assure them of his safety, and ordered them 
to be treated with the most delicate and respectful attention. 



B.C. 833, SIEGE OF TYRK 536 

§11. Such was the memorable battle of Issus, fought in No- 
vember, B.C. 333. A large treasure which Parmenio was sent 
forward with a detachment to seize, fell into the hands of the 
Macedonians at Damascus. Another lavourable result of the 
victory was that it suppressed some attempts at revolt from the 
Macedonian power, which, with the support oi' Persia, had been 
manifested in Greece. But, in order to put a complete stop to 
all such intrigues, which chiefly depended on the assistance of 
a Persian fleet, Alexander resolved to seize Phoenicia and Egypt, 
and thus to strike at the root of the Persian maritime power. 

Meanwhile, Darius, attended by a body of only 4000 fugi- 
tives, had crossed the Euphrates at Thapsacus. Before he had 
set out from Babylon, the whole forces of the empire had been 
summoned ; but he had not thought it worth while to wait for 
what he deemed a merely useless encumbrance ; and the more 
distant levies, which comprised some of the best troops of the 
empire, were still hastening towards Babylon. In a short time, 
therefore, he would be at the head of a still more numerous 
host than that which had Ibught at Issus ; yet he thought it 
safer to open negotiations with Alexander than to trust to the 
chance ol' arms. With this view he sent a letter to Alexander, 
who was now at Marathus in Phoenicia, proposing to become 
his friend and ally; but Alexander rejected all his overtures, 
and told him that he must in future be addressed not in the 
language of an equal, but of a sovereign. 

As Alexander advanced southwards, all the towns of Phoenicia 
hastened to open their gates ; the inhabitants of Sidon even 
hailed him as their deliverer. Tyre, also, sent to tender her 
submission ; but coupled with reservations by no means accept- 
able to a youthful conqueror in the full tide of success. Alex- 
ander aflected to receive their ofler, which was accompanied 
with a prasent of a golden crown and provisions ibr his aimy, as 
an unconditional surrender, and told them that he would visit 
their city and ofler sacrifices to Melcart, a Tyrian deity, who was 
considered as identical with the Grecian Hercules. This biougiit 
the matter to an issue. The Tyrians now inlbimed him that 
they could not admit any foreigners within their walls, and that 
if he wished to sacrifice to Melcart, he would find another and 
more ancient shrine in Old Tyre, on the mainland. Alexander 
indignantly dismissed the Tyrian ambassadors, and announced 
his intention of laying siege to their city. The Tyrians probably 
deemed it impregnable. It was by nature a place of great 
strength, and had been rendered still stronger by art. The 
island on which it stood was half a mile distant from the main- 
land ; and though the channel was shallow near the coast, it 



536 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIV. 

deepened to three fathoms near the island. The shores of the 
island were rocky and precipitous, and the walls rose from the 
cliffs to the height of 150 feet in solid masonry. The city was 
abundantly supplied with fresh water ; was well furnished with 
arras and provisions ; possessed an intelligent and warlike popu- 
lation ; and though the greater part of the fleet was absent in 
the Persian service, it had in its two harbours a competent num- 
ber of vessels of war. As Alexander possessed no ships, the 
only method by which he could approach the town was by con- 
structing a causeway, the materials for which were collected 
from the forests of Libanus and the ruins of Old Tyre. Through 
the shallow part of the water the work proceeded rapidly ; but 
as it approached the town the difficulties increased, both from 
the greater depth of the water, and from the workmen being 
exposed to missiles from the town and from the Tyrian galleys. 
To obviate the latter inconvenience, Alexander caused two 
wooden towers, covered with hides, to be built at the head of 
the mole, which would serve both to protect the workmen, and 
to keep assailants at a distance by the missiles hurled from 
engines at the top of the towers. The Tyrians, however, con- 
trived to burn these towers by seizing the opportunity of a 
favourable breeze to drive against them a vessel filled with dry 
wood, besmeared with pitch, and other combustible materials. 
The Macedonians being thus driven from the mole, the Tyrians 
cam 3 oif in boats, and destroyed such parts of it as the ttames 
had spared. Bat Alexander was so far from being discouraged 
by this mishap, that he began the work again on a larger scale. 
Ha also procured ships from Sidon and other places in order to 
protect it, and in a little tim3 had collected a fleet of 250 sail, 
which he exercised in nautical manoeuvres ; and thus forced the 
Tyrian galleys, which had previously molested the progress of 
the work, to keep within their harbour. After overcoming many 
difficulties the mole was at length pushed to the foot of the 
walls, which were now assailed with engines of a novel descrip- 
tion. Ttie besieged on their side resorted to many ingenious 
methods of defence, among which was the discharging of heated 
sand on the besiegers, which, penetrating beneath the armour, 
occasioned great torment. But it now began to grow evident 
that the city must fall ; and as soon as Alexander had effected 
a practicable breach, he ordered a general assault both by land 
and sea. The breach was stormed under the immediate in- 
spection of Alexander himself; and though the Tyrians made a 
desperate resistance, they were at length overpowered, when the 
city became one wide scene of indiscriminate carnage and plun- 
der. The sieffe had lasted seven months, and the Macedonians 



B.C. 332. FOUNDATION OF ALEXANDRIA. 537 

were so exasperated by the difficulties and dangers they had 
undergone that they granted no quarter. Eight thousand of the 
citizens are said to have been massacred ; and the remainder, 
with the exception of the king and some of the principal men, 
who had taken reluge in the temple of Melcart, were sold into 
slavery to the number of 30,000. Tyre was taken in the month 
of July, in 332. 

Whilst Alexander was engaged in the siege of Tyre, Darius 
made him further and more advantageous proposals. He now 
offered 10,000 talents as the ransom of his family, together with 
all the provinces west of the Euphrates, and his daughter Barsine 
in marriage, as the conditions of a peace. When these oilers were 
submitted to the Council, Parmenio was not unnaturally struck 
with their magnificence, and observed, that were he Alexander 
he would except them. " And- so would I," replied the king, 
" were I Parmenio." Had Alexander's views been bounded by 
the political advantage of Macedonia, he would doubtless have 
adopted the advice of his veteran general. But his ambition 
was wholly of a personal nature. He felt more pleasure in 
acquiring than in possessing ; and as his prospects expanded 
with his progress, he was unwilling to accept what he considered 
as only an instalment of the vast empire which he was destined 
to attain. Darius, therefore, prepared himself for a desperate 
resistance. 

H2. After the fall of Tyre, Alexander marched with his army 
towards Egypt, whilst his fleet proceeded along the coast. Gaza, 
a strong fortress on the sea-shore, obstinately held out, and de- 
layed his progress three or four months. According to a tradi- 
tion preserved in Josephus, it was at this time that Alexander 
visited Jerusalem, and, struck with its pious priests and holy 
rites, endowed the city with extraordinary privileges, and the 
priesthood with ample gifts; but this story does not appear 
in any other ancient author. After the capture of Gaza, Alex- 
ander met his fleet at Pelusium, and ordered it to sail up the 
Nile as far as Memphis, whither he himself marched with his 
army across the desert. Alexander conciliated the aflectiou of 
the Egyptians by the respect with which he treated their na- 
tional superstitions, whilst the Persians by an opposite line of 
conduct had incurred their deadliest hatred. Alexander then 
sailed down the western branch of the Nile, and at its mouth 
traced the plan of the new city of Alexandria, which for many 
centuries continued to be not only the grand emporium of 
Europe, Africa, and India, but also the principal centre of in- 
tellectual life. Being now on the confines of Libya, Alexander 
resolved to visit the celebrated oracle of Jove Ammon, which 

2 a* 



538 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIY. 

lay in the bosom of the Libyan wilderness, and which was 
reported to have been consulted by his two heroic ancestors, 
Hercules and Perseus. As he marched towards the Oasis in 
which it was situated, he was met by envoys from Cyrene, 
bringing with them magnificent presents, amongst which were 
five chariots and three hundred war-horses. After marching 
along the coast for about two hundred miles, Alexander struck to 
the south-east into the desert ; when a five days' journey over 
pathless sands and under a scorching sun brought him to the 
well-watered and richly- wooded valley, containing the renowned 
and ancient temple of Ammon. The conqueror was received by 
the priests with all the honours of sacred pomp. He consulted 
the oracle in secret, and is said never to have disclosed the an- 
swer which he received ; though that it was an answer that 
contented him appeared from the magnificence of the oflerings 
which he made to the god. Some say that Ammon saluted him 
as the son of Jove. 

§13. Alexander returned to Phoenicia in the spring of 33 1 . He 
then directed his march through Samaria, and arrived at Thap- 
sacus on the Euphrates about the end of August. After crossing 
the river, he struck to the north-east through a fertile and well 
supplied country. On his march he was told that Darius was 
posted with an immense force on the left bank of the Tigris ; 
but on arriving at that river, he found nobody to dispute his 
passage. He then proceeded southwards along its banks, 
and after four days' march fell in with a few squadrons of 
the enemy's cavalry. From some of these who were made 
prisoners Alexander learned that Darius was encamped with 
his host on one of the extensive plains between the Tigris 
and the mountains of Kurdistan, near a village called Gauga- 
mela (the Camel's House). The town of Arbela, after which the 
battle that ensued is commonly named, lay at about twenty miles 
distance, and there Darius had deposited his baggage and trea- 
sure. That monarch had been easily persuaded that his former 
defeat was owing solely to the nature of the ground ; and, there- 
fore, he now selected a wide plain for an engagement, where 
there was abundant room for his multitudinous infantry, and 
for the evolutions of his horsemen and charioteers. Alexander, 
alter giving his army a few days' rest, set out to meet the enemy 
soon after midnight, in order that he might come up with them 
about daybreak. On ascending some sand-hills the whole array of 
the Persians suddenly burst upon the view of the Macedonians, at 
the distance of three or four miles. Darius, as usual, occupied 
the centre, surrounded by his body-guard and chosen troops 
In front of the royal position were ranged the war- chariots 



B.C. 331. BATTLE OF ARBEJA. 539 

and elephants, and on either side the Greek mercenaries, to the 
number, it is said, of 50,000. Alexander spent the first day in 
surveying the ground and preparing for the attack ; he also ad- 
dressed his troops, pointing out to them that the prize of victory 
would not be a mere province, but the dominion of all Asia. 
Yet so great was the tranquillity with which he contemplated 
the result, that at daybreak on the following morning, when the 
officers came to receive liis final instructions, they found him in 
a deep slumber. His army, which consisted only of 40,000 
foot and 7000 horse, was drawn up in the order which he 
usually observed, namely, with the phalanx in the centre in six 
divisions, and the Macedonian cavalry on the right, where Alex- 
ander himself took his station. And as there was great danger 
of being out-flaaked, he formed a second line in the rear, com- 
posed of some divisions of the phalanx and a number of light 
troops and cavalry, which were to act in any quarter threatened 
by the enemy. The Persians, fearful of being surprised, had 
stood under arms the whole night, so that the morning found 
them exhausted and dispirited. Some of them, however, fought 
with considerable bravery ; but when Alexander had succeeded 
in breaking their line by an impetuous charge, Darius mounted 
a fleet horse and took to flight, as at Issus, though the fortune of 
the day was yet far from having been decided. At length, how- 
ever, the route became general. Whilst daylight lasted, Alexander 
pursued the flying enemy as far as the banks of the Lycus, or 
Greater Zab, where thousands of the Persians perished in the 
attempt to pass the river. After resting his men a few hours, 
Alexander continued the pursuit at midnight in the hope of 
overtaking Darius at Arbela. The Persian monarch, however, 
had continued his flight without stopping ; but the whole of the 
royal baggage and treasure was captured at Arbela. 

M4. Finding any further pursuit of Darius hopeless, Alex- 
ander now directed his march towards Babylon. At a little 
distance from the city the greater part of the population came 
out to mjet him, headed by their priests and magistrates, ten- 
dering their submission, and bearing with them magnificent 
presents. Alexander then made his triumphant entry into 
Babylon, riding in a chariot at the head of his army. The streets 
were strewed with flowers, incense smoked on either hand on 
silver altars, and the priests celebrated his^ entry with hymns. 
Nor was this the mere display of a compulsoiy obedience. Under 
the Persian sway the Chaldean religion had been oppressed and 
persecuted : the temple of Belus had been destroyed and still 
lay in ruins ; and both priests and people consequently rejoiced 
at the downfall of a dynasty from which they had sufl'ered so 



640 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIV. 

much wrong. Alexander, whose enlarged views on the subject 
of popular religion had probably been derived from Aristotle, 
observed here the same politic conduct which he had adopted 
in Egypt. He caused the ruined temples to be restored, and 
proposed to offer personally, but under the direction of the 
priests, a sacrifice to Belus. He then made arrangements for 
the safety and government of the city. He appointed Mazaeus, 
the Persian officer who had been left in charge of it, satrap of 
Babylon; but he occupied the citadel with a garrison of 1000 
Macedonians and other Greeks, whilst the collection of the 
revenues was also intrusted to a Greek named Asclepiodorus. 
Alexander contemplated making Babylon the capital of his future 
empire. His army was rewarded with a large donative from the 
Persian treasury ; and after being allowed to indulge for some 
tim3 in the luxury of Babylon, was again put in motion, towards 
the middle of November, for Susa. It was there that the Per- 
sian treasures were chiefly accumulated, and Alexander had de- 
spatched Philoxenus to take possession of the city immediately 
after the battle of Arbela. It was surrendered without a blow 
by the satrap Abulites. The treasure found there amounted to 
40,000 talents in gold and silver bullion, and 9000 in gold 
Darics. But among all these riches the interest of the Greeks 
mast have been excited in a lively manner by the discovery of 
the spoils carried off from Greece by Xerxes. Among them were 
the bronze statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton, which Alex- 
ander now sent back to Athens, and which were long afterwards 
preserved in the Ceramicus. 

At Susa Alexander received reinforcements of about 15,000 
m3n from Greece. Amyntas, who conducted them, brought 
tidings of disturbances in Greece, fomented by Sparta ; and to 
assist in quelling them, Alexander transmitted a considerable 
sum to the regent Autipater. He then directed his march 
south-eastwards towardi Persepolis. His road lay through the 
mountainous territory of tho Uxians, who refused him a passage 
unless he paid the usual tribute which they were in the habit 
of extorting even from the Persian kings. But Alexander routed 
them with great slaughter. The difficult mountain defile called 
the " Persian Gates," forming the entrance into Persis, still re- 
mained to be passed, which was defended by Ariobarzanes, the 
satrap of that district, with 40,000 foot and 700 horse. Ario- 
barzanes had also built a wall across the pass ; but Alexander 
turned the position by ascending the heights with part of his 
army, whilst the remainder stormed and carried the wall ; and 
the Persians were nearly all cut to pieces. He then advanced 
rapidly to Persepolis, whose magnificent ruins still attest its 



B.C. 330. PURSUIT OF DARIUS. 54\ 

ancient splendour. It was the real capital of the Persian kings, 
though they generally resided at Susa during the winter, and at 
Ecbatana in summer. The treasure found there exceeded that 
both of Babylon and Susa, and is said to have amounted to 
120,000 talents, or nearly 30,000,000/. sterling. It was here that 
Alexander is related to have committed an act of senseless 
folly, by firing with his own hand the ancient and magnificent 
palace of the Persian kings ; of which the most charitable ver- 
sion is that he committed the act when heated with wine at the 
instigation of Thais, an Athenian courtezan. By some writers, 
however, the story is altogether disbelieved, and the real de- 
struction of Persepolis referred to the Mahommedan epoch. 
Whilst at Persepolis, Alexander visited the tomb of Cyrus, the 
founder of the Persian monarchy, which was situated at a little 
distance, at a city called Pasargadae. 

Mo. Thus in between three and four years after crossing the 
Hellespont, Alexander had established himself on the Persian 
throne. Bat Darius was not yet in his power. After the battle 
of Arbela, that monarch had fled to Ecbatana, the ancient capital 
of Media, where he seemed disposed to watch the turn of events, 
and whence, if he should be again threatened, he meditated 
flying farther north across the Oxus. It was not till about four 
months after the battle of Arbela, and consequently early in 330, 
that Alexander quitted Persepolis to resume the pursuit of 
Darius. On approaching Ecbatana, he learned that the Persian 
monarch had already fled with the little army which still ad- 
hered to him. Oa arriving at that place, Alexander permitted 
the troops of the allies to return home if they Avished, as the 
main object of the expedition had been accomplished ; but many 
volunteered to remain with him, and the rest were dismissed 
with a handsomj share of booty, in addition to their pay. 
The treasures which had been conveyed from Persepolis were 
lodged in the citadel of Ecbatana, under the guard of GOUO Ma- 
cedonians, besides cavalry and hght troops. Alexander, with 
his main body, then pursued Darius through Media by forced 
marches, and reached Rhaga3, a distance of three hundred miles 
from Ecbatana, in eleven days. Such was the rapidity of the 
march that many men and horses died of fatigue. At Rhagae 
he heard that Darius had already passed the defile called the 
" Caspian Gates," leading into the Bactrian province ; and, as 
that pass was fifty miles distant, urgent pursuit Mas evidently 
useless. He therefore allowed his troops five days' rest, and 
then resumed his march. Soon after passing the Gates he 
learned that Darius had been seized and loaded with chains by 
his own satrap Bessus, who entertained the design of estabUsli: 



642 UISTORY OF GREECEl Chap. XLIY 

ing himself in Bactria as an independent sovereign. This intel- 
hgence stimulated Alexander to make still further haste with 
part of his cavalry and a chosen body of foot. On the fourth 
day he succeeded in overtaking the fugitives with his cavahy 
having been obliged to leave the infantry behind, with direc- 
tions to follow more at leisure. The enemy, who did not know 
his real strength, were struck with consternation at his appear- 
ance, and fled precipitately. Bessus and his adherents now 
endeavoured to persuade Darius to fly with them., and provided 
a fleet horse for that purpose. But the Persian monarch, who 
had already experienced the . generosity of Alexander, in the 
treatment of his captive family, preferred to fall into his hands, 
w^hereupon the conspirators mortally wounded him in the 
chariot in which they kept him confined, and then took to 
flight. Darius expired before Alexander could come up, who 
threw his own cloak over the body. He then ordered him to be 
magnificently buried in the tomb of his ancestors, and provided 
for the fitting education of his children. 

§ 16. Alexander next invaded Hyrcania, a province of the 
Persian empire, on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, and 
took possession of Zadracarta, the chief town in the country. 
From thence he undertook an expedition against the Mardians, 
a warlike tribe in the western part of Hyrcania, who, thinking 
themselves secure amidst their forests and mountains, had re- 
fused to make their submission. After chastising the Mardians, 
Alexander quitted Zadracarta, and pursued his march eastwards 
through the province of Aria. Near Artacoana, the capital of 
Aria, he founded a city on the banks of the river Arius, called 
after him (Alexandria Ariorum), and which, under the name of 
Herat, is still one of the chief cities in central Asia. Hence he 
proceeded southwards to Prophthasia, the capital of Drangiana, 
where his stay was signalized by a supposed conspiracy against 
his life, formed by Philotas, the son of Parmenio. Alexander 
had long entertained suspicions of Philotas. Whilst still in Egypt 
he had discovered that Philotas had spoken disparagingly of his 
exploits, and had boasted that, without the aid of his father and 
himself, Alexander would never have been able to achieve his 
conquests. He had also ridiculed the oracle respecting Alex- 
ander's supernatural birth, and had more recently opposed the 
inclination which that monarch now began to display to assume 
all the pomp and state of a Persian king. But the immediate 
subject of accusation against him was that he had not revealed 
a conspiracy which was reported to be forming against Alex- 
ander's life, and which he had deemed too contemptible to notice. 
He was consequently suspected of being implicated in it ; and 




DEATH OF BESSUS. 543 

on being put to the torture he not only confessed his own 
guilt in his agonies, but also implicated his father. Philotas was 
executed, and an order was sent to Ecbatana, where Parmenio 
then was, directing that veteran general to be put to death. A 
letter, purporting to be from his son, was handed to him ; and 
whilst the old man was engaged in reading it, Polydamas, his 
intimate friend, together with some others of Alexander's prin- 
cipal officers, fell upon and slew him. His head was carried to 
Alexander. Hephsestion, who had been active in exciting the 
king's suspicion against Philotas, was rewarded with a share of 
the command vacated by his death ; but the horse-guards were 
now divided into two regiments, one of which was given to He- 
phaestion and the other to Clitus. 

^17. Late in the year 330, Alexander directed his march 
southwards, to the banks of the Etymandrus (the Helmund), 
where he remained sixty days. Hence he penetrated into Ara- 
chosia, and founded there another Alexandria, which is sup- 
posed to be the modern city of Candaliar. He then crossed 
the lofty mountains of Paropamisus, called Caucasus by the 
Gr reeks (now Hindoo- Koosh), which were covered with deep snow, 
and so barren that they did not even afford firewood for his 
army. At the foot of one of the passes of these mountains 
Alexander founded another city called Alexandria and Caucasum, 
situated probably about fifty miles north-west of Cabid. 

Alexander now entered Bactria ; but Bessus did not wait his 
approach, and fled across the Oxus into Sogdiana. Early in the 
sunimsr of 329, Alexander followed him across the Oxus ; and 
shortly afterwards Bessus was betrayed by two of his own officers 
into the hands of Alexander. Bessus was carried to Zariaspa, the 
capital of Bactria, where he was brought before a Persian court, 
and put to death in a cruel and barbarous manner. 

Alexander next took possession of Maracanda (now Samar- 
cand), the capital of Sogdiana, from whence he advanced to the 
river Jaxartes {Sir), which he designed to make the boundary of 
his empire against the Scythians. On the banks of that river he 
founded the city of Alexandria Eschate (the last or farthest), 
probably the modern Khojend. After crossing the river and 
defeating the Scythians, who menaced him on the opposite 
bank, he returned into winter-quarters at Zariaspa. 

Sogdiana, however,, was not yet subdued, and accordingly in 
the following year 328 Alexander again crossed the Oxus. Ho 
divided his army into five bodies, ordering them to scour the 
country in different directions. With the troops under his own 
command he marched against the fortress called the Sogdian Hock, 
seated on an isolated hill, so precipitous as to be deemed ixiac- 



544 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XLIV; 

cessible, and so well supplied with provisions as to defy a 
blockade. The summons to surrender was treated with derision 
by the commander, who inquired w^hether the Macedonians had 
wings ? But a small body of Macedonians having succeeded in 
scaling some heights which overhung the fortress, the garrison 
became so alarmed that they immediately surrendered. To this 
place a Bactrian named Oxyartes, an adherent of Bessus, had 
sent his daughters for safety. One of them, named Roxana, was 
of surpassing beauty, and Alexander made her the partner of his 
throne. 

^8. Alexander now returned to Maracanda, where he was 
joined by the other divisions of his army, and wliile remaining 
at this place he appointed his friend Clitus satrap of Bactria. 
On the eve of the parting of the two friends, Alexander cele- 
brated a festival in honour of the Dioscuri, though the day was 
sacred to Dionysus. The banquet was attended by several 
parasites and literary flatterers, who magnified the praises of 
Alexander with extravagant and nauseous flattery. Clitus, whom 
wine had released from all prudent reserve, sternly rebuked their 
fulsome adulation ; and, as the conversation turned on the com- 
parative merits of the exploits of Alexander and his father Philip, 
he did not hesitate to prefer the exploits of the latter. He re- 
minded Alexander of his former services, and, stretching forth his 
hand, exclaimed, " It was this hand, Alexander, which saved your 
life at the battle of the G-ranicus I" The king, who was also 
flushed with wine, was so enraged by these remarks, that he rushed 
at Clitus with the intention of killing him on the spot, but he 
was held back by his friends, whilst Clitus was at the same time 
hurried out of the room. Alexander, however, was no sooner 
released than, snatching a spear, he sprang to the door, and 
meeting Clitus, who was returning in equal fur}'' to brave his 
anger, ran him through the body. But when the deed was done, 
he was seized with repentance and remorse. He flung himself 
on his couch and remained for three whole days in an agony of 
grief, refusing all sustenance, and calhng on the names of Clitus 
and of his sister Lanice, who had been his nurse. It was not 
till his bodily strength began to fail through protracted absti- 
nence that he at last became more composed, and consented to 
listen to the consolations of his friends, and the words of the 
soothsayers ; who ascribed the murder of Clitus to a temporary 
frenzy with which Dionysus had visited him as a punishment 
for neglecting the celebration of his festival. 

S^ 19. After reducing the rest of the fortresses of Sogdiana, 
Alexander returned into Bactria in 327, and began to prepare 
for his projected expedition into India. Whilst he was thus 



B.C. 327. INVASIOI^ OF INBIA. 545 

employed, a plot was formed against his life by the royal pages, 
incited by Hermolaus, one of their number, who had been 
punished with stripes for anticipating the king during a hunting 
party in slaying a wild boar. Hermolaus and his associates, 
among whom was Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, were first 
tortured, and then put to death. It seems certain that a con- 
spiracy existed ; but no less certain that the growing pride and 
haughtiness of Alexander were gradually alienating from him 
the hearts of his followers. 

Alexander did not leave Bactria till late in the spring. He 
crossed the Indus by a bridge of boats near Taxila, the present 
Attack, where the river is about 1000 feet broad, and very deep. 
He is said to have entered India at the head of 120,000 foot 
and 15,000 horse, the greater part of whom must necessarily 
have been Asiatics. He now Ibund himself in the district at 
present called the Fenj-ah (or the Five Rivers). Taxiles, the 
sovereign of the district, at once surrendered Taxila, his capi- 
tal, and joined the Macedonian force with 5000 men. Hence 
Alexander proceeded \\dth little resistance to the river Hydaspes 
i^Bcliut or Jeluyri). On the opposite bank, Porus,*" a powerful 
Indian king, prepared to dispute his progress with a numerous 
and well-appointed force. Alexander, however, by a skilful stra- 
tagem conveyed his army safely across the river. An obstinate 
ba1 J3 then ensued. In the army of Porus were many elephants, 
the sight and smell of which frightened the horses of Alex- 
ander's caval^)^ But these unwieldy animals ultimately proved 
as dangerous to the Indians as to the Greeks ; for when driven 
into a narrow space they became umnanageable, and created 
great confusion in the ranks of Porus. By a few vigorous 
charges the Indians M'ere completely routed, with the loss of 
12,000 slain and 9000 prisoners. Among the latter was Porus 
himself, who was conducted into the presence of Alexander. 
The courage which he had displayed in the battle had excited 
the admiration of the Macedonian king. Mounted on an enor- 
mous elephant, he retreated leisurely when the day was lost, and 
long rejected every summons to surrender ; till at length, over- 
come by thirst and fatigue, he permitted himself to be taken. 
Even in this situation Porus still retained his majestic bearing, 
the effect of which was increased by the extraordinary heiglit 
of his stature. On Alexander's inquiring how he wished to be 
treated, he replied, "Like a king," "And have you no other 
request?" asked Alexander. "No," answered Porus; " ever}'- 
thing is comprehended in the word king." Stmck by his mag- 

* Porus is probaLly a corruption of the Sanscrit word, "Paurusha," 
which signifies a liero. 



64C> HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XLIV. 

nanimity, Alexander not only restored him to his dominions, but 
also considerably enlarged them ; seeking by these means to re- 
tain him as an obedient and faithful vassal. 

Alexander rested a month on the banks of the Hydaspes, 
where he celebrated his victory by games and sacrifices, and 
foimded two towns, one of which he named Nicsea, and the other 
Bucephala, in honor of his gallant charger Bucephalus, which 
is said to have died here. He then overran the whole of the 
Penj-ab, as far as the Hyphasis {Gharra), its southern boundary. 
The only resolute resistance he experienced was from the war- 
like tribe of the Cathaei, whose capital, Sangala, was probably 
the modem LaJwre. They were subdued, and their territory 
divided amongst the other Indian tribes. Upon reaching the 
Hyphasis, the army, worn out by fatigues and dangers, positively 
reflised to proceed any farther ; although Alexander passionately 
desired \o attack a monarch still more powerful than Porus, 
whose dominions, he heard, lay beyond the river. All his 
attempts to induce his soldiers to proceed proving inefiectual, 
he prepared to submit with a good grace to an alternative 
which he perceived to be unavoidable. Pretending that the 
sacrifices were unfavourable for the passage of the Hyphasis, he 
gave the order for retreat ; having first erected on its banks 12 
colossal altars to mark the boundary of his conquests in that 
direction. 

§ 20. When Alexander again arrived at his newly founded 
cities of Nicaea and Bucephala on the Hydaspes, he divided his 
army into three detachments. Two of these, under the com- 
mand of Hephsestion and Craterus, were ordered to descend the 
Hydaspes on its opposite banks ; whilst he himself, at the head 
of 8000 men, embarked on board a fleet of about 2000 vessels, 
which he had ordered to be prepared with the view of sailing 
down the Indus to its mouth. The ignorance which prevailed 
among the Macedonians respecting the geography of the region 
to be traversed, may be estimated from the circumstance that 
Alexander at first considered the Indus to be a branch of the 

m\e. 

The army began to move in November 327. The navigation 
lasted several months, but was accomplished without any serious 
opposition, except from the tribe of the Malli, who are conjec- 
tured to have occupied the site of the present Mooltan. At the 
storming of their town the life of Alexander was exposed to 
imminent danger. He was the first to scale the walls of the 
citadel, and was followed by four officers ; but before a fifth man 
could mount, the ladder broke, and Alexander was left exposed 
on the wall to the missiles of the enemy. From this situation 



B.C. 326. RETURN TO PERSIA, 547 

there were only two methods of escape ; either by leaping down 
among his own army, or into the citadel among the enemy. 
Alexander chose the latter ; and alighting on his feet, placed 
his back to the wall, where he succeeded in keeping the enemy 
at bay, and slew two of their chiefs who had ventm-ed within reach 
of his sword. But an arrow which pierced his corslet brought 
him to the ground, fainting with loss of blood. Two of his fol- 
lowers who had jumped down after him, now stood over and 
defended him ; till at length more soldiers having scaled the 
walls, and opened one of the gates, sufficient numbers poured in 
not only to rescue their monarch, but to capture the citadel ; 
when every living being within the place was put to the sword. 
Alexander's life was long in great danger, but when he was suffi- 
ciently recovered he was again placed in his vessel, and dropped 
down the Hydraotes {Rave) to its confluence with the Acesines. 
Here his army was encamped ; and the soldiers testified by shouts 
and tears their joy at again beholding their commander. Hence 
Alexander pursued his course to the point where the lour rivers, 
now united into one stream, the Acesines, {Che?iab), join the 
Indus. At their confluence he ordered dockyards to be con- 
structed, and another Alexandria to be built. Hence he pursued 
his voyage to the Indian Ocean, all the towns on either bank of 
the river submitting at his approach. When he arrived at the 
mouth of the Indus, he explored its estuaries, and accompanied 
by a few horsemen skirted the margin of the Delta next the sea. 
Nearchus with the fleet was directed to explore the Indian 
Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the mouths of the Tigris and Eu- 
phrates, with the view of establishing a maritime communication 
between India and Persia. "We have hitherto beheld Alexander 
only as a conqueror ; but these cares exhibit him in the more 
pleasing light of a geographical discoverer, and of a sovereign 
solicitous for the substantial benefit of his subjects. 

§ 21. From this point Alexander proceeded with his army, in 
the autumn of 326, through the burning deserts of Gedrosia 
towards Persepolis ; marching himself on foot, and sharing the 
privations and fatigues of the meanest soldier. In these regions 
the very atmosphere seems to be composed of a fine dust, which, 
on the slightest wind, penetrates into the mouth and nose, 
whikt the soil aflbrds no firm footing to the traveller. The 
march through this inhosphable region lasted GO days, during 
which numbers of the soldiers perished from fatigue or disease. 
At length they emerged into the fertile province of Carmania. 
V/hilst in this country, Alexander was rejoined ])y Nearchus, 
who had arrived with his fleet at Harmozia {OrmNz) ; but who 
subsequently prosecuted his voyage to the head of the Persian 



548 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIV. 

Grulf. The main body of the army under Hephsestion was directed 
to march along the shores of the Gulf; whilst Alexander himself, 
with his horse-guards and light infantry, took a shorter route 
through Pasargadse and Persepolis. During his stay in the latter 
city, he remedied the disorders which had been committed since 
he left it, and executed summary justice on the delinquent 
satraps who had oppressed the provinces of Persis. It was thus 
that he caused his empire to be respected as much by the equity 
of his administration, as by the irresistible force of his arms. 

§ 22. From Persepolis Alexander pursued his march to Susa 
(B.C. 325), where the soldiers were allowed to repose from their 
fatigues, and were amused with a series of brilliant festivities. 
It was here that he adopted various measures with the view of 
consolidating his empire. One of the most important was to 
form the Greeks and Persians into one people by means of in- 
termarriages. He himself celebrated his nuptials with Statira, 
the eldest daughter of Darius, and bestowed the hand of her 
sister, Drypetis, on Hephsestion. Other marriages were made 
between Alexander's officers and Asiatic women to the number, 
it is said, of about a hundred ; whilst no fewer than 10,000 of 
the common soldiers followed their example and took native 
wives. As another means of amalgamating the Europeans and 
Asiatics, he caused numbers of the latter to be admitted into 
the army, and to be armed and trained in the Macedonian fashion. 
But these innovations were regarded with a jealous eye by most 
of the Macedonian veterans ; and this feeling was increased by 
the conduct of Alexander himself, who assumed every day more 
and more of the state and manners of an eastern despot. At 
first, indeed, the growing discontent was repressed by the 
large bounties distributed among the soldiers, and by the dis- 
charge of all their debts. But at length their long stifled dis- 
satisfaction broke out into open mutiny and rebellion at a 
review which took place at Opis on the Tigris. Alexander here 
proposed to dismiss such Macedonians as were wounded or 
otherwise disabled ; but though they had clamoured for their 
discharge whilst on the other side of the Indus, they now re- 
garded this proposal as an insult, and called out " That the king 
had better dismiss them all — his father Amnion would iight his 
battles." But the mutiny was quelled by the decisive conduct 
of Alexander. He immediately ordered thirteen of the ring- 
leaders to be seized and executed, and then addressing the 
remainder, pointed out to them how, by his own and his father's 
exertions, they had been raised from the condition of scattered 
herdsmen to be the masters of Greece and the lords of Asia ; 
and that whilst he had abandoned to them the richest and most 



B.C. 324. ALEXANDER ENTERS BABYLON. 549 

valuable fruits of his conquests, he had reserved nothing but the 
diadem for himself, as the mark of his superior labours and more 
imminent perils. He then secluded himself lor two whole days, 
during Avhich his Macedonian guard was exchanged for a Persian 
one, whilst nobles of the same nation were appointed to the 
most confidential posts about his person. Overcome by these 
marks of alienation on the part of their sovereign, the Macedo- 
nians now supplicated with tears to be restored to favour. A 
solemn reconciliation was eflected, and 10,000 veterans were dis- 
miissed to their homes under the conduct of Craterus. That 
general was also appointed to the government of Macedonia in 
place of Antipater, who was ordered to repair to Asia with 
iresh reinforcements. 

§ 23. Soon after these occurrences, Alexander proceeded to 
Ecbatana, where during the autumn he solemnized the festival 
of Dionysus with extraordinary splendour. The best actors and 
musicians in Greece, to the number it is said of 3000, were 
assembled for the occasion ; whilst the natives flocked from all 
quarters to the Median capital, to witness what w as to them a 
novel spectacle. But Alexander's enjoyment was suddenly con- 
verted into bitterness by the death of his friend Hepha,'stion, 
who was carried off by a fever. This event threw Alexander 
into a deep melancholy, from which he never entirely recovered. 
The memory of Hephastion was honoured by extravagant marks 
of public mourning, and his body Avas conveyed to Babylon, to 
be there interred with the utmost magnificence. His name was 
still retained as commander of a division of the cavalry ; and the 
officer who actually discharged the duties of the post was only 
regarded as his lieutenant. 

Alexander entered Babylon in the spring of 324, notwithstand- 
ing the warnings of the priests of Belus, who predicted some 
serious evil to him if he entered the city at that time. Babylon 
was now to witness the consummation of his triumphs and of 
his life. As in the last scene of some well-ordered drama, all 
the results and tokens of his great achievements seemed to be 
collected there to do honour to his final exit. Ambassadors 
from all parts of Greece, from Libya, Italy, and probably from 
still more distant regions, were waiting to salute him, and to do 
homage to him as the conqueror of Asia ; the fleet under Ne- 
archus had arrived after its long and enterprising voyage, and 
had been augmented by other vessels constructed in riioiuicia, 
and thence brought overland to Thapsacus, and down the river 
to Babylon ; whilst for the reception of this navy, which seemed 
to turn the inland cajutal of his empire into a jjort, a magnificent 
harbour was in process vi' construction. A more melancholy, 



550 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLIV. 

and it may be added, a more useless, monument of his greatness 
was the funeral pile now rising for Hephaestion, which was con- 
structed with such unparalleled splendour, that it is said to 
have cost 10,000 talents. The mind of Alexander was still occu- 
pied with plans of conquest and ambition ; his next design was 
the subjugation of Arabia ; which, however, was to be only the 
stepping stone to the conquest of the whole known world. He 
despatched three expeditions to survey the coast of Arabia ; 
ordered a fleet to be built to explore the Caspian sea ; and en- 
gaged himself in surveying the course of the Euphrates, and in 
devising improvements of its navigation. The period for com- 
mencing the Arabian campaign had already arrived ; solemn 
sacrifices were offered up for its success, and grand banquets 
were given previous to departure. At these carousals Alexander 
drank deep ; and at the termination of the one given by his 
favourite, Medius, he was seized with unequivocal symptoms of 
fever. For som3 days, however, he neglected the disorder, and 
continued to occupy himself with the necessary preparations for 
the march. But in eleven days the malady had gained a fatal 
strength, and terminated his life on the 28th of June, B.C. 323, at 
the early age of 32. Whilst he lay speechless on his deathbed his 
favourite troops were admitted to see him ; but he could ofier them 
no other token of recognition than by stretching out his hand. 

^ 24. Few of the great characters of history have been so 
differently judged as Alexander. Of the magnitude of his ex- 
ploits, indeed, and of the justice with which, according to the 
usual sentiments of mankind, they confer upon him the title of 
" Great," there can be but one opinion : it is his motives for 
undertaking them that have been called in question. An emi- 
nent writer =^ brands him as an "adventurer;" an epithet which, 
to a certain extent, must be allowed to be true, but which is not 
more true of him than of most other conquerors on a large 
scale. His military renown, however, consists more in the seem- 
ingly extravagant boldness of his enterprises, than in the real 
power of the foes whom he overcame. The resistance he met 
with was not greater than that which a European army expe- 
riences in the present day from one composed of Asiatics ; and 
the empire of the East was decided by the two battles of Issus 
and Arbela. His chief difficulties were the geographical diffi- 
culties of distance, climate, and the nature of the ground tra- 
versed. But this is no proof that he was incompetent to meet 
a foe more worthy of his military skill ; and his proceedings in 
U-reece before his departure show the reverse. 

* Niebuhr. 



B.C. 323. 



DEATH OF ALEXANDEK. 



56i 



His motives, it must be allowed, seem rather to have sprung 
from the love of personal glory and the excitement of conquest, 
than from any w^ish to benefit his subjects. The attention which 
he occasionally devoted to commerce, to the foundation of new 
cities, and to other matters of a similar kind, form rather episodes 
in his history, than the real objects at which his aims were 
directed ; and it was not by his own prudence, but through the 
weariness of his army, that his career of conquest was at length 
arrested, which he wished to prosecute before he had consoli- 
dated what he had already won. Yet on the whole his achieve- 
ments, though they undoubtedly occasioned great partial misery, 
must be regarded as beneficial to the human race ; the families 
of which, if it were not for some such movements, would stag- 
nate in solitary listlessness and poverty. By the conquests of 
Alexander the two continents were put into closer communica- 
tion with one another ; and both, but particularly Asia, were 
the gainers. The language, the arts, and the literature of 
Greece, were introduced into the East ; and after the death of 
Alexander Greek kingdoms were formed in the western parts of 
Asia, which continued to exist for many generations. 




Apuku Citharoedus. From the collection in the Vatican 




The Group of Niobe. From the collection at Florence. 



CHAPTER XLV. 

FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BATTLE OF 

IPSUS. 



§ 1. Division of the provinces after Alexander's death. § 2. Retro- 
spective view of Grecian affairs. Revolt of Agis. Demosthenes de 
Corona. § 3. Arrival of Harpalus at Athens. Accusation and exile 
of Demosthenes. § 4. The Lamian war. Defeat of Antipater, and 
siege of Lamia. § 5, Defeat and death of Leonnatus. Battle of 
Crannon. End of the Lamian war. § 6. Death of Demosthenes. 
Ambitious projects of Perdiccas. His invasion of Egypt, and death. 
§ 1. Fresh division of the provinces at Triparadisus. Death of Anti- 
pater. Polysperchon becomes regent, and conciliates the Grecian 
states. Death of Phocion. § 8. War between Polysperchon and 
Cassander. Ill success of Polysperchon. Cassander becomes master 
of Macedonia, and puts Olympias to death. § 9. Coalition against 
Antigonus. Peace concluded in b.c. 311. Murder of Roxana and her 
son. § 10. Renewal of the war against Antigonus. Demetrius Poli- 
orcetes expels the Macedonians from Athens. § 11. Demetrius Poli- 
orcetes at Cyprus. Battle of Salamis. Attempt on Egypt. Siega 
of Rhodes. § 12. Battle of Ipsus, and death of Antigonus. 

§ 1 . The unexpected death of Alexander threatened to involve 
both his extensive dominions and his army in inextricable con- 
fusion. On the day after his death a military council assembled 
to decide on the course to be pursued. Alexander on his death- 
bed is said to have given his signet-ring to Perdiccas, but he had 
left no legitimate heir to his throne, though his wife Roxana 
was pregnant. In the discussions which ensued in the council. 



Pf.O. 823. I'ARTITION OF THE EMPIRE. 653 

Perdiccas assumed a leading part ; and after much debate, and 
a quarrel between the cavalry and infantry, which at first threat- 
ened the most serious consequences, an arrangement was at length 
ejected on the following basis : That Philip Arrhidseus, a young 
man of weak intellect, the half-brother of Alexander (being the 
son of Philip by a Thessalian woman named Philinna), should 
be declared king, reserving however to the child of Roxana, if a 
son should be born, a share in the sovereignty : that the govern- 
ment of Macedonia and Greece should be divided between An- 
tipater and Craterus : that Ptolemy, who was reputed to be 
connected with the royal family, should preside over Egypt and 
the adjacent countries : that Antigonus should have Phrygia 
Proper, Lycia, and Pamphylia : that the Hcllespontine Phrygia 
should be assigned to Leonnatus : that Eumenes should have the 
satrapy of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, which countries, how- 
ever, still remained to be subdued : and that Thrace should be 
committed to Lysimachus. Perdiccas reserved for himself the 
chiliarchy, or command of the horse-guards, the post before held 
by Hephsestion, in virtue of which he became the guardian of 
Philip Arrhidaius, the nominal sovereign. It was not for some 
time after these arrangements liad been completed that the last 
rites were paid to Alexander's remains. They were conveyed 
to Alexandria, and deposited in a cemetery which afterwards 
became the burial-place of the Ptolemies. Nothing could exceed 
the magnificence of the funeral car, which was adorned with 
ornaments of massive gold, and so heavy, that it was more than 
a year in being conveyed from Babylon to Syria, though drawn 
by 84 mules. In due time Roxana was delivered of a son, to 
whom the name of Alexander was given, and who was declared 
the partner of ArrhidsBus in the empire. Roxana had previously 
inveigled Statira and her sister Dr^^petis to Babylon, where she 
caused them to be secretly assassinated. 

§ 2. It is now necessary to take a brief retrospective glance at 
the affairs of Greece. Three years after Alexander had quitted 
Europe, the Spartans made a vigorous effort to throw off' the 
Macedonian yoke. They were joined by most of the Peloponne- 
sian states, but the Athenians kept aloof In b.c. 331, the Spar- 
tans took up arms under the command of their king, Agis ; but 
though they met with some success at first, they were finally 
defeated with great slaughter by Antipater, near Megalopolis. 
Agis fell in the battle, and the chains of Greece were riveted 
more firmly than ever. This victory, and the successes of Alex- 
ander in the East, encouraged the Macedonian party in Athena 
to take active measures against Demosthenes; and iEschines 
trumped up an old charge against him which liad lain dormant 

2 U 



654 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLV. 

for several years. Soon after the battle of Chseronea, Ctesiphon 
had proposed that Demosthenes should be presented with a 
golden crown in the theatre during the great Dionysiac festival, 
on account of the services he had conferred upon his country. 
For proposing this decree ^Eschines indicted Ctesiphon ; but 
though the latter was the nominal defendant, it was Demos- 
thenes who was really put upon his trial. The case was de- 
cided in 330 B.C., and has been immortalized by the memorable 
and still extant speeches of ^Eschines " Against Ctesiphon," and 
of Demosthenes " On the Crown." ^schines, who did not ob- 
tain a fifth part of the votes, and consequently became himself 
liable to a penalty, was so chagrined at his defeat that he retired 
to Rhodes. 

§ 3. In B.C. 325, Harpalus arrived in Athens. Harpalus was 
a great favourite with Alexander, as he had embraced his side 
during his quarrel with his father, Philip. When Alexander, 
after the conquest of Persia and Media, determined to push on 
into the interior of Asia, in pursuit of Darius, he left Harpalus 
at Ecbatana, with 6000 Macedonian troops, in charge of the royal 
treasures. From thence he removed to Babylon, and appears to 
have held the important satrapy of that province as well as the 
administration of the treasury. It was here that, during the 
absence of Alexander in India, he gave himself up to the most 
extravagant luxury and profusion, squandering the treasures en- 
trusted to him, at the same time that he alienated the people 
subject to his rule, by his lustful excesses and extortions. He 
had probably thought that Alexander would never return from 
the remote regions of the East into which he had penetrated ; 
i)ut when he at length learnt that the king was on his m.arch 
back to Susa, and had visited with unsparing rigour those of his 
officers who had been guilty of any excesses during his absence, 
he at once saw that his only resource was in flight. Collecting 
together all the treasures which he could, and assembling a 
body of 6000 mercenaries, he hastened to the coast of Asia, and 
from thence crossed over to Attica. He seems to have reckoned 
on a favourable reception at Athens, as during the time of his 
prosperity he had made the city a large present of corn, in re- 
turn for which he had received the right of citizenship. At 
first, however, the Athenians refused to receive him ; but bribes 
administered to some of the principal orators induced them to 
aher their determination. Such a step was tantamount to an 
act of hostility against Macedonia itself; and accordingly Anti- 
pater called upon the Athenians to deliver up Harpalus, and to 
bring to trial those who had accepted his bribes. The Athe- 
nians did not venture to disobey these demands. Harpalus was 



B.C. 32o. LAMIAN WAR. 553 

put into confinement, but succeeded in making his escape from 
prison. Demosthenes was among the orators who were brought 
to trial for corruption. He was declared to be guilty, and was con- 
demned to pay a fine of 50 talents. Not being able to raise that 
sum, he was thrown into prison ; but he contrived to make his 
escape, and went into exile. There are, however, good grounds 
for doubting his guilt ; and it is more probable that he fell a 
victim to the implacable hatred of the Macedonian party. Upon 
quitting Athens Demosthenes resided chiefly at^gina or Trcezen, 
in sight of his native land, and whenever he looked towards her 
shores it was observed that he shed tears. 

§ 4. When the news of Alexander's death reached Athens, the 
anti-Macedonian party, which, since the exile of Demosthenes, 
was led by Hyperides, carried all before it. The people in a 
decree declared their determination to support the liberty of 
Greece ; a fleet of 240 triremes was ordered to be equipped ; all 
citizens under 40 years of age were commanded to enrol them- 
selves for service ; and Leosthenes was directed to levy an army 
of mercenaries. Envoys were despatched to all the Grecian 
states to announce the determination of Athens, and to exhort 
them to struggle with her for their independence. This call 
was responded to in the Peloponnesus only by the smaller states, 
whilst Sparta, Arcadia, and Achaia kept aloof. In northern 
Greece the confederacy was joined by most of the states except 
the BoBotians ; and Leosthenes was appointed commander-in- 
chief of the allied forces. 

Phocion, as usual, was opposed to this war, thinking the forces 
of Athens wholly inadequate to sustain it. Leosthenes scofled 
at him, and asked him " What he had ever done for his country, 
during the long time that he was general ?" "Do you reckon it 
nothing," answered Phocion, " that the Athenians are buried in 
the sepulchres of their forefathers ?" And when Leosthenes 
continued his pompous harangues, Phocion said : " Young man, 
your speeches resemble cypress- trees, which are indeed large and 
lofty, but produce no fruit." " Tell us, then," interrupted Hy- 
perides, " what will be the proper time for the Athenians to 
make war?" Phocion answered : " Not till young men keep with- 
in the bounds of decorum, the rich contribute with liberality, and 
the orators desist from robbing the people." 

The allied army assembled in the neighbourhood of Thermo- 
pylae. Axtipater now advanced from the north, and ofiered 
battle in the vale of the Spercheus ; but being deserted by his 
ThessaUan cavalry, who went over to his opponents during the 
heat of the engagement, he was obliged to retreat, and threw 
himself into Lamia, a strong fortress on the Malian gulf Leos- 



656 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLV. 

thenes, desirous to finish the war at a hlow, pressed the siege 
with the utmost vigour ; but his assaults were repulsed, and he 
was compelled to resort to the slower method of a blockade. 
From this town the contest between Antipater and the allied 
Greeks has been called the Lamian War. 

§ 5. The novelty of a victory over the Macedonian arms was 
received with boundless exultation at Athens, and this feeling was 
raised to a still higher pitch by the arrival of an embassy from 
Antipater to sue for peace. Phocion was bantered unmercifully. 
He was asked whether he would not like to have done such great 
things as Leosthenes ? " Certainly," said he ; " but I should not 
have advised the attempting of them." And when messenger 
after messenger announced the successes of the Athenian arms, 
he exclaimed sarcastily, " "When shall we have done conquer- 
ing ?" The Athenians were so elated with their good fortune, 
that they would hsten to no terms but the unconditional surren' 
der of Antipater. Meantime Demosthenes, though still an exile, 
exerted himself in various parts of the Peloponnesus in counter- 
acting the envoys of Antipater, and in endeavouring to gain 
adherents to the cause of Athens and the allies. The Athenians 
in return invited Demosthenes back to his native country, and a 
ship was sent to convey him to Pireeus, where he was received 
with extraordinary honours. 

Meanwhile Leonnatus, governor of the Hellespontine Phrygia, 
had appeared on the theatre of war with an army of 20,000 foot 
and 2500 horse. Leosthenes had been slain at Lamia in a sally 
of the besiege(r; and Antiphilus, on whom the command of the 
allied army devolved, hastened to offer battle to Leonnatus 
before he could arrive at Lamia. The hostile armies met in one 
of the plains of Thessaly, where Leonnatus was killed and 
his troops defeated. Antipater, as soon as the blockade of 
Lamia was raised, had pursued Antiphilus, and on the day 
after the battle he effected a junction with the beaten army of 
Leonnatus. 

Shortly afterwards, Antipater was still further reinforced by 
the arrival of Craterus with a considerable force from Asia ; 
and being now at the head of an army which outnumbered the 
forces of the allies, he marched against them, and gained a 
decisive victory over them near Crannon in Thessaly, on the 
7th of August, B.C. 322. The allies were now compelled to 
sue for peace ; but Antipater refused to treat with them except 
as separate states, foreseeing that by this means many would 
be detached from the confederacy. The result answered his 
expectations. One by one, the various states submitted, till at 
length all had laid down their arms. Athens, the original insti- 



B.C. 322. DEATH OF DEMOSTHENES. 657 

gator of the insurrection, now lay at the mercy of the conqueror. 
As Antipater advanced, Phocion used all the influence which he 
possessed with the Macedonians in favor of his countrymen ; 
but he could obtain no other terms than an unconditional sur- 
render. On a second mission, Phocion received the final demands 
of Antipater ; which were, that the Athenians should deliver up a 
certain number of their orators, among whom were Demosthenes 
and Hyperides ; that their political franchise should, be limited 
by a property qualification ; that they should receive a Macedo- 
nian garrison in Munychia, and that they should defray the ex- 
penses of the war. Such was the result of the Lamian war. 

§ 6. After the return of the envoys bringing tlie ultimatum of 
Antipater, the sycophant Demades procured a decree for the 
death of the denounced orators. Demosthenes, and the other 
persons compromised, made their escape from Athens before 
the Macedonian garrison arrived. iEgina was their first place 
of refuge, but they soon parted in different directions. Hyperi- 
des fled to the temple of Demeter at Hermione in Peloponnesus, 
whilst Demosthenes took refuge in that of Poseidon in the isle 
of Calaurea, near TroBzen. But the satellites of Antipater, 
under the guidance of a Thurian named Archias, who had for- 
merly been an actor, tore them from their sanctuaries. Hype- 
rides was carried to Athens, and it is said that Antipater took 
the brutal and cowardly revenge of ordering his tongue to be 
cut out, and his remains to be thrown to the dogs. Demosthenes 
contrived at least to escape the insults of the tyrannical con- 
queror. Archias at first endeavoured to entice him from his 
sanctuary by the blandest promises. But Demosthenes, fore- 
warned, it is said, by a dream, fixing his eyes intently on him, 
exclaimed : " Your acting, Archias, never touched me formerly, 
nor do your promises now." And when Archias began to 
employ threats : " Good," said Demosthenes, " now you speak 
as from the Macedonian tripod ; before you were only playing a 
part. But wait awhile, and let me write my last directions to 
my family." So taking his writing materials, he put the reed 
into his mouth, and bit it for some time, as was his custom when 
composing ; after which he covered his head with his garment 
and reclined against a pillar. The guards who accompanied 
Archias, imagining this to be a mere trick, laughed and called 
him coward, whilst Archias began to renew his false persuasions. 
Demosthenes feeling the poison work — for such it was that he 
had concealed in the reed — now bade him lead on. " You may 
now," said he, " enact the part of Creon, and cast me out un- 
buried ; but at least, gracious Poseidon, I have not polluted 
thy temple by my death, which Antipater and his Macedonians 



658 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLV. 

would not have scrupled at." But whilst he was endeavouring 
to walk out, he fell down by the altar and expired. 

^ 7. The course of events now carries us back to the East. 
Perdiccas possessed more power than any of Alexander's gene- 
rals, and was regarded as the regent of the empire. He had 
the custody of the infant Alexander, the son of Alexander the 
Great, and the weak Philip Arrhidseus was a puppet in his hands. 
Perdiccas had at first courted the alliance of Antipater, and had 
even married his daughter Nicaea. But when Olympias offered 
him the hand of her daughter Cleopatra, if he would assist her 
against Antipater, Perdiccas resolved to divorce Nicaea at the 
first convenient opportunity, and espouse Cleopatra in her stead, 
believing that such an alhance with the royal I'amily would pave 
his way to the Macedonian throne, to which he was now aspir- 
ing. His designs, however, were not unknoAvn to Antigonus and 
Ptolemy ; and when he attempted to bring Antigonus to trial 
for some offence in the government of his satrapy, that general 
made his escape to Macedonia, where he revealed to Antipater 
the full extent of the ambitious schemes of Perdiccas, and thus 
at once induced Antipater and Craterus to unite in a league 
with him and Ptolemy, and openly declare war against the re- 
gent. Thus assailed on all sides, Perdiccas resolved to direct 
his arms in the first instance against Ptolemy. In the spring cf 
B.C. 321 he accordingly set out on his march against Egypt, at 
the head of a formidable army, and accompanied by Philip Ar- 
rhidseus, and Hoxana and her infant son. He advanced without 
opposition as far as Pelusium, but he found the banks of the Kile 
strongly fortified and guarded by Ptolemy, and was repulsed in 
repeated attempts to force the passage of the river ; in the last 
of which, near Memphis, he lost great numbers of men, by the 
depth and rapidity of the current. Perdiccas had never been 
popular with the soldiery, and these disasters completely ahen- 
ated their affections. A conspiracy was formed against him, 
and some of his chief officers murdered him in his tent. 

§ 8. The death of Perdiccas was followed by a fresh distribu- 
tion of the provinces of the empire. At a meeting of the gen- 
erals held at Triparadisus in Syria, towards the end of the year 
321 B.C., Antipater was declared regent, retaining the govern- 
ment of Macedonia and Greece ; Ptolemy was continued in the 
goverrnnent of Egypt ; Seleucus received the satrapy of Baby- 
lon ; whilst Antigonus not only retained his old province, but 
was rewarded with that of Susiana. 

Antipater did not long survive these events. He died in the 
year 318, at the advanced age of 80, leaving Polysperchon, one 
of Alexander's oldest generals regent; much to the surprise and 



B.C. 321. TREATY OF TRIPARADISUS. 659 

mortification of his son Cassander, who received only the second- 
ary dignity of ChiUarch, or commander of the cavalry. Cas- 
sander was now bent on obtaining the regency ; but seeing no 
hope of success in Macedonia, he went over to Asia to solicit the 
assistance of Antigonus. 

Polysperchon, on his side, sought to conciliate the friendship 
of the Grecian states, by proclaimmg them all free and inde- 
pendent, and by abolishing the oligarchies which had been set 
up by Antipater. In order to enforce these measures, Poly- 
sperchon prepared to march mto Greece, whilst his son Alex- 
ander was despatched beforehand with an army towards Athens, 
to compel the Macedonian garrison under the command of Nica- 
nor to evacuate Munychia. Nicanor, however, refused to move 
without orders from Cassander, whose general he declared 
himself to be. Phocion was suspected of intriguing in favour of 
Nicanor, and being accused of treason, fled to Alexander, now 
encamped before the walls of Athens. Alexander sent Phocion 
and the friends who accompanied him to his father, who was 
then in Phocis ; and at the same time an Athenian embassy 
arrived in Polysperchon' s camp to accuse Phocion. A sort of 
mock trial ensued, the result of which was that Phocion was 
sent back to Athens in chains, to be tried by the Athenian 
people. The theatre, where his trial was to take place, was soon 
lull to overflowing. Phocion was assailed on every side by the 
clamours of his enemies, which prevented his defence from being 
heard, and he was condemned to death by a show of hands. 
To the last Phocion maintained liis calm and dignified, but 
somewhat contemptuous bearing. When some wretched man 
spat upon him as he passed to the prison, " Will no one," said 
he, " clieck this fellow's indecency?" To one who asked him 
whether he had any message to leave for his son Phocus, he an- 
swered, " Only that he bear no grudge against the Athenians." 
And when the hemlock which had been jDrepared was found in- 
sufficient for all the condemned, and the jailer would not furnish 
more unless he was paid for it, " Give the man his money," said 
Phocion to one of his friends, " since at Athens one cannot even 
die for nothing." He died in B.C. 317, at the age of 85. The 
Athenians afterwards repented of their conduct towards Phocion. 
His bones, which had been cast out on the frontiers of Mcgara, 
were subsequently brought back to Athens, and a bronze statue 
was erected to his memory. 

^ 9. Whilst Alexander was negotiating with Nicanor about 
the surrender of Munychia, Cassander arrived in the Pini'us witli 
a considerable army, with which Antigonus had su})i)lied him ; 
and though Polysperchon himself soon came up with a largo 



.560 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLV. 

force, he found the fortifications of Pirseus too strong for him 
Leaving, therefore, his son to blockade the city, Polysperchon 
advanced with the greater part of his army into the Pelopon- 
nesus. Here he laid siege to Megalopolis ; hut that town was 
defended with such extraordinary efforts that Polysperchon 
was compelled to withdraw. His ill success, as well as the 
destruction of his fleet by the fleet of Cassander, produced 
an unfavourable turn in the disposition of the Greek states 
towards Polysperchon, and Athens in particular abandoned his 
alliance for that of Cassander, who established an oligarchical 
government in the city under the presidency of Demetrius of 
Phalerus. 

At the same time Eurydice, the active and intriguing wife of 
Philip Arrhideeus, conceived the project of throwing off the yoke 
of the regent, and concluded an alliance with Cassander, while 
she herself assembled an army with which she obtained for a 
time the complete possession of Macedonia. But in the spring 
of 317 Polysperchon, having united his forces with those of 
jEacides, king of Epirus, invaded Macedonia, accompanied by 
Olympias. Eurydice met them with equal daring ; but when 
the mother of Alexander appeared on the field, surrounded by a 
train in bacchanahan style, the Macedonians at once declared in 
her favour, and Eurydice, abandoned by her own troops, fled to 
Amphipolis, where she soon fell into the hands of Olympias, who 
put both her and her husband to death, with circumstances of 
the greatest cruelty. She next wreaked her vengeance on the 
family of Antipater, and on the adherents of Cassander. These 
events determined Cassander to proceed with all haste into Ma- 
cedonia. At his approach Olympias threw herself into Pydna, 
together with Roxana and her son. Cassander forthwith laid 
siege to this place ; and after a blockade of some months it sur- 
rendered in the spring of 316. Olympias had stipulated that 
her life should be spared, but Cassander soon afterwards caused 
her to be murdered. After the fall of Pydna all Macedonia sub- 
mitted to Cassander ; who, after shutting up Roxana and her 
son in the citadel of Amphipolis, married Thessalonica, a half- 
sister of Alexander the Great, with the view of strengthening his 
pretensions to the throne. 

Shortly afterwards Cassander marched into Greece, and be<^an 
the restoration of Thebes (b.c. 315), in the twentieth year alter 
its destruction by Alexander, a measure highly popular with the 
Greeks, 

^ 10. A new war now broke out in the east. Antigonus hctd 
become the most powerful of Alexander's successors. He had 
conquered Eumenes, who had long defied his arms, and he now 




B.C. 315. COALITIOIS' AGAINST ANTIGONUS. 561 



began to dispose of the provinces as he thought fit. His increas- 
ing power and ambitious projects led to a general coalition 
against him, consisting of Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander, and 
Lysimachus, the governor of Thrace. The war began in the year 
315, and was carried on with great vehemence and alternate 
success in Syria, PhoBnicia, Asia Mhior, and Greece. After four 
years all parties became exhausted wdth the struggle, and peace 
was accordingly concluded in 311, on condition that the Greek 
cities should be free, that Cassander should retain his authority 
in Europe till Alexander came of age, that Ptolemy and Lysi- 
machus should keep possession of Thrace and Eg}'pt respective- 
ly, and that Antigonus should have the government of all Asia. 
The name of Seleucus does not occur in the treaty. 

This hollow peace, which had been merely patched up for the 
convenience of the parties concerned, was not of long duration. 
It seems to have been the immediate cause of another of those 
crimes which disgrace the history of Alexander's successors. 
Alexander, who had now attained the age of sixteen, was still 
shut up with his mother Roxana in Amphipolis ; and his parti- 
sans, with injudicious zeal, loudly expressed their Avish that he 
should be released and placed upon the throne. In order to 
avert this event Cassander contrived the secret murder both of 
the mother and the son. 

Ml. This abominable act, however, does not appear to have 
caused a breach of the peace. Ptolemy was the first to break 
it (b.c. 310), under the pretext that Antigonus, by keeping his 
garrisons in the Greek cities of Asia and the islands, had not 
respected that article of the treaty which guaranteed Grecian 
freedom. After the war had lasted three years, Antigonus 
resolved to make a vigorous effort to wrest Greece from the 
hands of Cassander and Ptolemy, who held all the principal 
towns in it. Accordingly, in the summer of 307 B.C. he de- 
spatched his son Demetrius from Ephesus to Athens,,with a fleet 
of 250 sail, and 5000 talents in money. Demetrius, who after- 
wards obtained the surname of " Poliorcetes," or " Besieger of 
Cities," was a young man of ardent temperament and great 
abilities. Upon arriving at the Piraeus, he immediately pro- 
claimed the object of his expedition to be the liberation of 
Athens and the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison. Sup- 
ported by the Macedonians, Demetrius the Phalerean had now 
ruled Athens for a period of more than ten years. Of mean 
birth, Demetrius the Phalerean owed his elevation entirely to 
his talents and perseverance. His skill as an orator raised him 
to distinction among his countrymen ; and his politics, which 
led him to embrace the party of Phocion, recommended him to 

2 B* 



662 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLY. 

Cassander and the Macedonians. He cultivated many branches 
of literature, and was at once an historian, a philosopher, and 
a poet ; but none of his works have come down to us. During 
the first period of his administration he appears^to have governed 
wisely and equitably, to have improved the Athenian laws, and 
to have adorned the city with uselul buildings.^ But in spite of 
his pretensions to philosophy, the possession of uncontrolled pow- 
er soon altered his character for the worse, and he became re- 
markable for luxury, ostentation, and sensuality. Hence he grad- 
ually lost the popularity which he had once enjoyed, and which 
haxi prompted the Athenians to raise to him no fewer than 360 
bronze statues, most of them equestrian. The Athenians heard 
with pleasure the proclamations of the son of Antigonus ; his 
namesake, the Phalerean, was obliged to surrender the city to 
him, and to close his political career by retiring to Thebes. The 
Macedonian garrison in Munychia offered a slight resistance, 
which was soon overcome. Demetrius Poliorcetes then formal- 
ly announced to the Athenian assembly the restoration of" their 
ancient constitution, and promised them a large donative of corn 
and ship-timber. This munificence was repaid by the Athenians 
with the basest and most abject fiatter}^ Both Demetrius and 
his father were deified, and two new tribes, those of Antigonias 
and Demetrius, were added to the existing ten which derived 
their names from the ancient heroes of Attica. 

^ 12. Demetrius Poliorcetes did not, however, remain long at 
Athens. Early in 306 B.C. he was recalled by his father, and, 
sailing to Cyprus, undertook the siege of Salamis. Ptolemy has- 
tened to its relief with 140 vessels and 10,000 troops. The bat- 
tle that ensued w^as one of the most memorable in the annals of 
ancient naval warfare, more particularly on account of the vast 
size of the vessels engaged. Ptolemy was completely defeated ; 
and so important was the victory deemed by Antigonus, that on 
the strength of it he assumed the title of king, which he also 
conferred upon his son. This example was followed by Ptolemy, 
Seleucus, and Lysimachus. 

Encouraged by their success at Cyprus, Antigonus and Deme- 
trius made an attempt upon Eg}'pt, which, however, proved a 
disastrous failure. By way of revenge, Demetrius undertook an 
expedition against Rhodes, which had refused its aid in the 
attack upon Ptolemy. It was from the memorable siege of 
Rhodes that Demetrius obtained his name of " Poliorcetes." 

* A census -whicli Demetrius took of the population of Attica, proba- 
bly in 309 B.C., the year of his archonship, gave 21,000 freemen, 10,000 
metics, or resident aliens, and the amazing number of 400,000 slaves. 
The wives and families of the free uooulation must of course be added 



B.C. 301. BATTLE OF IPSUS. 563 

After in vain attempting to take the town from the sea-side, by 
means of floating batteries, from which stones of enormous 
weight were hurled from engines with incredible force against 
the walls, he determined to alter his plan and invest it on the 
land-side. With the assistance of Epimachus, an Athenian en- 
gineer, he constructed a machine which, in anticipation of its 
effect, was called Helepolis, or " the city taker." This was a square 
wooden tower, 150 feet high, and divided into nine stories, filled 
with armed men, who discharged missiles through apertures in 
the sides. When armed and prepared for attack, it required the 
strength of 2300 men to set this enormous machine in motion. 
But though this formidable engine was assisted by the operation 
of two battering-rams, each 150 feet long and propelled by the 
labour of 1000 men, the Rhodians were so active in repairing 
the breaches made in their walls, that after a year spent in the 
vain attempt to take the town, Demetrius was forced to retire 
and grant the Rhodians peace. 

§ 13. Whilst Demetrius was thus employed, Cassander had 
made great progress in reducing Greece. He had taken Corinth, 
and was besieging Athens, when Demetrius entered the Euripus. 
Cassander immediately raised the siege, and was subsequently 
defeated in an action near Thermopylae. When Demetrius en- 
tered Athens, he was received as before with the most extrava- 
gant flatteries. He remained two or three years in Greece, during 
which his superiority over Cassander was decided, though no 
great battle was fought. 

In the spring of 301 B.C. he was recalled by his father Anti- 
gonus, who stood in need of his assistance against Lysimachus 
and Seleucus. In the course of the same year the struggle be- 
tween Antigonus and his rivals was brought to a close by the 
battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which Antigonus was killed, and 
his army completely defeated. Antigonus had attained the age 
of 8 1 at the tim,e of his death. Demetrius retreated with the 
remnant of the army to Ephesus, whence he sailed to Cyprus, 
and afterwards proposed to go to Athens ; but the Athenians, 
alienated by his lU-fbrtune at Ipsus, refused to receive him. Se- 
leucus and Lysimachus shared between them the possessions of 
Antigonus. Lysimachus seems to have had the greater part of 
Asia Minor, whilst the whole country from the coast of tSyria to 
thj Euphrates, as well as a part of Phrygia and Cappadocia, fell 
to the share of Seleucus. The latter founded on the Orontes 
a new capital of his empire, which he named after his father 
Antioch. The fall of Antigonus secured Cassander in the pos- 
session of Greece, though it does not appear that any formal 
treaty was entered into for that purpose . 




Group of Dirce. From the Museum at Naples. 



CHAPTER XLYI. 

mOM THE BATTLE OF IPSUS TO THE CONQUEST OF GREECE BY 
THE ROMANS. 

§ 1. Proceedings of Demetrius Poliorcetes. He captures Athens. §2. 
Obtains the Macedonian crown. His flight and death. § 3. Lysiraachus 
reigns over Macedonia. He is defeated and slain by Seleucus. § 4. Se- 
leucus assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus. Invasion of the Celts, and 
death of Ptolemy Ceraunus. § 5. ^ntigonusGonatas ascends the Mace- 
donian throne. Death of Pyrrhus of Epirus. Chremonidean war. §6. 
The Achaean League. § 7. State of Sparta. Reforms of Agis and Cleo- 
menes. The Cleomenic war. § 8. The ^tolian League. § 9. The 
SocialWar. § 10. War between Philip and the Romans. § 11. Philopoe- 
men. § 12. Second war between Philip and the Romans. Battle of 
Cynoscephalae. § 13. Defeat of Antiochus, and subjugation of the 
JEtolians by the Romans. § 14. Extension of the Achaean League. 
Conquest of Sparta. Death of Philopoemen. § 15. War between 
Perseus and the Romans. Conquest of Macedonia. § 16. Proceedings 
of the Romans in Greece, § 17. Athens and Oropus, War between 
the Achaeans and Spartans. § 18. The Spartans appeal to the Romano, 
who reduce Greece into a Roman province. 

§ 1. After his repulse from Athens, Demetrius proceeded 
towards Peloponnesus, but found that his allies in that quarter 
had also abondoned him and embraced the cause of Cassander. 



B.C. 294. DEMETRIUS GAINS MACEDONIA. 665 

He was, however, neither ruined nor discouraged. On leaving 
the Peloponnesus (b.c. 300) he proceeded to the Thracian Cher- 
sonese, and ravaged the territory of Lysimachus. Whilst en- 
gaged in this expedition he was agreeably surprised by receiv- 
ing an embassy from Seleucus, by which that monarch solicited 
his daughter Stratonice in marriage. Demetrius gladly granted 
the request, and found himself so much strengthened by this 
alliance, that in the spring of the year 296 he was in a con- 
dition again to attack Athens, which he captured after a 
long siege, and drove out the bloodthirsty tyrant Lachares, 
who had been established there by Cassander. Such was thq 
extremity of famine to which the Athenians had been reduced, 
that we are told of a father and son quarrelling for a dead 
mouse ; and the philosopher Epicurus supported himself, and 
the society over which he presided, by dividing amongst them 
daily a small quantity of beans. On becoming master of the 
city, Demetrius, much to the surprise of the Athenians, treated 
them with great lenity and indulgence, and in consideration of 
their distresses, made them a present of a large quantity of com. 
^ 2. Meanwhile Cassander had died shortly before the siege of 
Athens, and was succeeded on the throne of Macedon by his 
eldest son, Philip lY.^ But that young prince died in 295, and 
the succession was disputed between his two brothers, Antipater 
and Alexander. Their mother Thessalonica, a daughter of the 
great Philip, seems to have been their guardian, and to have 
attempted to arrange their disputes by dividing the kingdom 
between them ; but Antipater, thinking that she favoured Alex- 
ander, slew her with his own hand in a fit of jealous rage. 
Alexander now called in the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, as 
well as of Demetrius, who was in the Peloponnesus with his 
army. Pyrrhus, as the nearest, was the first to respond to this 
call, and effected a partition of Macedonia between the two 
brothers ; an arrangement, which, as it weakened a neighbouring 
kingdom, was favourable to his own interests. Shortly after- 
wards (294) Demetrius, who saw in the distracted state of Mace- 
donia an opening for his own ambitious designs, appeared in 
that country with his forces. Alexander having joined him with 
his army, Demetrius caused that young prince to be assassinated, 
and was saluted king by the troops. Demetrius reigned over 
Macedonia, and the greater part of Greece, about seven years. 
He aimed at recovering the whole of his father's dominions 
in Asia ; but before he was ready to take the field, his adver- 
saries, alarmed at his preparations, detenTiincd to forestall 

* Philip Arrliidseus is called Philip IlL 



666 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XLYL 

him. In the spring of b.c. 287, Ptolemy sent a powerful fleet 
against Greece, while Pyrrhus on the one side and Lysimachus 
on the other simultaneously invaded Macedonia. Demetrius had 
completely alienated his own subjects by his proud and haughty 
bearing, and by his lavish expenditure on his own luxuries ; 
while Pyrrhus by his generosity, affability, and daring courage, 
had become the hero of the Macedonians, who looked upon him 
as a second Alexander. The appearance of Pyrrhus was the 
signal for revolt : the Macedonian troops flocked to his standard, 
and Demetrius was compelled to fly. Pyrrhus now ascended the 
throne of Macedonia ; but his reign was of brief duration ; and 
at the end of seven months he was in turn driven out by Lysi- 
machus. Demetrius made several attempts to regain his power 
in Greece, and then set sail for Asia, where he successively endea- 
voured to establish himself in the territories of Lysimachus, and 
of his son-in-law Seleucus. Falling at length into the hands 
of the latter, he was kept in a kind of magnificent captivity in a 
royal residence in S}Tia ; where, in 283, at the early age of 55y 
his chequered career was broii;ght to a close, partly by chagrin, 
and partly by the sensual indulgences with which he endea- 
voured to divert it. 

^ 3. The history of Alexander's successors continued to be 
marked to the end by the same ambition, the same dissen- 
sions, and the same crimes which had stained it from the first. 
The power of Lysimachus had been greatly increased by the 
acquisition of Macedonia ; and he now found himself in posses- 
sion of all the dominions in Europe that had formed part of the 
Macedonian monarchy, as well as of the greater part of Asia 
Minor. Of Alexander's immediate successors, Lysimachus and 
Seleucus were the only two remaining competitors for power; 
and with the exception of Egypt, those two sovereigns divided 
Alexander's empire between them. In Eg}'pt the aged Ptolemy 
had abdicated in 285 in favour of his son by Berenice, afterwards 
known as Ptolemy Philadelphus, and to the exclusion of his eldest 
son, Ptolemy Ceraunus, by his wife Eurydice. Ptolemy Ceraunus 
quitted Egypt in disgust, and fled to the court of Lysimachus ; 
and although Arsinoe, the wife of Lysimachus, was own sister to 
his rival, Ptolemy Philadelphus, he succeeded in gaining her entire 
confidence. Arsinoe, jealous of her stepson Agathocles, the heir 
apparent to the throne, and desirous of securing the succession 
for her own children, conspired with Ptolemy Ceraunus against 
his life. She even procured the consent of Lysimachus to his 
murder ; and after some vain attempts to make away with him 
by poison, he was flung into prison, where Ptolemy Ceraunus 
despatched him with his own hand. Lysandra, the mother of 



B.C. 280. ' INVASION OF THE CELTS. 567 

Agathocles, fled, with the rest of her family to Seleucus, to de- 
mand from him protection and vengeance : and Seleucus, induced 
by the hopes of success, inspired by the discontent and dissen- 
sions which so foul an act had excited among the subjects of 
Lysimachus, espoused her cause. The hostilities which ensued 
between him and Lysimachus were brought to a termination 
by the battle of Corupedion, fought near Sardis in 281, in which 
Lysimachus was defeated and slain. By this victory, Macedo- 
nia, and the whole of Alexander's empire, with the exception of 
Egypt, southern Syria, Cyprus, and part of Phoenicia, fell under 
the sceptre of Seleucus. 

§ 4. That monarch, who had not beheld his native land since 
he first joined the expedition of Alexander, now crossed the 
Hellespont to take possession of Macedonia. Ptolemy Ceraunus, 
who after the battle of Corupedion had thrown himself on the 
mercy of Seleucus, and had been received with forgiveness and 
favour, accompanied him on this journey. The murder of Aga- 
thocles had not been committed by Ptolemy merely to oblige 
Arsinoe. He had even then designs upon the supreme power, 
which he now completed by another crime. As Seleucus stopped 
to sacrifice at a celebrated altar near Lysimachia in Thrace, 
Ptolemy treacherously assassinated him by stabbing him in the 
back (280). After this base and cowardly act, Ptolemy Ceraunus, 
who gave himself out as the avenger of Lysimachus, was, by one 
of those movements wholly inexplicable to our modern notions, 
saluted king by the army ; but the Asiatic dominions of Seleucus 
fell to his son Antiochus, surnamed Soter. The crime of Ptole- 
my, however, was speedily overtaken by a just punishment. In 
the very same year his kingdom of Macedonia and Thrace was 
invaded by an immense host of Celts, and Ptolemy fell at the 
head of the forces which he led against them. A second inva- 
sion of the same barbarians compelled the Greeks to raise a 
force for their' defence, which was entrusted to the command of 
the Athenian Callippus (b.c. 279). On this occasion the Celts, 
attracted by the report of treasures which were now perhaps 
little more than an empty name, penetrated as far southwards 
as Delphi, with the view of plundering the temple. The god, 
it is said, vindicated his sanctuary on this occasion in the same 
supernatural manner as when it was attacked by the Persians : 
it is at all events certain that the Celts were repulsed with great 
loss, including that of their leader Brennus. Nevertheless some 
of their tribes succeeded in establishing themselves near the 
Danube ; others settled on the sea-coast of Tlirace ; wliilst a 
third portion passed over into A&ia, and gave their name to the 
country called Galatia. 



568 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLVI 

^ 5. After the death of Ptolemy Ceraimus, Macedonia fell for 
Bome time into a state of anarchy and confusion, and the crown 
was disputed by several pretenders. At length, in 278, Anti- 
gonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, succeeded in es- 
tablishing himself on the throne of Macedonia ; and, with the 
exception of two or three years (274-272) during which he was 
temporarily expelled by Pyrrhus, he continued to retain posses- 
sion of it till his death in 239. The struggle between Antigonus 
and Pyrrhus was brought to a close at Argos, in 272. Pyrrhus 
had marched into the Peloponnesus with a large force in order 
to make war upon Sparta, but with the collateral design of re- 
ducing the places which still held out for Antigonus. Pyrrhus, 
having failed in an attempt to take Sparta, marched against 
Argos, where Antigonus also arrived with his forces. Both ar- 
mies entered the city by opposite gates ; and in a battle which 
ensued in the streets, Pyrrhus was struck from his horse by a 
tile hurled by a woman from a house top, and was then de- 
spatched by some soldiers of Antigonus. Such was the inglo- 
rious end of one of the bravest and most warlike monarchs of 
antiquity ; whose character for moral virtue, though it would 
not stand the test of modern scrutiny, shone out conspicuously 
in comparison with that of contemporary sovereigns ; but whose 
enterprises, undertaken rather from the love of action than from 
any well-directed ambition, were rendered abortive by their de- 
sultory nature. 

Antigonus Gonatas now made himself master of the greater 
part of Peloponnesus, which he governed by means of tjTants 
whom he established in various cities. He then applied himself 
to the reduction of Athens, whose defence was assisted by an 
Egyptian fleet and a Spartan army. This war, which is some- 
times called the Chremonidean war, from the Athenian Chre- 
monides, who played a conspicuous part in defending the city, 
lasted six or seven years, and reduced the Athenians to great 
misery. Athens was at length taken, probably in 262. 

^ G. While all Greece, with the exception of Sparta, seemed 
hopelessly prostrate at the feet of Macedonia, a new political 
power, which sheds a lustre on the declining period of Grecian 
history, arose in a small province in Peloponnesus, of which the 
very name has been hitherto rarely mentioned since the heroic 
age. In Achaia, a narrow slip of country upon the shores of 
the Corinthian gulf, a league, chiefly for religious purposes, had 
existed from a very early period among the twelve chief cities 
of the province. This league, however, had never possessed 
much political importance, and it had been finally suppressed 
by the Macedonians. At the time of which we are speaking 



B.C. 251. ACHJEAN LEAGUE. 569 

Antigonus Gonatas was in possession of all the cities formerly 
belonging to the league, either by means of his garrisons or of 
the tyrants who were subservient to him. It was, however, this 
very^ oppression that led to a more efficient revival of the league. 
The Achaean towTis, now only ten in number, as two had been 
destroyed by earthquakes, began gradually to coalesce again ; a 
process which was much facilitated after Antigonus had with- 
drawn from Greece to take up his residence at Pella, where the 
affairs of Macedonia chiefly occupied his attention. But Aratus 
of Sicyon, one of the most remarkable characters of this period 
of Grecian history, was the raian who, about the year 251 B.C., 
first called the new league into active political existence. Aratus 
was one of those characters who, though not deficient in bold- 
ness and daring, seem incapable of exerting these qualities 
except in stratagems and ambuscades. He had long lived in 
exile at Argos, whilst his native city groaned under the dominion 
of a succession of tyrants. Having collected a band of exiles, 
Aratus surprised Sicyon in the night time, and drove out 
the last and most unpopular of these tyrants. Instead of seizing 
the tyranny for himself, as he might easily have done, Aratus 
ccnsulted only the advantage of his couiitr}^ and with this view 
united Sicyon with the Achaean league. The accession of so 
important a town does not appear to have altered the con- 
stitution of the confederacy. The league was governed by a 
Strategus, or general, whose functions were both military and 
civil ; a Gh-anniiateus.ox secretaiy, and a council oftendemiu?-gi. 
The sovereignty, however, resided in the general assembly, which 
met twice a year in a sacred grove near iEgium. It was com- 
posed of every Achajan who had attained the age of thirty, and 
possessed the right of electing the officers of the league, and of 
deciding all questions of war, peace, foreign alliances, and the 
like. In the year 215 B.C. Aratus was elected Strategus of the 
league, and again in 243. In the latter of these years he suc- 
ceeded in wresting Corinth from the Macedonians by another 
nocturnal surprise, and uniting it to the league. The confe- 
deracy now spread with wonderful rapidity. It was soon joined 
by TrcBzen, Epidaurus, Hermione, and other cities ; and ulti- 
mately embraced Athens, Megara, iEghia, Salamis, and the whole 
Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Elis, and some of 
the Arcadian towns. 

k 7. Sparta, it is true, still continued to retain her independ- 
ence, but without a sliadow of her former greatness and power. 
The primitive simplicity of Spartan manners had been com- 
pletely destroyed by the collection of wealth into a few hands, 
and by the consequent progress of luxury. The number of 



670 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XLYl 

Spartan citizens had been reduced to 700 ; but even of these there 
were not above a hundred who possessed a sufficient quantity 
of land to maintain themselves in independence. The Spartan 
kings had ceased to be the patriotic servants and generals of their 
country. Like the condottieri of more modern times, they were 
accustomed, since the time of Alexander the Great, to let out 
their services to the highest bidder ; and no longer content with 
the simple habits of their forefathers, they repaired to foreign 
courts in order to squander the wealth thus acquired in lux- 
uries v/hich they could not procure at home. The young king, 
Agis IV., who succeeded to the crown in 244, attempted to 
revive the ancient Spartan virtue, by restoring the institutions 
of Lycurgus, by cancelling all debts, and by making a new distri- 
bution of lands ; and with this view he relinquished all his own 
property, as well as that of his family, for the pubhc good. 
These reforms, though promoted by one of the Ephors, were 
opposed by Leonidas, the colleague of Agis in the monarchy, 
who rallied the majority of the more wealthy citizens around 
him. Agis and his party succeeded, however, in deposing Leo- 
nidas, and for a time his plans promised to be successful ; but 
having undertaken an expedition to assist Aratus against the 
.^tolians, the opposite party took advantage of his absence to 
reinstate Leonidas, and when Agis returned, he was put to 
death (241). But a few years afterwards, Cleomenes, the son of 
Leonidas, succeeded in effecting the reforms which had been 
contemplated by Agis ; a course which he was probably induced 
to take by the widow of Agis, whom he had married. It was 
his mihtary successes that enabled Cleomenes to carry out his 
political views. Aratus, in his zeal for extending the Achaean 
confederacy, attempted to seize the Arcadian towns of Orcho- 
menus, Tegea, and Mantinea, which the ^tolians had ceded to 
Sparta, v/hereupon a war ensued (227-226) in which the forces of 
the league were defeated by Cleomenes. The latter then sud- 
denly returned home at the head of his victorious army, and after 
putting the Ephors to death, proceeded to carry out the reforms 
projected by Agis, as well as several others which regarded mih- 
tary discipline. The effect of these new measures soon became 
visible in the increased success of the Spartan arms. Aratus 
was so hard pressed that he was compelled to sohcit the assist- 
ance of the Macedonians. Both Antigonus Gonatas and his son 
Demetrius II. — who had reigned in Macedonia from 239 to 229 
B.C. — were now dead, and the government was administered by 
Antigonus Doson, as guardian of Philip, the youthful son of 
Demetrius II. Antigonus Doson, who obtained the latter sur- 
name from his readiness in making promises, was the grandson 



B.C. 220. JETOLIAN LEAGUR 571 

of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and the nephew of Antigonus Gonatas. 
The Macedonians compelled him to accept the crown ; but he 
remained faithful to his trust as guardian of Philip, whose mo- 
ther he married ; and though he had children of his own by her, 
yet Philip succeeded him on his death. It was to Antigonus 
Ddson that Aratus applied for assistance ; and in 223 the Mace- 
donian king marched into the Peloponnesus and compelled Cleo- 
menes to retire into Laconia, This war between Cleomenes and 
Aratus, which is called the Cleomenic war, lasted altogether 
about six years. It broke out in 227, and was not brought to a 
close till two years after the intervention of Doson. After his 
defeat Cleomenes raised a considerable sum by allowing 6000 
Helots to purchase their freedom ; and having thus recruited 
his army, he in the following year attacked and destroyed Mega- 
lopolis. He afterwards pushed his successes up to the very 
walls of Argos ; but in 221 he was totally defeated by Antigonus 
Djson in the fatal battle of Sellasia in Laconia. The army of 
Cleomenes was almost totally annihilated ; he himself was obliged 
to fly to Egypt ; and Sparta, which for many centuries had re- 
mained unconquered, fell into the hands of the victor. 

^ 8. Antigonus, however, did not live long to enjoy his success. 
Before the end of the year he was recalled to Macedonia by an 
inviiion of the Illyrians, which he repelled, but he shortly after- ■ 
wa:-.ls died of a consumption. He was succeeded by Phihp V.. 
the rion of Demetrius 11., who was then about sixteen or seven- 
teen years of age. His youth encouraged the ^tolians to make 
predatory incursions into the Peloponnesus. That people were 
a species of freebooters, and the terror of their neighbours ; 
yet they were united, like the Achaeans, in a confederacy or 
league. The iEtolian league was a confederation of tribes in- 
stead of cities, like the Achaean. Its history is involved in ob- 
scurity ; but it must at all events have had a fixed constitution 
even in the time of Philip and Alexander the Great, since Aris- 
totle wrote a treatise on it ; and after the death of Alexander 
we find the League taking a prominent part in the Lamian war. 
The diet or council of the league, called the Panajtolicum, assem- 
bled every autumn, generally at Thermon, to elect the strategus 
and other officers ; but the details of its affairs were conducted 
by a committee called Apoclcfi, who seem to have formed a sort 
of permanent council. The ^tolians had availed themselves of 
the disorganised state of Greece consequent upon the death of 
Alexander to extend tlieir power, and had gradually made them- 
selves masters of Locris, Pliocis, Bcootia, together with portions 
of Acarnania, Thessaly, and Epirus. Thus both the Amphic- 
tyonic Couticil and tlie oracle of Delphi were in their power. 



572 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLYL 

They had early wrested Naiipactus from the Achseans, and had 
subsequently acquired several Peloponnesian cities, 

§ 9. Such was the condition of the ^^tolians at the time cf 
Philip's accession. Soon after that event we find them, under 
the leadership of Dorimachus, engaged in a series of freebooting 
expeditions in Messenia, and other parts of Peloponnesus. Aratus 
marched to the assistance of the Messenians at the head of the 
Achaean forces, but was totally defeated in a battle near Caphya;. 
The Achseans now saw no hope of safety except through the 
assistance of Philip. That young monarch was ambitious and 
enterprising, possessing considerable military ability, and much 
political sagacity. He readily listened to the application of the 
Achaeans, and in 220 entered into an alliance with them. The 
^vsiT which ensued between the iEtolians on one side, and the 
Achaeans, assisted by Philip, on the other, and Mdiich lasted 
about three years, has been called the Social War. Philip gained 
several victories over the vEtolians, but he concluded a treaty 
of peace with them in 217, because he was anxious to turn his 
arms against another and more formidable power. 

MO. The great struggle, now going on between Rome and 
Carthage, attracted the attention of the whole civilized world. 
It was evident that Greece, distracted by intestine quarrels, 
must be soon swallowed up by whichever of those gi*eat 
states might prove successful ; and of the two, the ambition of 
the E-omans, who had already gained a footing on the eastern 
shores of the Adriatic, was by far the more formidable to 
Greece. Philip's inclination to take part in the great struggle 
in the west was increased by the news of the overthrow of the 
Romans at the lake of Trasimene ; and he therefore readily 
listened to the advice and solicitations of Demetrius of Pharos, 
who had been driven by the Romans from his lUyrian domin- 
ions, and who now appealed to him for assistance. After the 
conclusion of the peace with the ^tolians Philip prepared a 
large fleet, which he employed to watch the movements of the 
Romans, and in the following year (216) he concluded a treaty 
with Hannibal, which, among other clauses, provided that the 
Romans should not be allowed to retain their conquests on the 
eastern side of the Adriatic. He even meditated an invasion 
of Italy, and with that view endeavoured to make himself 
master of Apollonia and Oricum. But though he succeeded in 
taking the latter city, the Romans, under M. Valerius Lsevinus, 
surprised his camp whilst he was besieging Apollonia ; and as 
they had likewise blockaded the mouth of the river Aous with 
their fleet, Philip was compelled to bum his ships and retire. 
Meanwhile Philip had acted in a most arbitary manner in the 



B.C. 208. PHILOPCEMEN. 573 

affairs of Greece ; and when Aratus remonstrated with him re- 
specting his proceedings, he got rid of his former friend and coun- 
sellor by means of a slow and secret poison (b.c. 213). 

When the affairs of the Romans had begun to recover in Italy, 
they directed their attention more seriously towards Greece, and 
in the year 211 concluded an alliance with the ^tolians, who 
were now weary of peace, and declared war against Phihp. Be- 
fore the end of the year, the Romans made themselves masters 
of Zacynthus, with the exception of the capital ; and having also 
wrested CEniadse and Naxos from the Acarnanians transferred 
these acquisitions to the iEtolians, and retained the booty for them- 
selves, agreeably to the treaty. In the following year the town of 
Anticyra and the island of iEgina were treated in a similar manner, 

§ 11. In B.C. 209, the Achssans, being hard pressed by the 
^tolians, were again induced to call in the aid of Philip. The 
spirit of the Achseans was at this time revived by Philipoemen, 
one of the few noble characters of the period, and who has been 
styled by Plutarch " the last of the Greeks." He was a native 
of Megalopolis in Arcadia, and had already distinguished him- 
self in the Cleomenic war, and especially at the battle of Sellasia, 
which was mainly won by a decisive charge which he made, with- 
out orders, at the head of the Megalopolitan horse. In 210 he 
was appointed to the command of the Achaean cavalry, and in 
208 he was elected Strategus of the League. In both these 
posts PhilopoBmen made great alterations and improvements in 
the arms and discipline of the Achssan forces, which he assimi- 
lated to those of the Macedonian phalanx. These reforms, as 
well as the public spirit with which he had inspired the Achaeans, 
were attended with the m.ost beneficial results. In 207 Philopce- 
men gained at Mantinea a signal victory over the Lacedaemoni- 
ans, who had joined the Roman alliance ; 4000 of them were 
left upon the held, and among them Machanidas, who had made 
himself tyrant of Sparta. This decisive battle, combined with 
the withdrawal of the Romans, who, being desirous of turning 
their undivided attention towards Carthage, had made peace 
with Philip (205), secured for a few years the tranquillity of 
Greece. It also raised the fame of Philopoemen to its highest 
point ; and in the next Nemean festival, being a second tune 
general of the league, he was hailed by the assembled Greeks as 
the liberator of their country. 

M2. Upon the conclusion of the second Punic war, the Ro- 
mans renewed their enterprises in Greece, for which the conduct 
of Philip, who had assisted the Carthaginians, afforded them 
ample pretence, Philip's attempts in the ^gean sea, and in 
Attica, had? also caused many complaints to be lodged against him 



674 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLVI. 

at Rome; and in b.c. 200 the Romans declared war against 
him, Athens, which he had besieged, was reheved by a Ro- 
man fleet ; but before he withdrew, Phihp, prompted by anger 
and revenge, displayed his barbarism by destroying the gardens 
and buildings in the suburbs, including the Lyceum and the tombs 
of the Attic heroes ; and in a second incursion which he made 
■with large reinforcements, he committed still greater excesses. 
For some time, however, the war lingered on without any de- 
cided success on either side. But in 198 the consul T. Q^uinctius 
Flamininus succeeded in gaining over the Achaean league to the 
Roman alliance ; and as the JEtolians had previously deserted 
Philip, both these powers fought for a short time on the samo 
side. In 197 the struggle between the Romans and Philip was 
brought to a termination by the battle of Cynoscephalse, near 
Scotussa, in Thessaly, which decided the fate of the Macedonian 
monarchy. Philip was obliged to sue for peace, and in the fol- 
lowing year ( 196) a treaty was ratified by which the Macedonians 
were compelled to renounce their supremacy, to withdraw their 
garrisons Irom the Grecian to\\-ns, to surrender their fleet, and 
to pay 1000 talents for the expenses of the war. At the ensuing 
Isthmian games, Flamininus solemnly proclaimed the freedom 
of the Greeks, and was received by them with overwhelming joy 
and gratitude. The Romans, however, still held the fortresses 
of the Acrocorinthus, Demetrias, and Chalcis ; and it was not 
till 1 94 that they showed any real intention of carrying out their 
promises by withdrawing their armies from Greece. 

§ 13. The ^tolians, dissatisfied with these arrangements, en- 
deavoured to persuade Nabis, who had succeeded Machanidas 
as tyrant of Sparta, Antiochus III., king of Syria, as well as 
Philip, TO enter into a league against the Romans. But Anti- 
ochus alone, at whose court Hannibal was then residing as a 
refugee, ventured to listen to these overtures. He passed over 
into Greece with a wholly inadequate force, and was defeated by 
the Romans at Thermopylae (b.c. 191). The .^Etohans were now 
compelled to make head against the Romans by themselves. 
After some inefiectual attempts at resistance, they were reduced 
to sue for peace, which they at length obtained, but on the most 
humihating conditions (b.c. 189). These, as dictated to them 
in Ambracia, by M. Fulvius Nobilior, difiered but little from an 
unconditional surrender. They were required to acknowledge 
the supremacy of Rome, to renounce all the conquests they had 
recently made, to pay an indemnity of 500 talents, and to engage 
in future to aid the Romans in their wars. The power of the 
,/Etolian league was thus for ever ciTished, though it seems to 
have existed, in name at least, till a much later v^riod. 



B-C. 197. BATTLE OF CYNOSCEPHALiE. 575 

§ 14. The Achaean league still subsisted, but was destined 
before long to experience the same fate as its rival. At first, 
indeed, it enjoyed the protection of the Romans, and even ac- 
quired an extension of members through their influence, but this 
protectorate involved a state of almost absolute dependence. 
PhilopGEsmen also had succeeded, in the year 192, in adding 
Sparta to the League, v^^hich now embraced the whole of Pelo- 
ponnesus. But Sparta having displayed symptoms of insubor- 
dination, Philopoemen marched against it in 188, and captured 
the city ; when he put to death eighty of the leading men, com- 
manded all the inhabitants who had been enfranchised by the 
recent tyrants to leave the place by a fixed day, razed the walls 
and fortifications, abolished the institutions of Lycurgus, and 
compelled the citizens to adopt the democratic constitution of 
the Achseans. Meanwhile, the Romans regarded with satisfac- 
tion the internal dissensions of Greece, which they foresaw 
would only render her an easier prey, and neglected to answer 
the appeals of the Spartans for protection. In 183 the Mes- 
seuians, under the leadership of Dinocrates, having revolted from 
the league, Philopoemen, who had now attained the age of 70, led 
an expedition against them ; but having fallen from his horse in 
a skirmish of cavalry, he was captured, and conveyed with many 
circumstances of ignominy to Messene, where, after a sort of 
mock trial, he was executed. His fate was avenged by Lycortas, 
the commander of the Achaian cavalr^^ the father of the histo- 
rian Polybius. In the following year, Lycortas, now Strategus, 
captured Messene, and having compelled those who had been 
concerned in the death of Philopoemen to put an end to their own 
lives, conveyed the ashes of that general to Megalopolis, where 
they were interred with heroic honours. 

^ 15. In B.C. 179 Philip died, and was succeeded by his son 
Perseus, the last monarch of Macedonia. The latter years of the 
reign of Philip had been spent in preparations for a renewal of 
the war, which he foresaw to be inevitable ; and when Perseus 
ascended the throne, he found himself amply provided with men 
and money for the impending contest. But, whether from a 
sincere desire of peace, or from irresolution of character, he 
sought to avert an open rupture as long as possible, and one of 
the first acts of his reign was to obtain from the Romans a 
renewal of the treaty which they had concluded with his 
father. It is probable that neither party was sincere in tlic con- 
clusion of this peace, at least neither could entertain any hope 
of its duration ; yet a period of seven years elapsed before the 
mutual enmity of the two powers broke out into open hostilities. 
Meanwhile. Perseus was not idle ; he secured the attachment of 



5*76 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLYI. 

his subjects by equitable and popular measures, and formed 
alliances not only with the Greeks and the Asiatic princes, but 
also with the Thracian, Illyrian, and Celtic tribes which sur- 
rounded his dominions. The Homans naturally viewed these 
proceedings with jealousy and suspicion ; and at length, in 172, 
Perseus was formally accused before the Roman senate, by Eu- 
menes, king of Pergamus, in person, of entertaining hostile de- 
signs against the Homan power. The murder of Eumenes near 
Delphi, on his return homewards, of which Perseus was suspected, 
aggravated the feeling against him at Home, and in the follow- 
ing year war w^as declared against him. 

Perseus was at the head of a numerous and well-appointed 
army, but of all his alhes, only Cotys, king of the Odrj^sians, 
ventured to support him against so formidable a foe. Yet the 
war was protracted three years without any decisive result ; nay, 
the balance of success seemed on the whole to incline in favour 
of Perseus, and many states, which before were wavering, now 
showed a disposition to join his cause. But his ill-timed parsi- 
mony restrained him from taking advantage of their ofiers, and 
in 168 the arrival of the consul, L. ^milius Paulus, completely 
changed the aspect of affairs. Perseus was-driven from a strong 
position which he had taken up on the banks of the Enipeus, 
forced to retreat to Pydna, and finally to accept an engagement 
near that town. At first the serried ranks of the phalanx 
seemed to promise superiority ; but its order having been broken 
by the inequalities of the ground, the E-oman legionaries pene- 
trated into the disordered mass, and committed fearful carnage, 
to the extent, it is said, of 20,000 men. Perseus fled first to 
Pella, then to Amphipolis, and finally to the sanctuary of the 
sacred island of Samothrace, but was at length obliged to sur- 
render liimself to a Roman squadron. He was caiTied to Rome 
to adorn the triumph of Paulus (167), and was aftei*wards cast 
into a dungeon ; from whence, however, he was liberated at the 
intercession of his conqueror, and permitted to spend the re- 
mainder of his life in a sort of honourable captivity at Alba. 
Such was the end of the Macedonian empire, which was now 
divided into four districts, each under the jurisdiction of an oli- 
garchical council. 

§ 16. The Roman commissioners deputed to arrange the 
affairs of Macedonia did not confine their attention to that pro- 
vince, but evinced their designs of bringing all Greece under the 
Roman sway. In these views they were assisted by various 
despots and traitors in different Grecian cities, and especially by 
Callicrates, a man of great influence among the Acheeans, and 
who for many years lent himself as the base tool of the Romans 



B.C. 168. CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA. 611 

to effect the enslavement of his country. After the fall of Ma- 
cedonia, Callicrates denounced more than a thousand leading 
Achseans who had favoured the cause of Perseus. These, among 
whom was Polybius the historian, were apprehended and sent 
to Rome for trial. Polybius was one of the survivors, who, 
after a captivity of seventeen years, were permitted to return to 
their native country. A still harder fate was experienced by 
JEtolia, BoBotia, Acarnania, and Epirus. In the last-named 
country, especially, no fewer than seventy of the principal towns 
were abandoned by Paulus to his soldiers for pillage, and 150,000 
persons are said to have been sold into slavery. 

M7. An obscure quarrel between Athens and Oropus was the 
remote cause which at length afforded the Romans a pretence 
for crushing the small remains of Grecian independence by the 
destruction of the Achaean league. For some time Athens'had 
been reduced to a sort of political mendicancy, and was often 
fain to seek assistance in her distress from the bounty of the 
Eastern princes or of the Ptolemies of Egypt. In the year 156 
the poverty of the Athenians became so urgent, that they were 
induced to make a piratical expedition against Oropus lor the 
purposes of plunder. On the complaint of the Oropians the 
Roman Senate assigned the adjudication of the matter to the 
Sicyonians, who condemned the Athenians to pay the large fine 
of 500 talents. In order to obtain a mitigation of this fine the 
Athenians despatched to Rome (in 151) the celebrated embassy 
of the three philosophers — Diogenes the Stoic, Critolaiis the 
Peripatetic, and Carneades, the founder of the third Academy. 
The ambassadors were nominally successful, since they obtained 
a reduction of the fine to 100 talents; a sum, however, still 
much greater than the Athenians were in a condition to pay. 
The subsequent relations between Athens and Oropus are ob- 
scure ; but in 150 we find the Oropians complaining of a fresh 
aggression, which consisted in an attack upon some of their citi- 
zens by the Athenian soldiers. On this occasion the Oropians 
appealed for protection to the Achaean league, which, however, 
at first declined to interfere. The Oropians now bribed a Spar- 
tan named Menalcidas, who was at that time Strategus, with a 
present of 10 talents ; and Menalcidas employed the corrupt in- 
fluence of Callicrates to procure the intervention of the league. 
Menalcidas havhig subsequently defrauded Callicrates of the sum 
which he had promised him, the latter accused him of having 
advised the Romans during his administration to effect the 
detachment of Sparta from the league. Menalcidas escaped 
condemnation by bribing Diasus, his succes.^or in llic olHce of 
i^tratcgus. But such was the t)blo(|iiy incurred by Dia-us tinoiigh 

2C 



578 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chaf. XLVL 

this transaction, that in order to divert pubhc attention from 
himself, he incited the Achseans to violent measures against 
Sparta, which ultimately involved the league in a fatal struggle 
with E-ome. His pretext for making war on the Spartans was, 
that instead of appealing to the league respecting a boundary 
question, as they ought to have done, they had violated its laws 
by sending a private embassy to Rome. 

§ 18. The Spartans, feeling themselves incompetent to resist 
this attack, appealed to the Romans for assistance ; and in 147 
two Roman conmiissioners were sent to Greece to settle these 
disputes. These conunissioners decided that not only Sparta, 
but Corinth, and all the other cities, except those of Achaia, 
should be restored to their independence. This decision occa- 
sioned serious riots at Corinth. All the Spartans in the town 
were seized, and even the Roman commissioners narrowly es- 
caped violence. On their return to Rome a fresh embassy was 
despatched to demand satisfaction for these outrages. But the 
violent and impolitic conduct of Critolaiis, then Strategus of the 
league, rendered all attempts at accommodation iiruitless, and 
after the return of the ambassadors the Senate declared war 
against the league. The cowardice and incompetence of Crito- 
laiis as a general were only equalled by his previous insolence. 
On the approach of the Romans under Metellus from Macedonia 
he did not even venture to make a stand at Thermopyla? ; and 
being overtaken by them near Scarphea in Locris, he was totally 
defeated, and never again heard of Diaeus, who succeeded him 
as Strategus, displayed rather more energy and courage. But a 
fresh Roman force under Mummius having landed on the isth- 
mus, DisBus was overthrown in a battle near Corinth ; and that 
city was immediately evacuated not only by the troops of the 
league, but also by the greater part of the inhabitants. On 
entering it Mummius put the few males who remained to the 
sword ; sold the women and children as slaves ; and having car- 
ried away all its treasures, consigned it to the flames (b.c. 146). 
Corinth was filled with masterpieces of ancient art ; but Mum- 
mius was so insensible of their surpassing excellence, as to 
stipulate with those who contracted to convey them to Italy, 
that if any were lost in the passage, they should be replaced by 
others of ^qual value I Mummius then employed himself in 
chastising and regulating the whole of Greece ; and ten commis- 
sioners were sent from Rome to settle its future condition. The 
whole country, to the borders of Macedonia and Epirus, was 
formed into a Roman province, under the name of Achaia, de^ 
rived from that confederacy which had made the last struggle 
ibr its political existence. 




Group of the Laocoon. 

CHAPTER XLVII. 

HISTORY OF GRECIAN ART FROM THE END OF THE PELOFONNESIAN 
WAR TO ITS DECLINE. 



§ 1. Later school of Athenian sculpture. § 2. Scopas. § 3. Praxiteles. 
§4. Sicyonian school of sculpture. Euphranor, Lysippus. §5. Sicyo- 
nian school of painting. Eupompus, Phaniphilus, Apelles. § G. Archi- 
tecture. §7. Period after Alexander the Great. School of Rhodes. 
§ 8. Phmder of Greek works of art by the Romans. 

§ 1. After the close of the Peloponnesian war, what is called 
the second or later school of Attic sculpture still continued to 
assert its pre-eminence. In style and character, however, it pre- 
sented a marked difierence from the school of the preceding 
age. The excitement and misfortunes which had attended the 
war had worked a great change in the Athenians. This was 
communicated to their works of art, which now j^ianifested 
an expression of stronger passion and of deeper feeling. The 
serene and composed majesty which had marked the gods 
and heroes of the earlier artists altogether vanished. The new 
school of sculptures prelerred to take other deities for tlieir sub- 
jects than those which had been selected by their predecessors ; 
and Jove, Hera, and Athena gave place to gods, characterized by 



580 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XLYII 

more violent feelings and passions, such as Dionysus, Aphrodite, 
and Eros. These formed the. favorite subjects of the later 
Athenian school, and received from it that stamp and character 
of representation which they retained through the succeeding 
period of classic art. A change is also observable in the ma- 
terials employed, and in the technical handhng of them. The 
magnificently adorned chryso-elepliantine statues almost wholly 
disappear ; marble becomes more frequently used, especially by 
the Athenian statuaries, and the whole execution is softer and 
more flowing. 

k 2. The only two artists of this school whom it will be neces- 
sary to mention are Scopas and Praxiteles. Scopas was a native 
of Paros, and flourished in the first half of the fourth century 
B.C. His exact date can not be ascertained, nor is there any- 
thing known of his life, except in connexion with his works, of 
which some specimens still remain. Among these are the bas- 
reliefs on the frieze of the perystyle which surrounded the Mau- 
sole^utn, or tomb of Mausolus, at Halicarnassus [Budrum), some 
of which are now deposited in the British Museum {Budrum 
Marbles). Their style is very similar to that of the sculptures 
on the frieze of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, which is 
of the same period of art.=* Both are of high excellence, but 
inferior to the frieze of the Parthenon. Scopas, however, w^as 
more famous for single statues and detached groups than for 
architectural sculpture. His statues of Aphrodite were very 
celebrffted in antiquity. That of the victorious Aphrodite (Yenus 
victrixj in the Louvre at Paris is ascribed to his chisel by many 
competent judges. But the most esteemed of all his works was 
a group representing Achilles conducted by the marine deities to 
the island of Leuce. It consisted of figures of Poseidon, Thetis, 
and Achilles, surrounded by Nereids on dolphins, huge fishes 
and hippocampi, and attended by Tritons and sea-monsters. In 
the treatment of the subject heroic grandeur is said to have 
been combined with grace. A group better known in modem 
times, from a copy of it preserved in the Museum at Florence, is 
that of Niobe and her children slain by the hands of Artemis 
and Apollo. t There can be no doubt that it filled the pediment 
of a temple. At a later period it was preserved in the temple of 
Apollo So^anus at Rome, but it was a disputed point among the 
Romans whether it was from the hands of Scopas or Praxiteles. 
In the noble forms of the countenances grief and despair arc 
protrayed without distortion. Another celebrated work of Scopas 
was the statue of the Pythian Apollo playing on the lyre, which 

* See bolow, p. 584. f See drawing on p. 552. 



Chap. XLVII. SCOPAS. PRAXITELES. 681 

Augustus placed in the temple which he built to Apollo on the 
Palatine, in thanksgiving for his victory at Actium. The copy 
of this statue in the Vatican is figured on p. 551. Scopas was 
an architect as well as a statuary, and built the temple of 
Athena Alea at Tagea, in Arcadia, one of the largest and most 
magnificent in the Peloponnesus. 

^ 3. Praxiteles was contemporary with Scopas, though perhaps 
somewhat younger. Nothing is positively known of his history, 
except that he was at least a citizen, if not a native, of Athens, 
and that his career as an artist was intimately connected with 
that city. He excelled in representing the softer beauties of the 
human form, and especially the female figure. But art had now 
sunk from its lofty and ideal majesty. The Cnidian Aphrodite, 
the master-piece of Praxiteles, expressed only sensual charms, 
and was avowedly modelled from the courtesan Phryne. Yet 
such was its excellence that many made a voyage to Cnidus on 
purpose to behold it; and so highly did the Cnidians prize it, 
that they refused to part with it to king Nicomedes, although he 
ofiered to pay off their public debt in exchange for it. In this 
work Aphrodite was represented either as just entering or just 
quitting the bath ; and it is said to have been the first instance 
in which any artist had ventured to represent the goddess en- 
tirely divested of drapery. At the same time he made a draped 
statue of the goddess lor the Coans, which however never enjoyed 
so much reputation as the former, though Praxiteles obtained 
the same price for it. He also made two statues of Eros, one of 
which he deemed his masterpiece. It is related that in his fond- 
ness for Phryne he promised to give her any statue she might 
choose,- but was unwilling to tell her which he considered his 
masterpiece. In order to ascertain this point Phryne sent a 
message to Praxiteles that his house was on fire ; at which news 
he rushed out exclaiming that he was undone if the fire had 
touched his Satyr or his Eros. He also excelled in representing 
Dionysus with his fauns and satyrs. A statue of Apollo, known 
as Apollo Sauroctonos, or the lizard-killer, was among his most 
famous pieces. It was in bronze, and numerous copies of it are 
still extant. 

§ 4. The later Athenian school of sculpture was succeeded by 
the Sicyonian school. It is characterised by representations of 
heroic strength and of the form of athletai, and by a striving 
after the colossal. Its chief artists were Euphranor and Lysippus. 
Euphranor was a native of the Corinthian isthmus, but practised 
his art at Athens. He appears to have flourished during the 
time of Philip of Macedon, and beyond the period of Alexander's 
accession. He excelled in painting as well as in statuary. He 



582 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLVII 

executed figures in bronze and marble of all sizes, from a drink- 
ing-cup to a colossal statue. One of his most celebrated works 
was a statue of Paris. Lysippus was a native of Sicyon, and 
flourished during the reign of Alexander the Great. He was 
originally a mere workman in bronze, but through his genius 
and a sedulous study of nature rose to the highest eminence as 
a statuary. He followed the school of Polycletus, whose Dory- 
phorus formed his standard model ; but by this course of study 
the ideal of art was sacrificed to the merely natural. Hercules, 
a human hero, was the favourite subject of his chisel ; but he 
deviated from former models, in which Hercules was endowed 
with ponderous strength, and represented him as characterised 
by strength and agility combined. This type was adopted by 
subsequent artists. The celebrated Farnese Hercules in the 
Museum at Naples is probably a copy of one of his works. 
Lysippus excelled in portraits; in which department he also 
adhered to his principles of art, and followed nature so closely 
as to portray even the defects of his subjects. Thus, in his 
busts of Alexander, he did not omit his wry neck. Neverthe- 
less, that monarch was so pleased with his performances, that 
he forbade anybody but Lysippus and Apelles to represent him. 
The most renowned of Lysippus's statues of Alexander was that 
which represented him brandishing a lance, and which was re- 
garded as a companion to the picture of Apelles, in which he 
wielded a thunderbolt. 

It has been observed that the features of Alexander pervade 
most of the heroic statues of this period. Lysippus worked 
principally in bronze. One of his most celebrated productions 
was an equestrian group of the chieftains who fell at the battle 
of the Granicus. His works were very mmierous, and are said 
to have amounted to 1500. 

^ 5. With regard to painting, the Asiatic school of Zeuxis and 
Parrhasius was also succeeded by a Sicyonian school, of which 
Eupompus may be considered as the founder. He was excelled, 
however, by his pupil Pamphilus, who was renowned as a teacher 
of his art, and founded a sort of academy. His period of in- 
struction extended over ten years, and his fee was a talent. 
The school of Pamphilus produced several celebrated artists, of 
whom Apelles was by far the greatest. 

Apelles seems to have been a native of Colophon, in Ionia; 
but, as we have said, he studied ten years under Pamphilus at 
Amphipolis; and subsequently, even after he had attained some 
reputation, under Melanthius at Sicyon. Thus to the grace and 
elegance of the Ionic school he added the scientific accuracy of 
the Sicyonian. The greater part of his hfe seems to have been 



Chap. XLYIL APELLES. 583 

spent at the court of Pella. He was warmly patronised by Alex- 
ander, who frequently visited his studio, and, as mentioned 
before, granted him the exclusive privilege of painting his por- 
trait. In one of these visits Alexander began to descant on 
art, but exposed his ignorance so much that Apelles gave him a 
polite hint to be silent, as the boys who were grinding the 
colours were laughing at him. He appears to have accompanied 
Alexander in his eastern expedition, and after the death of that 
monarch to have travelled through the western parts of Asia. 
He spent the latter part of his life at the court of king Ptolemy 
in Egypt. The character of Apelles presents us with traits quite 
the reverse of the silly vanity of Zeuxis. He was always ready 
to acknowledge his own faults, as well as the merits of others. 
In fact, there was only one point in which he asserted his supe- 
riority over his contemporaries, namely, grace ; and there can be 
no doubt that this was no vain assumption. He was not ashamed 
to learn from the humblest critics. With this view he was 
accustomed to exhibit his unfinished pictures before his house, 
and to conceal himself behind them in order to hear the cri- 
ticisms of the passers by. On one of these occasions a cobbler 
detected a fault in the shoes of one of his figures, which Apelles 
corrected. The next time he passed, the cobbler, encouraged 
by the success of his criticism, began to remark upon the leg ; 
at which the artist lost all patience, and rushing from behind his 
picture, commanded the cobbler to keep to his shoes. Hence 
the proverb, " Ne sutor ultra crepidam," — let the cobbler stick 
to his last. His conduct towards his contemporary Protogenes 
of Rhodes exhibits a generosity not always found among rival 
artists. On arriving at Rhodes, Apelles saw that the works of 
Protogenes were scarcely at all valued by his countrymen ; where- 
upon he offered him fitty talents for one of his pictures, at the 
same time spreading the report that he meant to sell it again as 
one of his own. Apelles studied with the greatest industry, and 
always went on trying to improve himself; yet he knew when 
to leave off correcting his pictures, and laid it down as a maxim 
that over care often spoiled a piece. His pictures seem to have 
been chiefly on moveable panels, and he was probably the first 
who used a sort of varnish to his pictures with an effect some- 
what similar to that of the modern toni7ig or glazing. He gene- 
rally painted single figures, or groups of only a few. He excelled 
in portraits, among the most celebrated of which was that 
already mentioned of Alexander wielding the thunderbolt. The 
hand which held it seemed to stand out of the panel ; and, in 
order to heighten this cHect of foreshortening, Alexander's com- 
plexion was made dark, though in reality it was light. The 



584 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLYIL 

price paid for this picture was twenty talents. But the most 
admired of all his paintings was the "Aphrodite (Yenus) Ana- 
dyomene"^ or Aphrodite rising from the Sea. The goddess 
was represented wringing her hair, whilst the falling drops formed 
a veil around her. It was originally painted for the temple of 
^Esculapius at Cos, and was afterwards placed hy Augustus in 
the temple which he dedicated to Julius Csesar at Rome. Another 
figure of Aphrodite, also painted for the Coans, Apelles left incom> 
plete at his death, and nobody could be found to finish it. By 
the general consent of the ancients Apelles was the first of paint- 
ers, and some of the later Latin poets use his name as a synonyme 
for the art itself 

§ 6. The architecture of this period was marked rather by 
the laying out of cities in a nobler and more convenient fashion, 
and by the increase of splendour in private residences, than by 
any improvement in the style of public buildings and temples. 
The conquests of Alexander caused the foundation of new cities, 
and introduced into the East the architecture of Greece. The 
two finest examples of cities which arose in this manner were 
Alexandria in Egypt, and Antioch in Syria. The regularity of its 
plan, the colossal size of its public buildings, and the beauty and 
solidity of its private houses, rendered Alexandria a sort of model 
city ; yet it was probably su^assed by Antioch in the pleasing 
nature of the impression produced. The fittings and furniture 
of the apartments kept pace with the increased external splen- 
dour of private dwellings. This age was also distinguished by 
its splendid sepulchral monuments : the one to the memory of 
her husband Mausolus, erected at Halicarnassus, by the Carian 
queen Artemisia, was regarded as one of the seven wonders of 
the world. It was adorned with sculptural decorations by the 
greatest artists of the later Attic school. (Seep. 580.) At the 
same time temple architecture was not neglected ; but the simple 
and solid grandeur of the Doric order, and the chaste grace of 
the Ionic, began to give place to the more florid Corinthian. 

One of the most graceful monuments of this period still 
extant is the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, at Athens, 
vulgarly called the Lantern of Demosthenes, which was dedicated 
by Lysicrates in b.c. 335, as we learn from an inscription on the 
architrave, in commemoration of a victory gained by the chorus 
of Lysicrates in the dramatic contests. It is a small circular 
building on a square basement, of v/hite marble, and covered by 
a cupola, supported by six Corinthian columns : the summit of 
the cupola was formerly crowned by the tripod, which Lysicrates 

* 7j dvadvo/itvTj 'A(j)po6iTTj. 



CiiAP. XLVIL ARCHITECTURR 685 

had gained as the prize. The frieze of the monument, of which 
there are casts in the British Museum, represents the destruction 
of the Tyrrhenian pirates by Dionysus and his attendants. A 
drawing of the monument is given on p. 434, and portions of 
the frieze are figured on pp. 455, 456. Another extant monu- 
ment of this period at Athens is the Horologium of Andronicus 
Cyrrhestes, probably erected about B.C. 100, and vulgarly called 
the " Temple of the Winds," from the figures of the Winds upon 
its faces. It is an octagonal tower, with its eight sides facing 
respectively the direction of the eight winds into which the 
Athenian compass was divided. The directions of the several 
sides are indicated by the figures and names of the eight winds, 
which were sculptured on the frieze of the entablature. On 
the summit of the building there stood originally a bronze fig- 
ure of a Triton, holding a wand in his right hand, and turning 
on a pivot, so as to serve for a weathercock. (See drawing on 
p. 643.) 

§ 7. After the age of Alexander, Greek art began visibly to 
decline. The great artists that had gone before had fixed the 
ideal types of the ordinary subjects of the sculptor and painter, 
and thus in a manner exhausted invention ; whilst all the tech- 
nical details of handling and treatment had been brought to the 
highest state of perfection and development. The attempt to 
outdo the great masterpieces which already existed induced ar- 
tists to depart from the simple grace of the ancient models, and 
to replace it by striking and theatrical effect. The pomp of the 
monarchs who had divided amongst them the empire of Alexan- 
der required a display of eastern magnificence, and thus also led 
to a meretricious style in art. Nevertheless, it w^as impossible 
that the innate excellence of the Greek schools should disappear 
altogether and at once. The perfect models that were always 
present could not fail to preserve a certain degree of taste ; and 
even after the time of Alexander, we find many works of great 
excellence produced. Art, however, began to emigrate from 
Greece to the coasts and islands of Asia Minor : Khodcs, espe- 
cially, remained an eminent school of art almost down to the 
Christian era. This school was an immediate offshoot of that 
of Lysippus, and its chief founder was the Rhodian Chares, who 
flourished about the beginning of the third century b.c. His 
most noted work was the statue of the Sun, which, under the 
name of the Colossus of Rhodes, was esteemed one of the seven 
wonders of the world. It was of bronze, and 105 feet high. It 
stood at the entrance of the harbour of Rhodes ; but the state- 
ment that its legs extended over the mouth of the liarbour does 
not rest on any authentic foundation. It was twelve years in 

2c* 



586 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLVIL 

erecting, at a cost of 300 talents, and was so large that there 
were few who could embrace its thumb. It was overthrown by 
an earthquake 56 years after its erection. But the most beau- 
tiful work of the Rhodian school at this period is the famous 
group of the Laocoon in the Vatican, so well known by its many 
copies. (See drawing on p. 579.) It was the work of three 
sculptors, Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus. In this group 
the pathos of physical suffering is expressed in the highest de- 
gree, but not without a certain theatrical air and straining for 
effect, which the best age of Greek art would have rejected. 
To the same school belongs the celebrated group called the Far- 
nesian bull, in the Museum at Naples, representing Zethus and 
Amphion binding Dirce to a wild bull, in order to avenge their 
mother. (See drawing on p. 564.) It was the work of two 
brothers, Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles. About the same 
time eminent schools of art flourished at Pergamus and Ephesus. 
To the former may be referred the celebrated dying gladiator in 
the Capitoline Museum at Rome, and to the latter the Borghese 
gladiator in the Louvre. The well-known statue of Aphrodite 
at Florence, called the " Venus de Medici," also belongs to the 
same period. It was executed by an Athenian artist named 
Cleomenes, whose exact date is unknown, but who lived before 
the capture of Corinth, in B.C. 146. 

§ 8. When G-reece began to fall into the hands of the Romans, 
the treasures of Greek art were conveyed by degrees to Rome, 
where ultimately a new school arose. The triumphs over Phil- 
ip, Antiochus, the ^Etolians, and others, but, above all, the cap- 
ture of Corinth, and, subsequently, the victories over Mithridates 
and Cleopatra, filled Rome with works of art. The Roman 
generals, the governors of provinces (as Verres), and finally, the 
emperors, continued the work of spoliation ;^ but so prodigious 
was the number of works of art in Greece, that, even in the 
second century of the Christian era, when Pausanias visited it, 
its temples and other public buildings were still crowded with 
statues and paintings. 

* Nero alone is said to have brought 500 statues from Delphi, merely 
to adorn his golden house. 




Bust of Aristotle. 

CHAPTER XLVIII. 

GRECIAN LITERATURE FROM THE END OF THE PELOPONNESIAN 
WAR TO THE LATEST PERIOD. 

§ 1. The drama. The Middle comedy. The New comedy: Philemon, 
Menander. § 2. Oratory. Circumstances which favoured it at Athens. 
§ 3. Its Sicilian origin. § 4, The ten Attic orators : Antiphon, Ando- 
cides, Lysias, Isocrates, IsseuSj^Eschines, Lycurgus,Demosthenes,Hype- 
rides, and Dinarchus. § 5. Athenian philosophy, Plato. § 6. Sketch 
of his philosophy. § 7. The Megarics, Cyrenaics, and Cynics. §8. The 
Academicians. § 9. Aristotle and the Peripatetics. § 10. The Stoics 
and Epicureans. § 11. The Alexandrian school of literature. § 12. Later 
Greek writers: Polybius,DionysiusofHalicarnassus,DiodorusSiculus, 

■ Arrian, Appian, Plutarch, Josephus, Strabo, Pausanias, Dion Cassius, 
Lucian, Galen. § 13. The Greek Scriptures and Fathers. Conclusion. 

M. In reviewing the preceding period of Greek literature, we 
have already had occasion to notice the decline of tragedy at 
Athens. It continued, indeed, still to subsist ; but after the great 
tragic triumvirate we have no authors who have conne down to 
us, or whose works were at all comparable to those of their 
predecessors. There are, however, a few names that should be 
recorded ; as tliat of Agatlion, the contemporary and friend of 
Euripides, whose compositions were more remarkable for their 
flowery elegance than for force or sublimity : of lophon, the 
son of Sophocles, whose undutiful conduct towards liis father 
has been already mentioned, the author of 50 tragedies, which 
gained considerable reputation : of Sophocles, the grandson of 
the great tragic poet : and of a second Euripides, the nephew of 
the celebrated one. With regard to comedy tlie case was dif- 
ferent. After the days of Aristophanes it took, indeed, a 



588 HISTORY OF GREECK Chap. XL VIII 

wholly different form ; but a form which rendered it a more 
perfect imitation of nature, and established it as the model of 
that species of composition in every civilized nation of after- 
times. We have already noticed, in the plays of Aristophanes 
himself, a transition from the genuine Old Comedy to the Middle 
Comedy. The latter still continued to be in some degree po- 
htical ; but persons were no longer introduced upon the stage 
under their real names, and the office of the chorus was very 
much curtailed. It was, in fact, the connecting link between 
the Old Comedy and the New, or the Comedy of Manners. 
The most distinguished authors of the Middle Comedy, besides 
Aristophanes, were Antiphanes and Alexis. The New Comedy 
arose after Athens had become subject to the Macedonians. 
Politics were now excluded from the stage, and the materials 
of the dramatic poet were derived entirely from the fictitious 
adventures of persons in private life. The two most distin- 
guished writers of this school were Philemon and Menander. 
Philemon was probably born about the year 360 B.C., and was 
either a Cilician or Syracusan, but came at an early age to 
Athens. He is considered as the founder of the New Comedy, 
wliich was soon afterwards brought to perfection by his younger 
contemporary Menander. Philemon was a prolific author, and is 
said to have written 97 plays, of which only a few fragments 
remain. Menander was an Athenian, and was born in b.c. 342. 
Diopithes, his father, commanded the Athenian forces on the 
Hellespont, and was the person defended by Demosthenes in one 
of his extant speeches.* Menander was handsome in person, 
and of a serene and easy temper, but luxurious and effeminate 
in his habits. Demetrius Phalerus was his friend and patron. 
He was drowned at the age of 52, whilst swimming in the har- 
bour of Piraeus. He wrote upwards of 100 comedies ; yet during 
his lifetime his dramatic career was not so successful as his 
subsequent fame would seem to promise, and he gained the prize 
only eight times. The broader humour of his riA^al Philemon 
seems to have told with more effect on the popular ear. But 
the unanimous praise of posterity made ample compensation for 
this injurious neglect, and awakens our regret for the loss of one 
of the most elegant writers of antiquity. The number of his 
fragments, collected from the writings of various authors, show 
how extensively he was read ; but unfortunately none are of 
sufficient length to convey to us an adequate idea of his style 
and genius. The comedies, indeed, of Plautus and Terence may 
give us a general notion of the New Comedy of the Greeks, from 

* Tlegt Tu)v h> XsQcrovijao). 



Chap. XLVIIL THE KEW COMEDY. 689 

which they were confessedly drawn ; but there is good reason to 
suppose that the works even of the latter E.oman writer fell far 
short of the wit and elegance of Menander. , 

§ 2. The latter days of literary Athens were chiefly distin- 
guished by the genius of her orators and philosophers. Both 
rhetoric and philosophy were at first cultivated exclusively by 
the sophists, and, till the time of Socrates, remained almost 
entirely in their hands. Socrates, by directing the attention of 
philosophers to the more useful questions of morals, efiected a 
separation between rhetoric and philosophy. After his time we 
find various schools of moral philosophy springing up, as the 
Academicians, Peripatetics, Stoics, kc, whilst the more technical 
part of the art of speaking became a distinct profession. 

The extreme democratical nature of the Athenian institutions, 
especially after the refoi-ms of Pericles, rendered it indispensable 
for a public man to possess some oratorical skill. All public 
business, both political and judicial, was transacted by the citi- 
zens themselves in their courts and public assemblies. The 
assembly of the people decided all questions not only of domestic 
policy, but even those which concerned their foreign relations. 
They not only made but administered the laws ; and even their 
courts of justice must be regarded as a sort of public assem- 
blies, from the number of dicasts who composed them. The 
vast majority of those who met either in the public assemblies 
or in the courts of justice were men of no political or legal 
training. The Athenian citizen was a statesman and a judge by 
prerogative of birth. Although he took an oath to decide ac- 
cording to the laws, he was far from considering himself bound 
to make them his study, or to decide according to their letter. 
The frequency and earnestness with which the orators remind 
the dicasts of their oath betray their apprehension of its viola- 
tion. It contained, indeed, a very convenient clause for tender 
consciences, as it only bound the dicast to decide according to 
the best of his judgment ; and the use which might be made 
of this loophole by a clever advocate is pointed out by Aris- 
totle.* Hence it is surprising how little influence the written 
code had on the decision of a case. The orators usually drew 
their topics from extraneous circumstances, or from the general 
character of their adversary, and endeavoured to prejudice the 
minds of their audience by personal reflections wholly foreign 
to the matter in hand, and which modern courts woidd net 
tolerate for a moment. In addition to all this, the natural tem- 
perament of the Athenians rendered them highly susceptible 

« Rhetoric, 1, 15. 5. 



690 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLVIIL 

of the charms of eloquence. They enjoyed the intellectual gla- 
diatorship of two rival orators, and even their mutual reproaches 
and abuse. 

§ 3. It is remarkable, however, that, though the soil of Attica 
was thus naturally adapted to the cultivation of eloquence, the 
first regular professors of it, as an art, were foreigners. Prota- 
goras of Abdera, who visited Athens in the earlier part of the 
fifth century before Christ, was the first who gave lessons in 
rhetoric for money. He was followed by Prodicus of Ceos, and 
Gorgias of Leontini ; the latter of whom especially was very 
celebrated as a teacher of rhetoric. The art, however, had been 
established in Sicily before the time of Gorgias by Corax and his 
pupil Tisias. Corax has been regarded as the founder of tech- 
nical oratory, and was at all events the first who wrote a treatise 
on the subject. The appearance of Gorgias at Athens, whither 
he went as ambassador from Leontini, in 427 B.C., produced 
a great sensation among the Athenians, who retained him in 
their city for the purpose of profiting by his instructions. His 
lectures were attended by a vast concourse of persons, and at- 
tracted many from the schools of the philosophers. His merit 
must have been very great to have drawn so much attention in 
the best times of Athens ; and we are told by Cicero that he alone 
of all the sophists was honoured with a golden, and not merely 
a gilt, statue at Delphi. 

^ 4. The Athenians had established a native school of elo- 
quence a little before the appearance of Gorgias among them. 
The earliest of their professed orators was Antiphon (born B.C. 
480), who stands at the head of the ten contained in the 
Alexandrian canon. Gorgias seems to have been known at 
Athens by his works before he appeared there in person ; and 
one of the chief objects of Antiphon was to establish a more 
solid style in place of his dazzling and sophistical rhetoric. 
Thucydides was among the pupils in the school which he opened, 
and is said to have owed much to his master. Antiphon was 
put to death in 41 1 B.C. for the part which he took in establishing 
the oligarchy of the Four Hundred. Fifteen of his orations have 
come down to us. 

The remaining nine^Attic orators contained in the Alexandrian 
canon were Andocides, Lysias, Isocrates, Isseus, iEschines, Ly- 
curgus, Demosthenes, Hyperides, and Dinarchus. Andocides, 
who has been already mentioned as concerned with Alcibiades in 
the afiair of the Hermse,=^ was born at Athens in B.C. 4G7, and died 
probably about 391. We have at least three genume orations of 

* See p. 334. 



Chap. XLVIII. ATHENIAN ORATORY. 69] 

his, which, however, are not distinguished by any particular 
merit. 

Lysias, also born at Athens in 458, was much superior to 
him as an orator, but being a metic, or resident alien, he was 
not allowed to speak in the assemblies or courts of justice, 
and therefore wrote orations for others to deliver. Of these 35 
are extant, but some are incomplete, and others probably spu- 
rious. His style may be regarded as a model of the Attic idiom, 
and his orations are characterized by indescribable gracefulness, 
combined with energy and power. 

Isocrates was born in 436. After receiving the instructions of 
some of the most celebrated sophists of the day, he became him- 
self a speech writer and professor of rhetoric ; his weakly consti- 
tution and natural timidity preventing him from taking a part 
himself in public life. His style is xnoTe periodic than that of the 
other Attic orators, and betrays that it was meant to be read 
rather than spoken. Although pure and elegant it is wanting 
in simplicity and vigour, and becomes occasionally monotonous, 
through the recurrence of the same turns. Isocrates made away 
with himself in 338, after the fatal battle of Chseronea, in despair, 
it is said, of his country's fate. Twenty-one of his speeches 
have come down to us. He took great pains with his compo- 
sitions, and is reported to have spent ten, or, according to others, 
fifteen years over his Paneg}Tic oration. 

Isaeus, according to some, was a native of Chalcis ; others call 
him an Athenian ; and it is certain, at all events, that he came 
at a very early age to Athens. His exact date is not known, but 
he flourished between the end of the Peloponnesian war and the 
accession of Philip of Macedon. He opened a school of rhetoric 
at Athens, and is said to have numbered Demosthenes among 
his pupils. The orations of Isaeus were exclusively judicial, and 
the whole of the eleven which have come down to us turn on 
the subject of inheritances. 

OfTEschines, the antagonist of Demosthenes, we have already 
had occasion to speak. He was born in the year 389, and was 
a native of Attica, but of low, if not servile, origin, and of a 
mother of more than equivocal reputation. This, however, is 
the account of Demosthenes ; and Jilschines himself tells a dif- 
ferent story. He was successively an assistant in his father's 
school, a gymnastic teacher, a scribe, and an actor ; ibr whi(;li 
last profession a strong and sonorous voice pecuHarly (juahtlod 
him. He afterwards entered the army, where lie achieved uiore 
success ; for besides a vigorous athletic form, he was endowed 
with considerable courage. The reputation which he gained iu the 
battle of Tamynae encouraged him to come forward as a public 



692 . HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLVIII. 

speaker. As a politician he was at first a violent anti-Mace- 
donian ; but after his embassy along with Demosthenes and 
others to Philip's court, he was the constant advocate of peace. 
Demosthenes and ^schines now became the leading speakers on 
their respective sides, and the heat of political animosity soon 
degenerated into personal hatred. In 343, Demosthenes charged 
iEschines with having received bribes from Philip during a 
second embassy ; and the speech, or rather pamphlet^ — for it 
was not spoken — in which he brought forward this accusation, 
was answered in another by ^schines. The result of this 
charge is unknown, but it seems to have detracted from the 
popularity of ^schines. We have already adverted to his impeach- 
ment of Ctesiphon, and the celebrated reply of Demosthenes in 
his speech 6/e Co7'o?ia.i After the banishment of ^schines on this 
occasion (b.c. 330), he spent several years in lona and Caria, 
where he employed himself in teaching rhetoric. After the 
death of Alexander he retired to Rhodes, and established a 
school of eloquence, which afterwards became very celebrated, 
and which held a middle place between Attic simplicity on the 
one hand, and the ornate Asiatic style on the other. He died in 
Samos in 314. As an orator he was second only to Demosthenes. 
He never published more than three of his speeches, which have 
come down to us ; namely that against Timarchus, that on the 
Embassy, and the one against Ctesiphon. 

Of the life of his great rival, Demosthenes, we have already 
given some account, and need therefore only speak here of 
his literary merits. The verdict of his contemporaries, ratified 
by posterity, has pronounced Demosthenes the greatest orator 
that ever lived. The principal element of his success must be 
traced in his purity of purpose, which gave to his arguments all 
the force of conscientious conviction ; and which, when aided 
by a powerful logic, perspicuous arrangement, and the most un- 
daunted courage in tearing the mask lirom the pretensions of his 
adversaries, rendered his advocacy almost irresistible. The eflect 
of his speeches was still further heightened by a wonderful and 
almost magic force of diction. It cannot, however, be supposed 
that his orations were delivered in exactly that perfect Ibrm in 
which we now possess them. There can be no doubt that they 
were carefully revised for publication ; but on the other hand, 
any trifling defects in form and composition must have been 
more than compensated by the grace and vivacity of oral de- 
livery. This is attested by the well known anecdote of -^schines, 
when he read at Rhodes his speech against Ctesiphon. His 

* Hegl TzagaiTQeaijeiac. ~ f See pp. 553, 554. 



Chap. XLYIII. DEMOSTHENES. 693 

audience having expressed their surprise that he should have 
been defeated alter such an oration : " You would cease to won- 
der," he remarked, " if you had heard Demosthenes." Sixty-one 
of the orations of Demosthenes have come down to us ; though 
of these some are spurious, or at all events doubtful. The most 
celebrated of his political orations are the Philippics, the Olyn- 
thiacs, and the oration on the Peace ; among the private ones, 
the famous speech on the Crown. 

The remaining three Attic orators, viz., Lycurgus, Hyperides, 
and Dinarchus, were contemporaries of Demosthenes. Lycurgus 
and Hyperides both belonged to the anti-Macedonian party, and 
were warm supporters of the policy of Demosthenes. Of Ly- 
curgus only one oration is extant ; and of Hyperides only two, 
which have been recently discovered in a tomb in Egypt. Di- 
narchus, who is the least important of the Attic orators, survived 
Demosthenes, and was a friend of Demetrius Phalereus. He was 
an opponent of Demosthenes, against whom he delivered one of 
his three extant orations in relation to the affair of Harpalus.* 

§ 0. Whilst Attic oratory was thus attaining perfection, philo- 
sophy was making equal progress in the new direction marked 
out for it by Socrates. Of all the disciples of that original and 
truly great philosopher, Plato was by far the most distinguished. 
Plato was born at Athens in 429 b.c, the year in which Pericles 
died. By Ariston, his father, he was said to be descended from 
Codrus, the last of the Athenian kings ; whilst the family of his 
mother traced a relationship with Solon. His own name, which 
was originally Aristocles, is said to have been changed to Plato 
on account of the breadth of his shoulders. f He was instructed 
in music, grammar, and gymnastics, by the most celebrated 
masters of the time. His first literary attempts were in epic, 
lyric, and dithyrambic poetiy ; but his attention was soon turned 
to philosophy by the teaching of Socrates, whose lectures he 
began to frequent at about the age of twenty. From that time 
till the death of Socrates he appears to have lived in the closest 
intimacy with that philosopher. After that event Plato with- 
drew to Megara, and subsequently undertook some extensive 
travels, in the course of which he visited Gyrene, Egypt, Sicily, 
and Magna Gra^cia. His intercourse with the elder Dionysius 
at Syracuse has been already related. $ His absence from 
Athens lasted about twelve years ; on his return, being then 
upwards of forty, he began to teach in the gymnasium of the 
Academy, and also in his garden at Colonus. His instructions 
were gratuitous, and his method, like that of his master, 

* Seo pp. 554, 555. \ frAarvf. X See p. 489. 



594 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLVHL 

Socrates, seems to have been by interrogation and dialogue. His 
doctrines, however, were too recondite for the popular ear, and 
his lectures were not very numerously attended. But he had 
a narrower circle of devoted admirers and disciples, consisting of 
about twenty-eight persons, who met in his private house ; over 
the vestibule of which was inscribed — " Let no one enter who is 
ignorant of geometr)\" The most distinguished of this little 
band of auditors were Speusippus, his nephew and successor, and 
Aristotle. But even among the wider circle of his hearers, who 
did not properly form part of his school, were some of the most 
distinguished men of the age, as Chabrias, Iphicrates, Tiraothe- 
us, Phocion, and others. Whether Demosthenes attended his 
lectures is doubtful. In these pursuits the remainder of his 
long hfe was spent, reheved, however, by two voyages to Sicily.* 
He died in 347, at the age of 81 or 82, and bequeathed his gar- 
den to his school. 

§ 6. Plato must be regarded principally as a moral and political 
philosopher, and as a dialectician : as a physical inquirer he did 
not shine, and the Timoous is his only work in that branch of 
philosophy. His dialectic method was a development of that of 
Socrates ; and though he did not, like Aristotle, produce any 
formal treatise on the subject, it is exemplified in most of his 
works, but especially in the Theaetetus, Sophistes, Parmenides, 
and one or two others of the same class. The fundamental prin- 
ciple of Plato's philosophy is the behef in an eternal and self- 
existent cause, the origin of all things. From this divine being 
emanate not only the souls of men, which are also immortal, but 
that of the universe itself, which is supposed to be animated by 
a divine spirit. The material objects of our sight and other 
senses are mere fleeting emanations of the divine idea ; it is 
only this idea itself that is really existent ;t the objects of 
sensuous perceptionj are mere appearances, taking their forms 
by participation^ in the idea. Hence it follows that in Plato's 
view all knowledge is innate, and acquired by the soul before 
birth, when it was able to contemplate real existences, and all 
our ideas in this world are mere reminiscences of their true and 
eternal patterns. These principles, when applied to the investi- 
gation of language, necessarily made Plato a realist ; ^at is, he 
held that an abstract name, expressing a genus — as, for instance, 
mankind, comprehending all individual men — tree, comprehend- 
ing every species of tree, and so forth — were not mere signs to 
express our modes of thinking, but denoted real existences, in 
fa«t the only true existences, as being the expressions of the 

* See pp. 491, 492. f to ovtuc ov. X tu yiyvofjLEva. ^ /lide^ig. 



Chap. XLVIII. PLATO. 595 

eternally pre-existent idea. In this matter he seems to have de- 
parted from Socrates; and, indeed, the reader who should seek 
the philosophy of Socrates in the writings of Plato would often 
be led very far astray. Socrates believed in a divine cause, but 
the doctrine of ideas and other figments with which Plato sur- 
rounded it seem to have been his own. 

As a moral and political philosopher the views of Plato were 
sublime and elevated, but commonly too much tinged with his 
poetical and somewhat visionary cast of mind to be of much 
practical utility. They are speculations which may awake our 
admiration as we read them, but which for the most part it 
would be difficult or impossible to put in practice. His behef 
in the immortality of the soul naturally led him to establish a 
lofty standard of moral excellence, and like his great teacher, he 
constantly inculcates temperance, justice, and purity of hfe. His 
political views are developed in the Republic and the Laws. The 
Ibrmsr of these works presents us with a sort of Utopia, such as 
never has existed, and never could exist. The main feature 
of his system is the subordination, or rather the entire sacri- 
fice of the individual to the state. The citizens are divided 
into three classes, in fanciful analogy with the faculties of the 
soul. Thus the general body, or working class, represents the 
pnssions and appetites ; the tviLl is typified by the military order, 
which is to control the general mass, but which is in turn to be 
thoroughly subservient to the government, whose functions cor- 
respond with those of the intellect, or rational faculty. With 
such views Plato was naturally inimical to the unrestricted demo- 
cracy of Athens, and inclined to give a preference to the Spartan 
constitution. In the Laws, however, he somewhat relaxed the 
theory laid down in the llepuhlic, and sought to render it of more 
practical operation. Thus he abandons in that work the strict 
separation of classes, sets some limits to the power of the govern- 
ment, and attempts to reconcile freedom and absolutism by 
mingling monarchy with democracy. 

k 7. Plato, as we have said, visited Megara after the death -^f 
Socrates, where other pupils of that philosopher had also taken 
refuge. Among these the most famous was Euclides, who must 
not be confounded with the great mathematician of Alexandria. 
Euclides founded the sect called from his residence the Mo 
garic, and which from the attention they paid to dialectics were 
also entitled Dialectici and Eristici (or the litigious). Two other 
olFshoots of the Socratic school were the Cyrcnaics and Cynics. 
The former of these sects were founded by Aristippus of CyrOnc 
in Africa, the latter by Antisthenes. Aristippus, though a hearer 
of Socrates, wandered far from the precepts of his great mu»iter. 



696 HISTORY OF GREECR Chap. XLYm. 

He was fond of luxurious living and sensual gi-atiiications, whicli 
he held to be shameful only when they obtained so uncontrolled 
an empire over a man as to render him their entire slave. His 
chief maxim was to discover the art of extracting pleasure from 
all the circumstances of life, and to make prosperity and ad- 
versity alike subservient to that end. Such tenets made him a 
favourite with the clever and cultivated man of the world, and 
we find him more than once approvingly alluded to by Horace.* 
Antisthenes was an Athenian, and also a pupil of Socrates. He 
taught in the Cynosarges, a gymnasium at Athens designed for 
Athenian boys bom of foreign mothers, which is said to have been 
his own case. It was frrom this gymnasium that the sect he 
founded was called the Cynic, though some derive the name from 
their dog-like habits, which led them to neglect all the decent 
usages of society. It was one of the least important of the 
philosophical schools. One of its most remarkable members was 
Diogenes of Sinope, whose interview with Alexander the Great 
at Corinth we have had occasion to relate. f No writings of any 
of the three last-mentioned sects have survived. 

§ 8. Such were the most celebrated miuor schools which sprang 
from the teaching of Socrates. The four principal schools were 
the Academicians, who owed their origin to Plato ; the Peri- 
patetics, founded by his pupil Aristotle ; the JEijicivreans, so named 
from their master Epicurus ; and the Stoics, founded by Zeno. 

Speusippus, Plato's nephew, became the head of the Academy 
after his uncle's death. Under him and his immediate suc- 
cessors, as Xenocrates, Polemon, Crates, and Crantor, the doc- 
trines of Plato were taught with little alteration, and these 
professors formed what is called the old Academy. The Middle 
Academy begins with Arcesilaus, who flourished towards the 
close of the 3rd century e.g., and who succeeded to the chair on 
the death of Crantor. Under him the doctrines of the Academy 
underwent some modification. He appears to have directed his 
inquiries almost exclusively to an investigation of the grounds of 
knowledge, and to have approached in some degree the Pyrrhon- 
ists or Sceptics. The Platonic doctrines sufiered a further 
change in the hands of Carneades, the founder of the new Aca- 

, ''' "Nunc in Aristippi furtim prrecepta relabor 

' Et mihi res nou me rebus subjungere conor." 

Hon. Ep. i. 1. 18. 
And again: — 



Omnis Aristippum decuit color et status et res." 

lb. 17, 2a 



f See p. 627. 



Chap. XLVIII. ACADEMICIAN'S. PERIPATETICS. 597 

demy. Carneades flourished towards the middle of the 2nd 
century B.C. Under him, doubt and hesitation began still more 
strongly to characterise the teaching of the Platonists. His 
distinguished tenet was an entire suspension of assent, on the 
ground that truth has always a certain, degree of error combined 
with it ; and so far did he carry this principle, that even Clito- 
machus, his most intimate pupil, could never discover his mas- 
tar's real tenets on any subject. 

^ 9. But of all the Grecian sects, that of the Peripatetics, 
founded by Aristotle, had the greatest influence so far as the 
researches of the intellect are concerned ; and this not merely 
in antiquity, but even perhaps to a still greater extent in modern 
times, and especially during what are called the middle ages. 
Aristotle was born in 364 B.C., at Stagira, a sea-port town of 
Chalcidice, whence he is frequently called tlte Stagirite. His 
father Nicomachus was physician to Amyntas II., king of Mace- 
donia. At the age of 17, Aristotle, who had then lost both father 
and mother, repaired to Athens. Here he received the instructions 
of Heraclides Ponticus, and other Socratics ; and when, about 
three years after his arrival at Athens, Plato returned to that 
city, Aristotle immediately attended his lectures. Plato consi- 
dered him his best scholar, and called liim " the intellect of his 
school." Aristotle spent twenty years at Athens, during the 
last ten of which he established a school of his own ; but during 
the whole period he appears to have kept up his connexion with 
the Macedonian court. On the death of Plato in 347, Aristotle 
quitted Athens, and repaired to Atarneus, in Mysia, where he 
resided two or three years with Herraias, a former pupil, who 
had made himself dynast of that city and of Assos, and whose 
adopted daughter he married. Atarneus being threatened by 
the Persians, into whose hands Hermias had fallen, Aristotle 
escaped with his wife to Mytilcne, and in 342 accepted the invi- 
tation of Philip of Macedon to undertake the instruction of his 
son Alexander. Philip treated the philosopher with the greatest 
respect, and at his request caused the city of Stagira to be re- 
built, which had been destroyed in the Olynthian war. It was 
here, in a g}'mnasium called the Nymphaium, that Aristotle 
imparted his instructions to Alexander, as well as to several 
other noble youths. In 335, after Alexander had ascended the 
throne, Aristotle quitted Macedonia, to which he never re- 
turned. He again took up his abode at Athens, where liis 
friend Xenocrates was now at the head of the Academy. To 
Aristotle himself the Athenians assigned the gymnasium called 
the Lyceum ; and from his habit of delivering his lectures whilst 
walking up and down in the sliady walks of this place, his school 



698 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLVIII 

-was called the peripatetic* In the morning he lectured only to 
a select class of pupils, called esoteric,^ and these lectures were 
called acroamatic, t in contradistinction to being written and 
puhlished. His afternoon lectures were delivered to a wider 
circle, and were therefore called exoteric.^ His method appears 
to have been that of a regular lecture, and not the Socratic one 
of question and answer. It was during the thirteen years in 
which he presided over the Lyceum that he composed the 
greater part of his W'Orks, and prosecuted his researches in na- 
tural history, in which he was most hberally assisted by the mu- 
nificence of Alexander. The latter portion of Aristotle's life was 
unfortunate. He appears to have lost from some unknown cause 
the friendship of Alexander ; and, after the death of that monarch, 
the disturbances which ensued in Greece proved unfavourable to 
his peace and security. Being threatened wdth a prosecution 
for impiety, he escaped from Athens and retired to Chalcis ; but 
he w^as condemned to death in his absence, and deprived of all 
the rights and honours which he previously enjoyed. He died at 
Chalcis in 322, in the 63rd year of his age. In person Aristotle 
was short and slender, with small eyes, and something of a lisp. 
His manners were characterised by briskness and vivacity, and he 
paid considerable attention to liis dress and outward appearance. 
. Of all the philosophical systems of antiquity, that of Aristotle 
was best adapted to the practical wants of mankind. It was 
founded on a close and accurate observation of human nature 
and of the external w^orld ; but whilst it sought the practical 
and useful, it did not neglect the beautiful and noble. His works 
consisted of treatises on natural, moral, and political philosophy, 
history, rhetoric, criticism, &c. ; indeed there is scarcely a branch 
of knowledge which his vast and comprehensive genius did not 
embrace. Any attempt to give an account of these w orks would 
far exceed the hmits of the present work. His greatest claim 
to our admiration is as a logician. He perfected and brought 
into form those elements of the dialectic art which had been 
struck out by Socrates and Plato, and wrought them by Iris 
additions into so complete a system, that he may be regarded as 
at once the founder and perfecter of logic as an art, which even 
down to our own days has been but very little improved. 

HO. The school of the Stoics was founded by Zeno, a native of 
Citium in the island of Cyprus. The exact date of Zeno's birth 
is uncertain ; but he seems to have gone to Athens about the 

* From TreQirrarelv, to walk about. Others, however, perhaps more 
correctly, derive it from the place itself being called 6 TreQiiraroc, or th* 
promenade. -j- ioureQiKo^, inner, intimate. 

\ uKQoafiaTLKo^, comvmnicatcd orally. § iicjTcgiKug, external. 



CuAP. XLVin. STOICS. EPICUREANS. 699 

beginning of the 3rd century (b.c. 299) ; a visit which, according 
to some accounts, was owing to his having been shipwrecked in 
the neighbourhood of Piraeus. At Athens he first attached him- 
self to the Cynics, then to the Megarics, and lastly to the Acade- 
micians ; but after a long course of study he opened a school of 
his own in the Pcecile Stoa, or painted porch, whence the name 
of his sect. The speculative doctrines of Zeno were not marked 
by much originality. He inculcated temperance and self-denial, 
and his practice was in accordance with his precepts. The want 
of reach in the Stoic tenets, which did not demand so much 
refined and abstract thought as those of many other sects, as 
well as the outward gravity and decorum which they inculcated, 
recommended their school to a large portion of mankind, espe- 
cially among the Romans, by whom that sect and the Epicurean 
were the two most universally adopted. Two of the most illus- 
trious writers on the Stoic philosophy, whose works are extant, 
are Epictetus and the Emperor M. Aurelius. 

Epicurus was born at Samos in 342, of poor but respectable 
Athenian parents. He followed at first the profession of a 
schoolmaster, and after spending some time in travelling, settled 
at Athens at about the age of 35. Here he purchased a garden, 
apparently in the heart of the city, where he established his phi- 
losophical school. He seems to have been the only head of a 
sect who had not previously gone through a regular course of 
study, and prided himself on being self-taught. In physics he 
adopted the atomic theory of the Pythagoreans and Ionics ; in 
morals that of the Cyrenaic school, that pleasure is the highest 
good ; a tenet, however, which he explained and dignified by 
showing that it was mental pleasure that he intended. His works 
have perished, but the main substance, both of his physical and 
religious doctrines, may be derived from Lucretius, whose poem 
De Kerum Natura is an exposition of his principal tenets. The 
ideas of atheism and sensual degradation with which the name 
of Epicurus has been so frequently coupled are founded on igno- 
rance of his real teaching. But as he denied the immortahty of 
the soul, and the interference of the gods in human afikirs, — 
though he held their existence, — his tenets were very liable to 
be abused by those who had not sufficient elevation of mind to 
love virtue ibr its own sake. 

^11. We have thus traced the progress of Grecian literature 
from its earliest dawn till it was brought to perfection by the 
master-minds of Athens. Alter the death of Alexander, Grecian 
literature did not become extinct : there was a vitality about it 
that insured its subsistence for several ages, though not in it.= 



600 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLVIIL 

former splendour. Alexandria, now the emporium of commerce, 
became also the chief seat of learning, where it was fostered by 
the munificence and favour of the first Ptolemies. It was here 
that literature became a profession, supported by the foundation 
of noble and extensive libraries, and cultivated by a race of 
grammarians and critics. These men were of great assistance 
to literature by the critical care wliich they bestowed on editions 
of the best authors, and by the invention of many aids to faci- 
litate the labours of the student, as better systems of grammar, 
punctuation, &c. One of the most eminent of them was Aris- 
tophanes of Byzantium, chief librarian at Alexandria in the reigns 
of the second and third Ptolemies, and who founded there a school 
of grammar and criticism. It was he and his pupil Aristarchus 
who were chiefly concerned in forming the canon of the Greek 
classical writers ; and in their selection of authors they displayed 
for the most part a correct taste and sound judgment. To Aris- 
tophanes is ascribed the invention of the Greek accents. Aris- 
tarchus is chiefly renowned as the editor of the Homeric poems 
in the form in wliich we now possess therai. From their school 
proceeded many celebrated grammarians and lexicographers. It 
must not, however, be supposed that this was the sole species of 
literature which flourished at Alexandria. Theocritus, the most 
charming pastoral poet of antiquity — of which species of compo- 
sition he was the inventor — though a native of S}Tacuse, lived 
for some time at Alexandria, where he enjoyed the patronage of 
Ptolemy II. His contemporaries and imitators, Bion of Smyrna, 
and Moschus of Syracuse, also wrote with much grace and beauty. 
This school of poetry was afterwards cultivated with success by 
Virgil, Tibullus, and others among the Romans. At Alexandria 
also flourished Callimachus, the author of many hymns, elegies, 
and other poems, which were much admired at Rome, and were 
translated and imitated by Catullus and Propertius. Amongst 
numerous other poets we can only mention Apollonius Rhodius, 
the author of an epic poem on the exploits of the Argonauts ; 
and Aratus, who composed two poems on astronomy and na- 
tural phenomena. Among the Alexandrine writers on pure 
science, the mathematician Euclid (Euclides) stands conspicuous, 
whose elements of geometry still fomi the text-book of our 
schools. He flourished during the time of the first Ptolemy 
(B.C. 323—283). 

M2. The list of Greek writers doA^n to the extinction of the 
Greek empire might be indefinitely enlarged ; but our limits 
would only permit us to present the reader with a barren list of 
names ; and we therefore content ourselves with selecting for 
notice a few of the most eminent. 



CHAP. XL VIII. LATER GREEK WRITERS. 601 

The historian Polybius (b.c. 204 — 122) has aiready been men- 
tioned as taking a part in the final struggle of his country with 
Rome. His History, though the greater part of it has unfortu- 
nately perished, is one of the most valuable remains of antiquity. 
His long residence among the Romans afforded him an oppor- 
tunity of studying their annals ; and from the period of the 
second Punic war he has been very closely followed by Livy, 

Another Greek w'riter of Roman history was Dionysius of Ha- 
licamassus, who flourished in the latter half of the first century 
B.C. He spent a considerable part of liis life at Rome, and de- 
voted himself to the study of the histor}^ and antiquities of that 
city, on wliich he wrote a book, a considerable part of which is 
still extant. He was, however, a better critic than historian, 
and we still possess several of his treatises in that department 
of literature. 

Diodorus, called from his country Siculus, or the Sicihan, also 
Hved at Rome in the time of Juhus and Augustus Caesar. He 
was the author of a universal history in 40 books, called The 
Historical Library, of which 15 books are still extant. 

Arrian, of Nicomedia in Bithynia, who lived in the first century 
of our era, wrote an account of Alexander's expedition, as well 
as several works on philosophical and other subjects. 

Appian of Alexandria lived in the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, 
and Antoninus Pius, and was the author of a Roman history. 

One of the best and most valuable Greek writers of this time 
was Plutarch, the biographer and philosopher. He was a native 
of Cha3ronea in Boeotia. The exact date of his birth is unknown, 
but it must have been about the middle of the first century of 
our era. He passed a considerable time in Rome and Italy ; but 
it was late in his life before he applied himself to the study of 
Roman literature, and lie appears never to have completely mas- 
tered the language. The later years of his life seem to have been 
spent at Cha^ronea, where he discharged several magisterial 
oliices, and filled a priesthood. His Lives, if not the most au- 
thoritative, are certainly one of the most entertaining works ever 
written. They have perhaps been more frequently translated 
than any other book, and have been popular in every age and 
nation. Besides his Lives, Plutarch was the author of a great 
number of treatises on moral and other subjects. 

About the same time flourished Josephus, the Jewish historian, 
Avho was born at Jerusalem a.d. 37. Though a Hebrew, the 
Greek style of Josephus is remarkably pure. 

Strabo, the celebrated geographer, was a native of Amasia in 
Pontus, and lived in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. His 
valuable work on geography, which also contains many important 

2D 



602 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XLVIII 

historical facts, still exists pretty nearly entire, though the text 
is often corrupt. 

Pausanias, author of the Descrij^tion of Greece, is supposed to 
have been a native of Lydia, and flourished in the second cen- 
tury of our asra. His account of Greece is of considerable value, 
for many of the great works of Grecian art were extant when he 
travelled through the countr}'', and he appears to have described 
them with fidelity as well as minuteness, 

Dion Cassius, the historian, was born at Nicsea in Bithynia, 
A.D. 155. His history of Rome in 80 books extended from the 
earhest times to a.d. 229. It has come down to us in a very im- 
perfect state, but is still a valuable authority for the history of 
the latter republic and a considerable portion of the empire. 

Lucian, one of the wdttiest and most entertainmg of ancient 
writers, and who, from his sparkling style, his turn of mind, and 
his disregard for authority, may be compared to Swift or Voltaire, 
was born at Samosata, probably about a.d. 120. Of his numer- 
ous works, the best known are his Dialogues of the Dead, which 
have been universally esteemed, not only for their wit, but also 
for their Attic grace of diction. 

"V\'c caimot close this imperfect list of Greek profane writers 
without mentioning the name of Galen, the celebrated physician. 
Galen was born at Pergamus in Mysia, a.d. 130. He completed 
his education at Smyrna, Corinth, and Alexandria, after which he 
undertook some extensive travels. He seems to have visited Rome 
at least twice, and attended on the emperors M. Aurelius and L. 
Yerus. The writings of Galen formed an epoch in medical science, 
and after his time all the previous medical sects seem to have 
become merged in his followers and imitators. 

k 13, But the Greek language was not merely destined to be 
the vehicle of those civilisiug influences which flow from the 
imagination of the sublimest poets and the reasonings of the 
most profound philosophers. The still more glorious mission 
was reserved for it, of conveying to mankind through the Gospel 
that certain prospect of a life to come, which even the wisest of 
the Grecian sages had beheld only as in a glass, darkly. Three 
at least of the lour Gospels were written in the Greek tongue, as 
well as the greater portion of those scriptures which compose 
the New Testament. We have already alluded to the facilities 
which the conquests of Alexander afibrded to the spreading of 
the Gospel ; nor were there wanting in subsequent ages men 
who assisted its extension by their writings. Even the works 
of an author hke Lucian were subservient to this end, by casting 
ridicule on the gods of paganism, and thus j)reparing the minds 
of men for the reception of a purer doctrine. Among the Greek 



Chap. XLVIIL CONCLUSIO]!^. 603 

Fathers of the Church were many men of distinguished talent ; 
as Justin Martyr, one of the earhest of the Christian writers, 
Clemens of Alexandria, Origen, Gregory of Nazianzus, and many 
others ; especially Joannes, surnamed Chrysostomus, or tJie 
goldea-moutJbcd, from the power of his eloquence. 

The Greek language and literature continued to subsist till 
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. Even that 
shock did not entirely destroy their vitahty. The many learned 
Greeks who then took refuge in Italy were the means of reviving 
the study of their tongue, then almost entirely neglected, in the 
AYest, and especially at Florence, under the auspices of Cosmo 
de' Medici, who appointed Johannes Argyropulus, one of these 
refugees, preceptor to his son and nephew. Maximus Planudes, 
Manuel Moschopulus, Emanuel Chr}^soloras, Theodore Gaza, and 
others, assisted in this work ; and through these men and their 
successors, and particularly through the labours of Aldus Manu- 
tius, the Venetian printer, who flourished in the same century, 
the chief masterpieces of Grecian literature have been haiided 
down and made intelligible to us. 




Bust of the poet Menander. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



Book I.— MYTHICAL AGE, 



1184. Capture of Troy. 

1124. Emigration of the BcBOtians from Thessaly into Bceotia. 
1104. Return of the Heraclidee. Conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians. 
1050. Cumas founded. 
850. Probable age of Homer. 

Book II.— GROWTH OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 

776. Commencement of the Olympiads. Age of Lj'curgus. 

747. Phidon, tyrant of Argos, celebrates the 8th Olympic games. 

743. Beginning of the first Messenian war. 

734. Syracuse founded by Arcliias of Corinth. 

723. End of the first Messenian War. 

720. Sybaris, in Italy, founded by the Achaeans. 

710. Croton, in Italy, founded by the AchcEans. 

708. Tarentum founded by the Lacedaemonian Parthenii, under Phalanthus. 

700. Archilochus of Paros, the iambic poet, nourished. 

693. Simonides of Amorgos, the lyric poet, flourished. 

690. Foundation of Gela in Sicily. 

685. The beginning of the second Messenian war. 

683. First annual Archon at Athens. Tyrtieus, the Athenian poet, came to Sparta 

after the first success of the Messenians, and by his martial songs roused the 

fainting courage of the Lacedaemonians. 
670. Alcman, a native of Sardis in Lydia, and the chief lyric poet of Sparta, flourished. 
668. End of the second Messenian war. 
^64. A sea-fight between the Corinthians and Corcyraeans, the most ancient sea-fight 

recorded. Zaleucus, the lawgiver in Locri Epizephyrii, flourished. 
657. Byzantium founded by the Megarians. 

655. The Bacchiadte expelled from Corinth. Cypselus begins to reign. 
644. Pantaleon, king of Pisa, celebrates the Olympic games. 
630. Cyrene in Libya founded by Battus of Thera. 
625. Perlander succeeds Cypselus at Corinth. Arion flourished in the reign of 

Perlander. 
624. Legislation of Dracon at Athens, 
612. Attempt of Cylon to make himself master of Athens. 
610. Sappho, Alcaeus, and Steslchorus flourished. 
600. Massilia in Gaul founded by the Phocaeans. 
596. Epimenldes, the Cretan, came to Athens. 

595, Commencement of the Clrrhaean or Sacred War, which lasted 10 years. 
594. Legislation of Solon, who was Athenian archon- In this year. 
391. Clrrha taken by the Amphlctyons. 

389. Commencement of the goverinnent of Pittacus at Mytllene. 
386. The conquest of the Clrrhfeans completed, and the Pythian games celebrated 

The Seven Wise Men flourished. 
585. Death of Perlander. 
382. Agrlgentum founded. 
581. The dynasty of the Cypselldae ended. 
579. Pittacus resigns the government of Mytilene. 

572. The war between Pisa and Elis ended by the subjection of the Pisaeans. 
560. Plsastratus usurps the government of Athens. Ibycus of Rhegium, the lyric 

poet, flourished. 
559. Cyrus begins to reign in Persia. 
556. Simonides of Ceos, the lyric poet, born. 
548. The temple of Del|)hl burnt. Ana.ximencs flourished, 
546. Sardis taken by Cyrus and the Lydlan monarchy overthrown. Illpponax, the 

iambic poet, flourished. 
544. Pherecydes ol'Syros, the philosopher, and Theognls of Megara, the poet, flourished. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 605 

B.C. 

539. Ibycus of Rhegium, the lyric poet, flourished. 

538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. Xenophanes of Colophon, the philosopher, flourished. 

535. Thespis the Athenian first exhibits tragedy. 

532. Polycrates becomes tyrant of Samos. 

531. The philosopher Pythagoras and the poet Anacreon flourished. 

529. Death of Cyrus, and accession of Carnbyses as king of Persia. 

527. Death of Pisastratus, 33 years after his first usurpation. 

525. Carnbyses conquers JEgypt in the fifth year of his reign. Birth of^schylus. 

523. Chcerilus of Athens exlubits tragedy. 

522. Polycrates of Samos put to death. Birth of Pindar. Death of Cambyses, 
usurpation of the Magi, and accession of Darius lo the Persian throne. He- 
cat£eus,the historian,'' flourished. 

514. Hipparchus, tyrant of Athens, slain by Harmodius and Aristogiton. 

511. Phrynichus, the tragic poet, flourished. 

510. Expulsion of Hippias and his fanhly from Athens. The ten tribes instituted at 
Athens by Clislhenes. 

504. Charon of Lampsacus, the historian, flourished. 

501. Naxos besieged by Aristagoras and the Persians. Upon the failure of this at- 
tempt Aristagoras determines to revolt from the Persians. 

500. Aristagoras solicits aid from Athens and Sparta. Birth of Anaxagoras the 
philosopher. First year of the Ionian revolt. The lonians, assisted by the 
Athenians, burn Sardis. ^schylus, aged 25, first exhibits tragedy. 

499. Second year of the Ionian revolt. 

498. Third year of the Ionian revolt. Aristagoras slain in Thrace. Death of 
Pythagoras. 

497. Fourth year of the Ionian revolt. Ilistiae us comes down to the coast. Birth o.' 
Ilellanicus of Mytilene, the historian. 

496. Fifth year of the Ionian revolt. Birth of Sophocles. 

495. Sixth and last year of the Ionian revolt. The lonians defeated in a naval battle 
near Miletus, and Miletus taken. 

493. The Persians take the islands of Chios, Lesbos, and Tcnedos. Milliadcs flics 
from the Cliersonesus to Athens. 

492. Mardoniu«, the Persian general, invades Europe, and unites Macedonia to the 
Persian empire. 

491 . Darius sends heralds to Greece to demand earth and water. Dcmaratus, king of 
Sparta, deposed by the intrigues of his colleague Cleomenes. lie flies to Darius. 

490. Datis and Artapliernes, the Persian generals, invade Europe. They take Erctria 
in Euboea and land in Attica. They are defeated at Marathon by the Athenians 
under the command of Miltiades. jEschylus fought at the battle of Marathon, 
aet. 35. War between Athens and ^gina. 

489. Miltiades attempts to contiuer Pares, but is repulsed. He is accused, and, un- 
able to pay the fine in which he was condemned, is thrown into prison, where 
he died. 

486. Revolt of Egypt from the Persians in the fourth year after the battle of Marathon. 

485. Xerxes, king of Persia, succeeds Darius. Gelon becomes master of Syracuse. 

484. Egypt reconquered by the Persians. Herodotus born. JEschylus gains tW 
prize in tragedy. 

483. Ostracism of Aristides. 

481. Themis'.ocles the leading man at Athens. 

480. Xerxes invades Greece. He set out from Sardis at the beginning of the spring. 
The battles of Thermopyl.-e and Artemisium were fought at the time of the 
Olympic games. The Athenians deserted their city, which was taken by 
Xerxes. The battle of Salamis, in which the lleet of Xerxes was destroyed, 
was fought in the autumn. 
Birth of Euripides. 

479. After the return of Xerxes to Asia, Mardonius, who was left in the command 
of the Persian army, passed the winter in Tiiessaly. In the spring he marches 
southward and occupies Athens ten months alter its occupation by Xerxes. 
At the battle at Platasa, fought in September, he is defeated by the Greeks under 
the command of Pausanias. On the same day the Persian fleet is defeated oil 
Mycalc by the Greek fleet Sestos besieged by the Greeks in the autumn, and 
surrendered in the following spring. 

478. Sestos taken by the Greeks. The history of Herodotus terminates at the siege 
of Sestos. 

Book III.— THE ATHENIAN SUPREMACY AND THE PELOPONNESIAN 
WAR. 

478. In consequence of the haughty conduct of Pausanias, the maritime allies place 
themselves under the supremacy of Athens. Commencement of the Athe- 



606 HISTORY OF GREECE. 



nian ascendency or empire, which lasted about 70 years— 65 before the ruin 

of the Athenian affairs in Sicily, 73 before the capture of Athens by Lysan- 

der. 
476. Cimon, commanding the forces of the Athenians and of the allies, expels the 

Persians from Eionon the Strymon, and then takes the island of Scyros, where 

the bones of Theseus are discovered. 
Simonides, £et. 81), gains the prize in the dithyrambic chorus. 
471. Themistocles, banished by ostracism, goes to Argos. Pausanias convicted of 

treason and put to death. Thucydides the historian born. 
469. Pericles begins to take part in public afl'airs, 40 years belbre his death. 
468. Mycenae destroyed b-y the Argives. Death of Aristides. Socrates born. Soph 

ocles gained his first tragic victory. 
467. Simonides, ast. 90, died. 
466. Naxos revolted and subdued. Great victory of Cimon over the Persians at the 

river Eurymedon, in Pamphylia. Themistocles Hies to Persia. 
465. Revolt of Thasos. Death of Xerxes, king of Persia, and accession of Arta- 

xerxes I. 
464. Earthquake at Sparta, and revolt of the Helots and Messenians. Cimon marches 

to the assistance of the Lacedaemonians. Zeno of Elea flourished. 
463. Thasos subdued by Cimon. 
401. Cimon marches a second time to the assistance of the Lacedaemonians, but his 

offers are declined by the latter, and the Athenian troops sent back. Ostracism 

of Cimon. Pericles at the head of public affairs at Athens. 
460. Revolt of Inaros, and first year of the Egyptian war, which lasted 6 years. The 

Athenians sent assistance to the Egyptians. 
458. The Oresteia of ^schylus performed. 

457. Battles in the Megarid between the Athenians and Corinthians. The Lacedae- 
monians march into Doris to assist the Dorians against the Phocians. On 

their return they are attacked by the Athenians at Tanagra, hut the latter are 

defeated. The Athenians commence building their long walls, which were 

completed in the following year. 
456. The Athenians, commanded by Myronides, defeat the Thebans at (Enophyta. 

Recall of Cimon from exile. Death of iEschylus, aet. 69. 
455. The Messenians conquered by the Lacedaemonians in the tenth year of the war. 

Tolmides, the Athenian general, settles the expelled Messenians at Naupactus. 

See B.C. 464. Tolmides sails round Peloponnesus with an Athenian fleet, and 

does great injury to the Peloponnesians. 
End of the Egyptian war in the sixth year. See b.c. 460. All Egypt conquered 

by the Persians, except the Marshes, where Amyrtaeus continued to hold out 

for some years. See b.c. 449. 
Euripides aet. 25 first gains the prize in tragedy. 
454. Campaign of Pericles at Sicyon and in Acarnania. 

Cratinus, the comic writer, flourished. 
452. Five years' truce between the Athenians and Peloponnesians, made through the 

intervention of Cimon. 
Anaxagoras aet. 50 withdraws from Athens, after residing there 30 years. 
449. Renewal of the war with Persia. The Athenians send assistance to 

Amyrtffius. Death of Cimon and victory of the Athenians at Salamis in 

Cyprus. 
448. Sacred War between the Delphians and Phocians for the possession of the oracle 

and temple. The Laceda;monians assisted the Delphians, and the Athenians 

the Phocians. 
447. The Athenians defeated at Chaeronea by the Boeotians. 

445. Revolt of Eubcea and Megara from Athens. The five years' tru'-e having 'Ex- 
pired (see B.C. 450), the Lacedaemonians, led by Pleistoanax, invade Attica. 

After the Lacedaemonians had retired, Pericles recovers Eubcea. The 30 years' 

truce between Athens and Sparta. 
444. Pericles begins to have the sole direction of public affairs at Athens. Thucy- 
dides, the son of Milesias, the leader of the aristooratical party, ostracised. 
443. The Athenians send a colony to Thurii in Italy. Kercdotus a;t. 41, and Lysias 

aet. 15, accompany this colony to Thurii. 
441 Euripides gains the first prize in tragedy. 
440. Samos revolts from Athens, but is subdued by Pericles in the ninth month. 

Sophocles aet. 55 was one of the ten Athenian generals who fought aga-nst 

Samos. 
439. Athens at the height of its glory. 
437. Colony of Agnon to Ainphipolis. 
436. Cratinus, the comic poet, gains the prize. 
435. "War between the Corinthians and Corcyraeans on account of Epidamnus. The 

Corinthians defeated by the Corcyraeans in a sea-fight. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 607 

B.C. 

434. The Corintttians make great preparations to carry on the war with vigour. 
433. The Corcyricans, and (?orinthians send embassies to Athens to solicit assistance. 

The Athenians form a defensive alhance with the Corcyr;eans. 
432. The Corcyrieans, assisted by the Athenians, defeat the Corinthians in the spring. 
In the same year Potida;a revolts from Athens. Congress of the Peloponne- 
siaiis in the autumn to decide ujion war with Athens. 
Anaxagoras, prosecuted for impiety at Athens, withdraws to Lampsacus, where 

he died about four years aflerwards. 
Aspasia prosecuted by the comic poet Hermippus, but acquitted through the in- 

rtuence of Pericles. 
Prosecution and death of Phidias. 
431. First year of the Peloponnesian war. The Thcbans make an attempt upon 
Platiea two months before midsummer. Eighty days afterwards Attica is in- 
vaded by the Peloponnesians. Alliance between the Athenians and Sitalces, 
king of Thrace. 
Ilellenicus ffit. 65, Herodotus a;t. 53, Thucydides JBt. 40, at the commencement 

of the Peloponnesian war. 
The Medea of Euripides exhibited. 
430. Second year of the Peloponnesian war. Second invasion of Attica. The plague 
rages at Athens. 

429. Third year of the Peloponnesian war. Potidsa surrenders to the Athenians 

after a siege of more than two years. Naval actions of Phormio in the Corin- 
thian gulph. Commencement of the siege of Plataea. 

Death of Pericles in the autumn. 

Birth of Plato, the Philosopher. 

Eupolis and Phrynichus, the comic poets, exhibit. 
428. Fourth year of the Peloponnesian war. Third invasion of Attica. Revolt of all 
Lesbos, except .Methymna. iMytilene besieged towards the autumn. 

Death of Anaxagoras, set. 72. 
427. Fifth year of the Peloponnesian war. Fourth invasion of Attica. Mytilcnc 
taken by the Athenians and Lesbos recovered. The demagogue Cleon begins 
to have great influence in public affairs. Plataea surrendered to the Pelopon- 
nesians. Sedition at Corcyra. The Athenians send assistance to the Leon- 
tines in Sicily. 

Aristophanes, the comic poet, first exhibits. 

Gorgias ambassador from Leontini to Athens. 
426. Sixth year of the Peloponnesian war. The Peloponnesians do not invade Attica 
in consequence of an earthquake. 

Lustration of Delos. 
425. Seventhyear of the Peloponnesian war. Fifth invasion of Attica. Demosthenes 
takes possession of Pylos. The Spartans in the island of Sphacteria surren- 
dered to Cleon 72 days afterwards. 

Accession of Darius Nothus. 

The Acharnians of Aristophanes. 
424. Eighth year of the Peloponnesian war. Nicias ravages the coast of Laconia and 
captures the island of Cythera. March ot Brasidas into Thrace, who obtains 
possession of Acanthus and Amphipolis. The Athenians defeated by the 
Thebans at Delium. 

Socrates and Xenophon fought at the battle of Delium. 

Thucydides, the historian, commanded at Amphipolis. 

The Knights of Aristophanes. 
423. Ninth year of the Peloponnesian war. Truce for a year. 

Thucydides banished in consequence of the loss of Amphipolis. He waa 20 
years in exile. 

The Clouds of Aristophanes first exhibited. 
422. Tenth year of the Peloponnesian war. Hostilities in Thrace between the Laec 
diemonians and Athenians. Both Brasidas and Cleon full in battle. 

The Wasps of Aristophanes and second exhibition of the Clouds. 

Death of Cratinus. 

Protagoras, the sophist, comes to Athens. 
42L Eleventh year of the Peloponnesian war. Truco for 50 years between tho 
Athenians and Lacedemonians. Though this truce was not formally declared 
to be at an end till b.c. 414, there were notwithstanding frecjuont hostilities 
meantime. 

430. Twelfth year of the Peloponnesian war. Treaty between the Athenians and Ar- 

gives effected by means of Alcibiades. 

419. Thirteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. Alcibiades marches into Pelopon- 
nesus. 
The Peace of Aristophanes. 

418. Fourteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. The Athenians send a force into 



608 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

B.C. 

Peloponnesus to assist the Argives against the Lacedapmonians, but are (fc 
feated at the battle of Mantineia. Alliance between Sparta and Argos. 
417. Fifteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. 

416. Sixteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. The Athenians conquer Melos. 
415. Seventeenth year of tlie Peloponnesian war. The Athenian expedition against 
Sicily. It sailed after midsummer, commanded by Nicias, Alcibiades, and 
Lamachus. Mutilation of the Ilermae at Athens before the fleet sailed. The 
Athenians take Catana. Alcibiades is recalled home : he makes his escape, 
and takes refuge with the Laced<emonians. 
Andocides, the orator, imprisoned on the mutilation of the Hermse. lie escapes 
by turning informer. 
414. Eighteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. Second campaign in Sicily. The 
Athenians invest Syracuse. Gylippus the Lacedaemonian comes to the assist- 
ance of the Syracusans. 
The Birds of Aristophanes. 
413. Nineteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. Invasion of Attica and fortification 
of Decelea, on the advice of Alcibiades. 
Third campaign in Sicily. Demosthenes sent with a large force to the assist- 
ance of the Athenians. Total destruction of the Athenian army and fleet. 
Nicias and Demosthenes surrender and are put to death on the 12th or 13th of 
September, 16 or 17 days after the eclipse of the moon, which took place on the 
27th of August. 
412. Twentieth year of the Peloponnesian war. The Lesbians revolt from Athens. 
Alcibiades sent by the Lacedaemonians to Asia to form a treaty with the Per- 
sians. He succeeds in his mission and forms a treaty with Tissaphenies, and 
urges the Athenian allies in Asia to revolt. 
The Andromeda of Euripides. 
411. Twenty-first year of the Peloponnesian war. Democracy abolished at Athens, 
and the government entrusted to a council of Four Hundred. This council 
holds the government four months. The Athenian army at Samos recalls Al- 
cibiades from exfle and appoints him one of their generals. He is afterwards 
recalled by a vote of the people at Athens, but he remained abroad for the next 
four years at the head of the x\thenian forces. Mindarus, the Lacedaemonian 
admiral, defeated at Cynossema. 
Antiphon, the orator, had a great share in the establishment of the Four Hundred. 

After their downfal he is brought to trial and put to death. 
The history of Thucydides suddenly breaks off in the middle of this year. 
The Lijsistraia and T/iesmophoriazusas of Aristophanes. 
Lysias returns from Thurii to Athens. 
410. Twenty-second year of the Peloponnesian war. Mindarus defeated and slain by 

Alcibiades at Cyzicus. 
409. Twenty-third year of the Peloponnesian war. 

The Philoctetes of Sophocles. 
408. Twenty-fourth year of the Peloponnesian war. Alcibiades recovers Byzantium 
The Orestes of Euripides. 
The Plutus of Aristophanes. 
407. Twenty-fifth year of the Peloponnesian war. Alcibiades returns to Athens. 
Lysander appointed the Lacedaemonian admiral and supported by Cyrus, who 
this year received the government of the countries on the Asiatic coast. An- 
ti03hus, the Lieutenant of Alcibiades, defeated by Lysander at Notium in the 
absence of Alcibiades. Alcibiades is in consequence banished, and ten new 
generals appointed. 
406. Twentj'-sixth year of the Peloponnesian war. Callicratidas, who succeeded 
Lysander as Lacedasmonian admiral, defeated by the Athenians in the sea- 
fight off the Arginussae islands. The Athenian generals condemned to death 
because they had not picked up the bodies of those who had fallen in th« 
battle. 
Dionysius becomes master of Syracuse. 
Death of Euripides and Sophocles. 
405. Twenty-seventh year of the Peloponnesian war. iij'sandcr defeats the Athenians 
off ^Egospotami, and takes or destroys all their fleet with the exception of eight 
ships which fled with Conon to Cyprus. 
The Frogs of Aristophanes. 
404. Twenty-eighth and last year of the Peloponnesian war. Athens taken by Ly- 
sander in the spring on the 16th of the month Munychion. Democracy aboL 
ished, and the government entrusted to thirty men, usually called the Thirty 
Tyrants. 
The Thirty Tyrants held their power for eight months, till Thrasybulus occupied 

Phyle and advanced to the Piraeus. 
Death of Alcibiades during the tyranny of the Thirty. 



CHRONOLOCxICAL TABLE. 609 

Book IV.— THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES. 

B.C. 

4Ce. Thrasybulus and his party obtain possession of the Piraeus, from whence they 
carried on war lor several months against the Ten, the successors of liie 
Thirty. They obtain possession of Athens before .July ; but the contest be- 
tween the parties was not finally concluded till September. 
Thucydides, aet. 68, returns to Athens. 
401. Expedition of Cyrus against his brother Artaxer.xes. He falls in the battle of 
Cunaxa, which was fought in the autumn. His Greeiv auxiliaries commence 
their return to Greece, usually called the retreat of the Ten Thousand. 
First year of the war of Lacedaemon and Elis. 
Xenophon accompanied Cyrus, and afterwards was the principal general of the 

Greeks in their retreat. 
The CEdipiis at Colonus of Sophocles exhibited after his death by his grandson 
Sophocles. 
400. Return of the Ten Thousand to Greece. 

Second year of the war of Lacedaem.on and Elis. 
The speech of Andocides on the Mysteries. 
399. The Laced<emonians send Thimbron with an army to assist the Greek cities in 
Asia against Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus. The remainder of the Ten 
Thousand incorporated with the troops of Thimbron. In the autumn Thim- 
bron was superseded by Dercyllidas. 
Third and last year of the war of Laceda;mon and Elis. 
Death of Socrates, aet. TO. 
Plato withdraws to Megara. 
398. Dercyllidas continues the w-ar in Asia with success. 
357. Dercyllidas still continues the war in Asia. 
396. Agesilaus supersedes Dercyllidas. First campaign of Agesilaus in Asia. He 

winters at Ephesus. 
395. Second campaign of Agesilaus in Asia. He defeats Tissaphernes, and becomes 
master of Western Asia. Tissaphernes superseded by Tithraustes, who 
sends envoys into Greece to induce the Greek states to declare war against 
Lacedaemon. Commencement of the war of the Greek states against Lacedae- 
mon. Lysander slain at Haliartus. 
Plato, aet. 34, returns to Athens. 
394. Agesilaus recalled from Asia to fight against the Greek states, who had declared 
war against Lacedaemon. He passed the Hellespont about midsummer, and 
was at the entrance of BcEOtia on the 14th of August. He defeats the allied 
forces at Coronea. A little before the latter battle the Lacedfemonians also 
gained a victory near Corinth ; but about the same time Conon, the Atiienian 
admiral, and Pharnabazus, gained a decisive victory over Pisander, the Spar 
tan admiral, off Cnidus. 
Xenophon accompanied Agesilaus from Asia and fought against his country at 
Coronea. He was in consequence banished from Athens. He retired under 
Laceda>monian protection to SciUus, where he compo.sed his works. 
,393. Sedition at Corinth and victory of the Lacediemonians at Lecha>um. Pharna- 
bazus and Conon ravage the coasts of Peloponnesus. Conon begins to restoro 
the long walls of Athens and the fortifications of the Pir.TUs. 
391. The Lacedaemonians under Agesilaus ravage the Corinthidii territory, but a 
Spartan mora is cut to pieces by Iphicrates. 
The Ecclesiazu.sa: of Aristophanes. 
Expedition of Agesilau.s into Acarnania. 
Speech of Andocides " On the Peace." He is banished. 
390. Expedition of Agesipolis into Argolis. The Persians again espouse the cau.se 
of the Lacedaemonians, and Conon is thrown into prison. The AtheniaiiH as- 
sist Evagoras of Cyprus against the Persians. Thrasybulus, the Athenian 
commander, is defeated and slain by the Lareda-monian Teleutias at Aspendua. 
389. AgjTrhius sent as the successor of Thrasybulus to Aspendus and Iphicrates to 
the Hclle.spont. 
Plato, iPt. 40, goes to Sicily : the first of the three voyages. 
388 AntiUcidas, the Lacedaemonian cor.imaiider on the Asiatic coast, ©pposed to 
Iphicrates and Chabrias. 
The second edition of the Plutub of Aristophanes. 
387. The peace of Antaloidas. 

386. Restoration of the Platira. and independence of the town of Bcrotiq 
385. Destruction of Mantinea by the Laceda-monians under Agcsipolia 
384. Birth of Ari.stotle. 
382. First year of the Olynthian war. 

Pha'.bidas seizes tlie Cadinoa, vhc. citadel of Thebes. 
Birth of Demosthenes. 
381. Second year of the Olynthian war. 

2 1)=);^ 



610 HISTORY OF GREECE. 



380. Third year of the Olynthian war. 

The Panegyricus of Isocrates. 
379. Fourth and last year of the Olynthian war. 

The Cadniea recovered by the Theban exiles in the winter. 
378. Cleombrotus sent into Bceotia in the middle of winter, but returned without ef- 
fecting anything. The Lacedternonian Sphodrias makes an attempt upon the 
Piraeus. The Athenians form an alliance with the Thebans against Sparta. 
First expedition of Agesilaus into Bceotia. 
Death of Lysias. 
377. Second expedition of Agesilaus into Bceotia. 

376. Cleombrotus marches into Bceotia, and sustains a slight repulse at the passes 
of Cithaeron. 
The Lacedaemonian fleet conquered by Chabrias off Naxos, and the Athenians 
recover the dominion of the sea. 
375. Cleombrotus sent into Phocis, which had been invaded by the Thebans, who 

withdraw into their own country on his arrival. 
S74. The Athenians, jealous of the Thebans, conclude a peace with Lacedaemon. 
Timotheus, the Athenian commander, takes Corcyra, and on his return to 
Athens restores the Zacynthian exUes to their country. This leads to a re- 
newal of the war between Athens and Lacedsemon. 
Second destruction of Plataea. 
Jason elected Tagus of Thessaly. 
373. The Laced;emonians attempt to regain possession of Corcyra, and send Mnasip- 
pus with a force for the purpose, but he is defeated and slain by the Corcyrae- 
ans. Iphicrates, with Callistratus and Chabrias as his colleagues, sent to 
Corcyra. 
Prosecution of Timotheus by Callistratus and Iphicrates. Timotheus is ac- 
quitted. 
372. Timotheus goes to Asia. Iphicrates continued in the command of a fleet in the 

Ionian sea. 
371. Congress at Sparta, and general peace (called the Peace of CaUias), from which 
the Thebans were excluded, because they would not grant the independence 
of the Bceotian towns. 
. The Lacedaemonians, commanded by Cleombrotus, invade Bceotia, but are de- 
feated by the Thebans under Epaminondas at the battle of Leuctra. Com- 
mencement of the Theban Supremacy. 
Foundation of Megalopolis. 
370. Expedition of Agesilaus into Arcadia. 

Jason of Pherae slain. After the interval of a year, Alexander of Pherae succeeds 

to his power in Thessaly. 
First invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans. They remain in Peloponnesus 
four months, and found Messene. 
367. Embassy of Pelopidas to Persia. 

Second invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans. 

Expedition of Pelopidas to Thessaly. He is imprisoned by Alexander of Pherse, 

but Epaminondas obtains his release. ' 
Archidamus gains a victory over the Arcadians. 
Death of the elder Dionysius of Syracuse, after a reign of 38 years. 
366. Third invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans. 

The Archidamus of Isocrates. 
365. War between Arcadia and Elis. 
364. Second campaign of the war between Arcadia and Elis. Battle of Olympia at 

the time of the games. 
362. Fourth invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans. Battle of Mantinea, in Jime, 
in which Epaminondas is killed. 
Xenophon brought down his Greek history to the battle of Mantinea. 
361. A general peace between all the belligerents, with the exception of tlie Lacedae- 
monians, because the latter would^iot acknowledge the independence of the 
Messenians. 
Agesilaus goes to Egypt to assist Tachos, and dies in the winter when preparing 

to return home. 
Birth of Dinarchus, the orator. 
360. War between the Athenians and Olynthians for the possession of Amphipolis. 
Timotheus, the Athenian general, repulsed at Amphipolis. 

Book V.— THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 

359. Accession of Philip, king of Macedonia, aet. 23. lie defeats Argaeus, who Taid 
claim to the throne, declares Amphipolis a free city, and makes peace with the 
Athenians. He then defeats the Pieonians and lllyrians. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 611 

B.C. 

358. Amphipolis taken by Philip. Expedition of the Athenians into Bubcea, 
357. Chios, Rhodes, and Byzantium revolt from Athens. First year of the Social 
War. 
The Phocians seize Delphi. Commencement of the Sacred War. The Thebans 

and the Locrians are the chief opponents of the Phocians. 
Dion sails from Zacynthus and lands in Sicily about September. 
356. Second year of the Social War. 

Birth of Alexander, the son of Philip and Olympias, at the time of the Olympic 

games. 
Polidaea taken by Philip, who gives it to Olynthus. 

Dionysius the younger expelled from Syracuse by Dion, after a reign of 13 
years. 
355. Third and last year of the Social War. Peace concluded between Athens and 

her former allies. 
354. Trial and condemnation of Timotheus. 

Demosthenes begins to speak in the assemblies of the people. 
353. Philip seizes upon Pagasee, and begins to besiege Methone. 

Death of Dion. 
352. Philip takes Methone and enters Thessaly. He defeats and slays Onomarchus, 
the Phocian general, expels the tyrants from Pherae, and becomes master of 
Thessaly. He attempts to pass Thermopylae, but is prevented by the Athen- 
ians. 
War between Lacedfemon and Megalopolis. 
The first Philippic of Demosthenes. 
349. The Olynthians, attacked by Philip, ask succour from Athens. 

The Olynthiac orations of Demosthenes. 
348. Olynthian war continued. 
347. Olynthus taken and destroyed by Philip. 

Death of Plato, a;t. 82. Spcusippus succeeds Plato. Aristotle, upon the death 
of Plato, went to Atarneus. 
346. Peace between Philip and the Athenians. 

Philip overruns Phocis and brings the Sacred War to an end, after it had lasted 

10 years. AH the Phocian cities, except Abae, were destroyed. 
Oration of Demosthenes on the Peace. 
345. Speech of ^Eschines against Timarchus. 

344. Timoleon sails from Corinth to Syracuse, to expel the tyrant Dionysius. 
Aristotle, after three years' stay at Atarneus, went to Mytilenc. 
The second Philippic of Demosthenes. 
343. Timoleon completes the conquest of Syracuse. 
Disputes between Philip and the Athenians. 
The speech of Demosthenes respecting llalonnesus. 
The speeches of Demosthenes aud iEschines IJepl Ylapa-Kpcapua^. 
342. Philip's expedition to Thrace. He is opposed by Diopithes, the Athenian gen- 
eral at the Chersonesus. 
Aristotle comes to the court of Philip. 

Isocratcs, jet. 94, began to compose the Panathenaic oration. 
Birth of Epicurus. 
341. Philip is still in Thrace, where he wintered. 

The oration of Demosthenes on the Chersonesus, and the third and fourth Phil- 
ippics. 
Philip besieges Selymbria, Perinthus, and Byzantium. 
339. Renewal of the war between Philip and the Athenians. Phocion compels Philip 
to raise the siege both of Byzantium and Perinthus. 
Xenocrates succeeds Spcusippus at the Academy. 
338. Philip is cho.sen general of the Ampliictyons to carry on the war against Am- 
phissa. He marches through Thermopyhe and seizes Elatea. The Athenian.^ 
form an alliance with the Thebans ; but their united forces are defeated by 
Philip at the battle of Chipronoa, fought on the 7th of Metageitnion (August). 
Philip becomes master of Greece. Congress at Corinth, in which war is de- 
clared by Greece against Persia, and Philip appointed to conduct it. 
Death of Isocrates, ujt. 98. 
336. Death of Timoleon. 

Murder of Philip, and accession of his son Alexander, SRt. 20. 
335. Alexander marches against the Thracians, Triballi, and lllyrians. While he is 
engaged in this war Thebes revolts. He forthwith marches southwards and 
destroys Thebes. 
834. Alexander commences the war against Persia. He rrosses the Hellespont in tho 
spring, defeats the Persian satraps at the Granicus in May, and conquers the 
western part of Asia Minor. 
Aristotle returns to Athens 



612 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

B.C. 

333. Alexander subdues Lycia in the winter, collects his forces at Gordium in the 
spring, and defeats Darius at Issus late in the autumn. 

332. Alexander takes Tj re, after a siege of seven months, in July. He takes Gaza 
in September, and then marches into Egypt, which submits to him. In the 
winter he visits the oracle of Ammon, and gives orders for the foundation of 
Alexandria. 

331. Alexander sets out from Memphis in the spring, marches through Phoenicia and 
Syria, crosses the Euphrates at Thapsacus in th'.- middle of the summer, and 
defeats Darius again at Arbela or Gaugamela on the 1st of October. He win- 
tered at Persepolis. 
In Greece Agis is defeated and slain by Antipater. 
,330. Alexander marches into Media, and takes Ecbalana. From thence he sets out 
in pursuit of Darius, who is slain by Bessus. After the death of Darius, Al- 

j exander conquers Hyrcania, and marches in pursuit of Bessus through Dran- 

giana and Arachosia, towards Bactria. 
The speech of ^Eschines against Ctesiphon, and the speech of Demosthenes on 

the Crown. JEschines, after his failure, withdrew to Asia. 
Philemon began to exhibit comedy during the reign of Alexander, a little earlier 
than Menander. 

329. Alexander marches across the Paropamisus in the winter, passes the Oxus, 
takes Bessus, and reaches the Jaxartes, where he founds a city, Alexandria 
Eschate. He subsequently crosses the Jaxartes and defeats the Scythians. 
He winters at Bactra. 

328. Alexander is employed during the whole of this campaign in the conquest of Sog- 
diana. 
He marries Roxana, the daughter of Oxyartes, a Bactrian prince. 

327. After the subjugation of Sogdiana Alexander returns to Bactra, from whence he 
marches to invade India. He crosses the Ilydaspes and defeats Porus. He 
continues his march as far as the Hyphasis, but is there compelled by his 
troops to return to the Hydaspes. In the autumn he begins to sail down the 
Ilydaspes and the Indus io the Ocean, which he reached in July in the follow- 
ing year. 

-326. Alexander returns to Persia, with part of his troops, through Gedrosia. He 
sends Nearchus with the lieet to sail from the mouths of the Indus to the Per- 
sian gulph. Nearchus accomplishes the voyage in 129 days. 

325. Alexander reaches Susa ai the beginning of the year. Towards the close of it 
he visits Ecbatana, where Hephtestion dies. Harpalus comes to Athens, aiio 
bribes many of the Greek orators. 

324. Alexander reaches Babylon in the spring. 

Demosthenes, accused of having received a bribe from Harpalus, is condeitnied 
to pay a fine of 5U talents. He withdraws to Trcezen and jEgina. 

323. Death of Alexander at Babylon, in June, after a reign of twelve years and eight 
months. 
Division of the satrapies among Alexander's generals. 

The Greek states make war against Macedonia, usually called the Lamian war. 
Leosthenes, the Athenian general, defeats Antipater, and besieges Lamia, in 
which Antipater had taken refuge. Death of Leosthenes. 
Demosthenes returns to Athens. 

322. Leonnatus comes to the assistance of Antipater, but is defeated and .slain. Cra- 
terus comes to the assistance of Antipater. Defeat of the confederates at the 
battle of Crannon on the 7th of August. End of the Lamian war. Munychia 
occupied by the Macedonians. 
Death of Demosthenes on the 14th of October. 

Death of Aristotle, xt. 63, at Chalcis, whither he had withdrawn from Athens a 
few months before. • • 

321. Perdiccas invades Egypt, where he is slain by his own troops. Partition of the 
provinces at Triparadisus. 
Menander, aet. 20, exhibits his first comedy. 

31& Death of Antipater, after appointing Polysperchon regent, and his son Cassander 
chiliarch. 

317. War between Cassander and Polysperchon in Greece. The Athenians put Pho- 
cion to death. Athens is conquered by Cassander, who places it under the 
governmeiU of Demetrius Phaloreus. 

817. Death of Philip Arrhid.Tus and Eurydice. 

Olympias returns to Macedonia, and is besieged by Cassander at Pydna 

S16. Aritigonus beeotnes master of Asia. Cassander takes Pydna, and puts OljTnpias 
to death. He rebuilds Thebes. 

315. Coalition of Scleucus, Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus against Anti^mius. 
First year of the war. 
Poleinon succeeds Xenocrales at the Academy. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 613 

314. Second year of the war against Antigonus. 

Death of the orator ^schines, aet. 75. 
313. Tliird year of the war against Antigonus. 

312. Fourth year of the war against Antigonus. r 

311. General peace. Murder of Ro.\ana and Alexander IV. by Cassander. 
310. Ptolemy appears as hberator of tiie Greeks. Renewal of hostilities between him 

and Antigonus. * 

308 Ptolemy's expedition to Greece. 
307. Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, becomes master of Athens. Demetrius Pha- 

lereus leaves the city. 
30G Demetrius recalled from Athens. He defeats Ptolemy in a great sea-fight off 
Salamis in Cyprus. After that battle Antigonus assumes the title of king, and 
his example is followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander. 
Epicurus settles at Athens, where he teaches about 36 years. 
305. Rhodes besieged by Demetrius. 

304. Demetrius makes peace with the Rhodians, and returns to Athens. 
303. Demetrius carries on the war in Greece with success against Cassander. 
302. War continued in Greece between Demetrius and Cassander. 
301. Demetrius crosses over to Asia. 

Battle of Ipsus in Ptirygia, about the month of August, in which Lysimachus and 
Seleucus defeat Antigonus and Demetrius. Antigonus, aet. 81. falls in the battle. 
297. Demetrius returns to Greece, and makes an attempt upon Athens, but is re- 
pulsed. 
Death of Cassander and accession of his son Philip IV. 
295. Death of Philip IV. and accession of his brother Antipater. 
Demetrius takes Athens. 

Civil war in Macedonia between the two brothers, Antipater and Alexander. 
Demetrius becomes king of Macedonia. 
291. Death of Menander, set. 52. 
290. Demetrius takes Thebes a second time. He celebrates the Pythian games at 

Athens. 
287. Coalition against Demetrius. He is driven out of Macedonia, and his dominions 
divided between Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. 
Demetrius sails to Asia. 

Pyrrhus driven out of Macedonia by Lysimachus after seven months' possession . 
286. Demetrius surrenders himself to Seleucus, who keeps him in captivity. 
285. Ptolemy 11. Philadelphus is associated in the kingdom by his father. 
283. Dem3trius. a-t. 54, dies in captivity at Apamea in Syria. 

Death of Ptolemy Soter, aet. 84. 
281. Lysimachus is defeated and slain by Seleucus, at the battle of Corupedion. 
280. Seleucus murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus seven months after the death of Ly- 
simachus. 
Antio^hus I., the son of Seleucus, becomes king of Asia, Ptolemy Ceraunus king 

of Thrace and Macedonia. 
Irruption of the Gauls and death of Ptolemy Ceraunus. 
Rise of the Achsan league. 
879. The Gauls under Brennus invade Greece, but Brennus and a great part of his 

army are destroyed at Delphi. 
278. Antigonus Gonata.s becomes king of Macedonia. 
273. Pyrrhus invade.s Macedonia, and expels Antigonus Gonatas. 
272. Pyrrhus invades Peloponnesus, and perishes in an attack on Argos. Antigonus 

regains Macedonia. 
362. Death of Philemon, the comic poet, apt. 97. 
251. Aratus delivers Sicyon, and unites it to the Achaean League. 
243. Aratus, a second time general of the Achiean League, delivers Corinth from the 

Macedonians. 
241. Agis IV., king of Sparta, put to death in oonsequence of his attempts to reform 

the state. 
239. Death of Antigonus, and accession of his son, Demetrius II. 
230. Cleomenes III. becomes king of Sparta. 
229. Death of Demetrius II., and accession of Antigonus Doson, who was left by 

Demetrius guardian of his son Philip. 
227. Cleomenes commences war against the Achaean League. 
226. Cleomenes carries on the war with success against Aratus, who is again the 

general of the Achaean League. 
225 Reforms of Cleomenes al Sparta. 

224. The Achieans call in the assistance of Antigonus Doson against Cleomenes. 
221. Antigonus defeats Cleomenes at Sellasia, and obtains possession of Sparta. 
Cleomenes sails to Egypt, where he dies. Extinction of the royal line of the 
Heraclidse at Sparta. 



614 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



217. 
216, 
213. 
211, 



205. 
200. 

197. 
196. 
192. 



191. 

189. 

188. 

183. 

179, 
171, 
168, 

167, 

151, 
147, 
146. 



Death of Antigonus Doson, and accession of Philip V., set. 17. 

The Achaeans and Aratus are defeated by the ^tolians. The Achsans apply for 
assistance to Philip, who espouses their cause. Commencement of the Social 
War. 

Third and last year of the Social War. Peace concluded. 

Philip concludes a treaty with Hannibal. 

Philip removes Aratus by poison. ' 

Treaty between Rome and the ^.tolians against Philip. 

Philip marches into Peloponnesus to assist the Ach<£ans. 

Philopcemen is elected general of the Achaean League, and effects important re- 
forms m the army. 

Philopcemen defeats and slays Machanidas, tyrant of Lacedaemon, at the battle 
of Mantinea. 

The ^tolians make peace with Philip. Philip's treaty with Rome. 

War between Philip and Rome. 

Philip defeated at the battle of Cynoscephalae. 

Greece declared free by Flamininus at the Isthmian games. 

Lacedsemon is added by Philopcemen to the Achaean League. 

Antiochus comes into Greece to assist the JEtolians against the Romans. He 
winters at Chalcis. 

Antiochus and the ^tolians defeated by the Romans at the battle of Thermopylae. 

The Romans besiege Ambracia, and grant peace to the ^tolians. 

Philopcemen, again general of the Achaean League, subjugates Sparta, and ab- 
rogates the laws of Lycurgus. 

The Messenians revolt from the Achasan League. They capture and put to 
death Philopcemen. 

Death of Philip and accession of Perseus. 

War between Perseus and Rome. 

Defeat and capture of Perseus by jiEmilius Paulus. 

Division of Macedonia. 

One thousand of the principal Achaeans are sent to Rome. Polybius is among 
the Achffian exiles. 

Embassy of the three philosophers to Rome. Return of the Achaean exiles. 

War between Rome and the Achaeans. 

Destruction of Corinth by Mummius. Greece becomes a Roman province. 




Colonial Coin of Corinth. On the obverse the head of Antoninus Pius ; on the reverse 
the port of Cenchrea?. The letters C. L. 1. Cor. stand for Colonia Laus JulSa Corin- 
thus, the name given to the city when Julius Caesar founded a colony there in b.c. 46. 



lb 



APPENDIX. 

BY THE AMERICAN EDITOK» 



GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 

(FROM HEEREN.) 



ill Greece is bounded on the north by the Cambunian mount- 
■ ■ ains, which separate it from Macedonia ; on the Boundaries 
south and east by the ^ga^an, on the west by the lo- o< Greece: 
nian Sea. Greatest length from south to north = 220 geogr. 
miles, greatest breadth from west to east, = 140 jt^ dimen- 
geogr. miles. Superficial contents, = 29, COO square ^ions: 
miles. — Principal rivers : the Peneus, which discharges its wa- 
ters into the iEgcEan, and the Achelous, which flows into 
the Ionian Sea. Advantages in respect to fertility, result- 
ing from the mildness of the climate, between 37 — 40^ N. lat. ; 
from the number of small streams ; from the qualities physical ad- 
and variety of soil, in wliich this country has been so '^'^n'^ages. 
much more blessed by nature than any other of similar extent, 
^m that every branch of cultivation may be prosecuted equally and 
III in conjunction. — Advantages in reference to navigation and 
commerce : situated in the vicinity of the three quarters of the 
world, on three sides washed by the sea, and by reason of its 
irregular, indented coast, abounding with commodious ports and 
havens. 

It may be divided into Northern Greece, from the north 
boundary to the chain of Q^ta and Pindus, between the . . 
Ambracian Gulf west, and the Maliac east. Central 
Greece, or Hellas, down to the isthmus of Corinth : and the 
southern peninsula, or Peloponnesus. 

Northern Greece comprises two countries ; Thessa- nouthern 
ly east, Epirus west. t:uEEi;E. 

1 . Thessaly, the largest and one of the most fruitful of the 
Grrecian countries. Length from north to south GO geogr. 



616 APPENDIX. 

miles ; breadth from west to east 64 geogr. miles. Rivers ; 
the Peneus, Apidanus, and several smaller streams, 
lessa J . jyjQ^j-^i-r^^j^g . Olympus, residence of the fabulous gods, 
and Ossa in the north ; the chain of CEta, Othrys, and Pindus 
in the south. Division into five provinces : 1 . Estiseotis : cities ; 
Gomphi, Azorus. 2. Pelasgiotis : cities ; Larissa, Gonni, the 
vale of Tempe, 3. Thessaliotis : cities; Pharsalus, etc. 4. 
Phthiotis : cities ; Pherae, etc. 5. The foreland of Magnesia, 
with a city of the same name. Other territories, such as Per- 
rhsBbia, etc. for instance, derived their names from the non- 
Greek races who inhabited them. 

2. Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, although one of 
the least cultivated countries of Greece : 48 — 60 geogr. 
pirus. ^Yes long, and the same in breadth. Divisions : Molos- 
sis ; city, Ambracia : Thesprotia ; city, Buthrotum ; in the in- 
terior, Dodona. 

Central Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine coun- 
Greece. tries. 

1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the southeast, and 

gradually diminishing. Length, 60 geogr. miles ; great- 
est breadth, 24 geogr. miles. Rivers ; Ilissus, Cephis- 
sus. Mountains ; Hymettus, Pentelicus, and the headland of ' 
Sunium. City ; Athens, with the harbours Piraeus, Phalereus, 
and Munychius ; in the other parts no towns, but hamlets, dr^fzoc, 
such as Marathon, Eleusis, Decelea, etc. 

2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth. The smallest of 

the Grecian countries ; 16 geogr. miles long, and from 
Megans. ^_g ^^^^^^ ^.^^^ Megara. 

3. Boeotia, a mountainous and marshy country^ 52 geogr. 

miles long, and from 28 — 32 broad. Rivers; Asopus, 
Ismenus, and several smaller streams. Moimtains ; He- 
licon, Citheron, etc. Lake ; Copais. — Boeotia w^as, of all the 
Grecian countries, that which contained the greatest number of 
cities, each having its own separate territory. Among these, 
the first in importance, and frequently mistress of the rest, was 
Thebes on the Ismenus. The others, Plateese, Tanagra, Thes- 
pian, Chaironea, Lebadea, Leuctra, and Orchomenus, are all cel- 
ebrated in Grecian liistory. 

4. Phocis, smaller than Attica ; 48 geogr. miles long, from 



APPENDIX. 617 

4 — 20 broad. River; Cephissus. Mountain; Parnassus. 
Cities ; Delphi, on Parnassus, with the celebrated oracle . 
of Apollo; Crissa, with the harbour of Cirrha, and, up 
the country, Elatea. The other cities are insignificant. 

5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The eastern on the 
Euripus, territory of the Locri Opuntii and Epicnemidii, Locris 1st 
is the lesser of the two ; being but little larger than ^"^ ^^■ 
Megaris. City ; Opus : pass, Thermopylae. The western Lo- 
cris on the Corinthian Gulf, station of the Locri Ozolse, is from 
20 — 24 geogr. miles long, and from 16 — 20 broad. Cities; 
]N"aupactus on the sea, Amphissa up the countiy. 

7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis Dorica, on 
the south side of Mount CEta, from 8 — 12 geogr. miles 
Ions:, and the same in breadth. 



Doris. 



8. JEtolia, somewhat larger than - Boeotia ; from 40 — 52 
c:eogr. miles long, and from 28 — 32 broad ; but the 

. . ■ . JEtoliii- 

least cultivated country of all. E-ivers ; Achelous, which 

skirts Acaniania, and the Evenus. Cities; Calydon, Ther- 

mus. 

9. Acamania, the most western country of Hellas, 32 geogr. 
mi.os long, and from 16 — 24 broad. River; Achelo- 
us. Cities ; Argos Amphilochicum, and Stratus. 

The Peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight coun- pelopon- 
tries. NEsus. 

1. Arcadia, a mountainous countiy, abounding in pastures, 
and situate in the centre of the peninsula ; greatest 
length, 48 geogr, miles ; greatest breadth, 36 geogr. 

miles. Mountains ; Cyllene, Erymanthus, etc. Rivers ; Al- 
pheus, Er}'manthus, and several smaller streams. Lake : Styx 
Cities; Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Hera3a, Psopliis ; subse- 
quently Megalopolis, as a common capital, 

2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest length, 06 
geogr. miles ; greatest breadth, 36 geogr. miles. Riv- 
er ; Eurotas. Mountains ; Taygetus, and the head- 
lands Malea and Tenarium. Cities; Sparta on the Eurotas. 
Other places ; Aniycla^, Sellasia, and others of little importance. 

3. Messenia, west of Laconia ; a more level and extremely 



era appendix. 

fertile country, subject to the Spartans from b.c. 668. Great- 
Messenia ^^* length, 28 geogr. miles : greatest breadth, 36 geogi'. 
miles. City ; Messene. Frontier places ; Ithome antl 
Ira : of the other places, Pylus (Navarino) and Methone are the 
most celebrated. 

4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on the west of 
the Peloponnesus. Length 60 geogr. miles : greatest 
breadth, 28 geogr. miles. Rivers ; Alpheus, Peneus, Sel- 

hs, and several smaller streams. Cities ; in the north, Elis, 
Cyllene, and Pylus : on the Alpheus, Pisa and the neighbouring 
town of Olympia : in Triphylia, a third Pylus 

5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula ; a foreland op- 

posite to Attica, with which it forms the Sinus Saroni- 
cus. Length, 64 geogr. miles : breadth, from 8 — 28 
geogr. miles. Cities ; Argos, Mycenae, Epidaurus. Smaller 
but remarkable places ; Nemea, Cynuria, Troezen. 

6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise ^Egialus, com- 
. prises the north coast. Length, 56 geogr. miles : 

breadth, from 12 — 24. It contains twelve cities, of 
which Dyme, Patrse, and Pellene, are the most important 



Sicyonia. 



7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geogr. miles long, 
broad, with the cities of Sicyon and Phlius. 



8. The small territory of Corinth, of the same extent as the 
foregoing, adjoining the isthmus which connects Pelopon- 
nesus with the mainland. City ; Corinth, originally 
Ephyra, with the ports of Lecha3um and Cenchreae ; the former 
on the Corinthian, the latter on the Saronic Gulf 

The Greek Islands may be divided into three classes ; those 
which lie immediately off the coasts, those which are 
collected in groups, and those which he separate in the 
open sea. 

1. Islands off the coasts. Off the west coast in the Ionian 
Of the Sea : Corcyra, opposite Epirus, 32 geogr. miles long, 
coasts. from 8— 16 broad. City ; Corcyra. A Corinthian 

(Jorcvr3. ' *^ "^ . . . 

Leucadia; colony. Opposite Acamania ; Leucadia, with the city 
and headland of Leucas. — Cephalonia or Same, orig- 
andifhaca*; inally Scheria, with the cities of Same and Cephalo- 
nia. In the neighbourhood lies the small island of Ithaca.< — 



APPENDIX. 619 

Opposite Elis, Zacynthus. Off the soutlicoast, Cythera, with 

a town of the same name. Off the east coast, in the zacynthus-, 

Saronic Gulf, JEgina and Salamis. Opposite Boeotia, Cythera; 

from which it is separated by the Strait named Eu- ^gina and 
ripus, Euboea, the most extensive of all; 76 geogr. '^ ^™'^ » 

miles long, from. 12 — IG geogr. miles broad. Cities; ^^i''®^' 

Oreus, with the headland of Artemisium on the north, scyathus, 

in the centre Chalcis, Eretria. Off Thessaly, Scya- ^ruf'saiiS- 

thus, and Halonesus. Farther north, Thasus, Imbrus, thrace,Lem- 

Samothrace, and Lemnos. "^^' ^^*^' 

2. Clusters of Islands in the ^Egsean sea : the Cyclades and 
Sporades ; the former of which comprise the western, oroups. 
the latter the eastern islands of the Archipelago. The cy^iades 
the most important among them are, Andros, Delos, Pa- and Spo- 
ros, Naxos, Melos, all with cities of the same names. 

3. The more extensive separate islands : 1. Crete, 140 geogr. 
miles long, from 24 — 40 broad. Mountain ; Ida. Separate. 
Cities; Cydonia, Gortyna, Cnossus. 2. Cyprus, 120 <^rcte; 
geogr. miles long, and from 20 — 80 broad. Cities ; Sa- 
lamis, Paphos, Citium, and several smaller places. 



GRECIAN METHOD OF CALCULATING TIME. 

Our knowledge of Greek chronology is very imperfect, the only pait 
•which has been fully preserved being ttiat of the Athenians. This people, 
like the Romans of Numa, divided their year by the revolutions of the moon, 
making up for its irregularities by intercalation. The Athenian year con- 
tained twelve months, each of them alternately twenty-nine and thirty days 
lon°-. The year began at the summer solstice, and, in order to make the be- 
ginning regular, they formed cycles of eight and nineteen years, intercalating 
three months for the first, or seven for the second. The month was divided 
into decades, and the days were counted from the beginning for the first two 
decades, and from the beginning or end for the last. Thus the second of the 
month was the second of the opening month. The eleventh was the first of the 
middle of the month, and the twenty first was either the first after the twentieth, 
or the tenth from the end of the month, or the first of the closing month. The 
day, like that of the Jews and Mahometans, began at sunset. 

In classifying the year, like the Spartans and Romans, they used the name 
of the presiding magistrate ; so that Athenian chronology was counted by 
Archons. The Olymjuad was first used by Timaeus of Sicily, the historian, 
in the fifth century before Christ. 

The Olympic games, the great national festival of Greece, were celebrated 
every five years. The first authentic Olympiad is known as the Olympiad 
of Coroebus the Elean, who gamed the prize in the foot-race in the year 77G 
before Christ. But modern writers have adopted the more convenient method 
of calculating events by the year before and after Christ ; a system which has 
the great advantage of being equally applicable to the history of every nation. 



TABLE OF GRECIAN CHRONOLOGY BY PERIODS, COMPARED WITH 
THAT OF ROME, ETC. 

First Period. 

MYTHICAL AGE OF GREECE.— 1184 to 776 B.C. 

This period begins with the conjectural date of the capture of Troy, 1184 
i.e., and ends with the first Olympiad, 776 B.C. 



B.C. GREECE. 

1000. 
878. 

850. Homer — ^by conjecture — 850. 

776. Lycurgus— 776 ? 

Second Period. 

GROWTH OF THE GRECIAN STATES.— 
776 B.C. TO 594 B.C. 

776. Restoration of the Olympic games and vic- 
tory of Coroebus. 
753. 
747. Phidon of Argos. 



ROME, PERSIA, ETC. 

Solomon— 1004. 
Carthage— 878 ? 



Rome founded. 
JEra of Nabonassor. 
Isaiah. 



i 



SYNCHRONISTIC TABLES. 
Third Period. 

594 B.C. TO 501 B.C. 



621 



B.C. GREECE. 

594. Solon archon and legislator of Athens. 



560, Pisistratus usurps the government at Athens. 
559. Anacreon begins to be distinguished. 



532. Polj'Crates becomes Tyrant of Sardis. 

Pythagoras flourished. 
529. 

527. Death of Pisistratus. 
525. ^schylus born. 

Anacreon and Simonides come to Athens. 

Chcerilus of Athens first exhibits tragedy. 
518. Pindar born. 
510. Expulsion of Hippias. 

Ten tribes instituted by Clisthenes. 
501. 

500. Ionian revolt. 

Fourth Period. 

PERSIAN WAR.— 500 to battle of plat^ea, 



479. 



499, Sardis burnt. 
494. 



490. Battle of Marathon. 

485. 



484, Birth of Herodotus. 

480. Invasion of Xerxes. 

Thermopylse — Artemisium — Salamis. 
479, Battle of Plataea. 



Fifth Period. 

SUPREMACYOF ATHENS, WHICH LAST- 
ED ABOUT SEVENTY YEARS.— from 

THE BATTLE OF PLAT.a:A, 479, TO THE PEACE 
OF CIMON, 449. 

478. The maritime allies place themselves under 

the supremacy of Athens 
471. Theinistocles obtracised. 



ROME, PERSIA, HTC. 

Tarquin the Elder, king 
of Rome, and Nebu- 
chadnezzarof Babylon. 

Cyrus in Persia. 

End of the Median em- 
pire. 

Servius Tullius king of 
Rome. 



Death of Cyrus. 

Cambj'ses conquers 
Egypt. 

Expulsion of Tarquin. 

Titus Lartius Flavus 
first Dictator of Rome. 



Institution of the tribunes 
of the people at Rome. 

Xerxes succeeds Darius, 

Gelon becomes master of 
Syracuse. 

Spurius Cassius, who 
the preceding year had 
proposed the first Agra- 
rian law, condemned 
to death. 

Egypt reconquered by the 
Persians. 

Fourth year of war with 
Veil. 

The Fabia Gens take 
their station on the 
Cremera. 



Hieron succeeds Gclon 
at Syracuse. 



APPENDIX. 



471, Thucydides born. 

Pausanias put to death. 

Timoleon of Rhodes, the lyric poet, flour- 
ished. 
468, Aristides dies. 

Socrates born, 

Sophocles gains his first prize in tragedy. 

Mycenae destroyed by the Argives. 
467. Simonides dies, aged 90. 

Andocides the orator born. 



461. 



Cimon ostracised, 
affairs in Athens. 



Pericles at the head of 



460. First year of the Egyptian war, which lasts 
six. The Athenians send aid to the Egyp- 
tians, 

Democritus and Hippocrates born. 
449, Death of Cimon. 

Peace with Persia — improperly called the 
Peace of Cimon. 

Sixth period, 

from the peace of cimon, 449, to the first 
year of the peloponnesian war, 431. 

448, Sacred War between the Delphians and 

Locrians. 
445. Thirty years' truce between Athens and 

Sparta, 



443, The Athenians send a colony to Thurii in 
Italy, which Herodotus, aet. 41, accompa- 
nied, and Lysias, aet. 15. 

439, Athens at the height of her glory, Pericles 
at the head of affairs, 

432. The Corinthians defeated by the Corcyraeans 
and Athenians. 
Revolt of Potidaea. 
Congress of Peloponnesians to decide on 

war against Athens. 
Prosecution of Anaxagoras and Aspasia. 
Prosecution and death of Phidias. 
431, 



Seventh Period, 

teom the first year of the peloponnesian 
war, 431, to the fifty years' truce, 421. 

430. Plague at Athens. 
429. Athenians take Potidaea. 
.Death of Pericles. 

Birth of Plato. 

Eupolis and Phrynicus, comic poets, exliibit. 



ROME, PERSIA, ETC. 



Antium taken by the Ro. 
mans. 



Death of Hieron. 

The Romans send a col- 
ony to Antium. 

Contests concerning the 
Terentillian law at 
Rome. 

The Capitol seized by 
Herdonius. 



The Decemvirs deposed, 

Virginia. 



Lex Trebonia. 

Lex Canuleia, establish- 
ing connubium be- 
tween Patricians and 
Plebeians. First Mil- 
itary Tribunes. 

Institution of the Censor- 
ship. Victory over the 
Volscians. 

Spurius Melius killed 
by Q. Servilius Ahala, 
Master of the Horse. 



Great victory over the 
.^quians and Volsci 
ans at Mount Algidus. 



SYNCHRONISTIC TABLES. 



623 



B.C. GREECE. 

427. Fourth invasion of Attica. 

Gorgias ambassador from Leontini to Athens. 

Aristophanes first exhibits. 
423. Thiicydides banished. 

Truce for a year. 

The Clouds of Aristophanes. 
421. Truce for fifty years — which lasts only to 
414 — with frequent hostilities all the while. 



Eighth Period, 
from the fifty years' truce, 421, to the 

"FOUR hundred" AT ATHENS, 411. 

415. Athenian expedition against Sicily. 
414. 

412. Alcibiades sent by the LacecLaemonians to 
make a treaty with the Persians. 

Andromeda of Euripides. 
411. "The Four Hundred" at Athens. 

Recall of Alcibiades. 

The Lysistrata and Thesmophoriazusae of 
Aristophanes. 

Lysias returns to Athens. 
409. 

406. Naval victory of the Athenians off the Ar- 
ginussae islands. 
Diouysius master of Syracuse. 
Death of Euripides and Sophocles. 

404. End of the war. 

The Thirty Tyrants at Athens. 
Death of Alcibiades. 

Ninth Period. 

SPARTAN SUPREMACY.— 34 years, from 
the batlle of ^gospotami, 405, TO the 

BATTLE OF LEUCTRA, 371. 

403. Thrasybulus obtains possession of Athens. 

Thucydides returns to Athens, aet. 68. 
401. 

399. Death of Socrates. 

396. First campaign of Agesilaus in Asia. 

394. Battle of Cnidus deprives Sparta of her 

maritime supremacy. 
390. 

387. Peace of Antalcidas. 



384. Aristotle born. 

382. First year of the Olynthian war. 

Phcebidas seizes the citadel of Thebes. 
Uirlh of Demosthenes. 



ROME, PERSIA, ETC. 

War declared against 
Veii. 

War with the Volscians. 

Vulturnum taken by the 
Samnites. 

The number of the Quae- 
stors increased from 
two to four. 



War with the ^quians. 



Throe j)lebeians chosen 
to the quajstorship. 

War with the Volscians. 

Anxur (Terracina) ta- 
ken. 

Roman soldiers receive 
pay for the first time. 

An eclipse of the sun re- 
corded in the Annales 
Maximi. 



Expedition of Cyrus the 

Younger. 
Plague at Rome. First 

Lcctisternium. 
Veii taken by Camillus. 
Peace with the Falisci. 

Rome taken by tho 

Gauls. 
Roman tribes increased 

from twenty-one to 

twenty-five. 
Manlius thrown from the 

Tarprian rock. 
War with Pra;nest«. 



624 



APPENDIX. 



B.C. GREECE. 

378. Alliance between Athens and Thebes against 
Sparta. Date of a new political combina- 
tion in Greece. 

376. 

371. Peace of Callias. 
Battle of Leuctra. 

Tenth Period. 

THEBAN SUPREMACY.— FROM the battle 

CF LEUCTRA, 371, TO THE BATTLE OF MAN- 
TINEA, 362. 

367. Embassy of Pelopidas to Persia- 

366. 

365. War between Arcadia and Elis. 

362. Battle of Mantinea. 



Eleventh Period. 

MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY.— from the 
accession of PHILIP, 359, to the death of 

ALEXANDER, 323. 



359. Accession of Philip. 
357. Social war. 
Sacred war. 



356. 



Second year of the social war. 
Birth of Alexander. 

Philip takes Potidsea and gives it to the 
Olynthians. 
352. The first Philippic. 



347. Olynthus taken by Philip. 

Plato dies, aet. 82. 
346. Peace between Philip and the Athenians. 



343. First Samnite war. 
342. Philip's expedition into Thrace. 
Aristotle at the court of Philip. 
Birth of Epicurus. 
Battle of Chaeronea. 
Philip master of Greece. 
Death of Isocrates. 
Assassination of Philip, and accession of 

Alexander. 
Destruction of Thebes. 
Battle of Issus. 
Alexander, king of Epirus, makes a treaty 

with the Romans. 
Alexander takes Ecbatana. Demosthenes 

on the crown. 



338. 



336. 

335. 
333. 
332. 

330. 



ROME, PERSIA, ETC. 



Rogationes Licinias pro- 
posed. 



Dionysius the elder dies. 

First plebeian Consul. 

Plague at Rome. 

Death of Camillus. 

Half of the Military Tri- 
bunes chosen by the 
people. 

Earthquake at Rome, 



Duilian and Macrian 
laws restoring the rate 
of interest fixed by the 
Twelve Tables. 

Dionysius the younger 
expelled from Syra- 
cuse by Dion. 

First plebeian Dictator. 

Quinqueviri Mensarii 
appointed for a general 
liquidation of debts. 



Second celebration of the 
LudiSgeculares. War 
with the Volscians. 



Latium subdued. 

Peace with the Gauk 
Gales taken. 



Revolt of Fundi and Pri 
vcrnum. 



SYNCHRONISTIC TABLES. 



625 



B.C. GREECE. 

329. Battle of Arbela. 

323. Death of Alexander. 
Death of Diogenes. 

Twelfth Period. 

from the death of alexander to the rise 
of the ach^an league, 323 to 280. 

323. Lamian war. 

322. End of the Lamian war, and death of De- 
mosthenes. 
Death of Aristotle at Chalcis. 
32L 
311. General peace. 

306. Defeat of Ptolemy by Cassander. 

Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, 

and Cassander assume the title of king. 
Epicurus settles at Athens, and teaches 
there 36 years. 
301. Battle of Ipsus. 

280. Rise of the Achaean league. 

279. The Gauls under Brennus invade Greece. 

278. Pyrrhus passes into Sicily. 

264. First Punic war. 

241. Death of Agis IV. of Sparta. 



225. Reforms of Cleomenes at Sparta. 



220. Beginning of the social war. 

316. Philip V. of Macedon concludes a treaty 

with Hannibal. 
211. Treaty between Rome and the ^tolians 

against Philip. 



197. Battle of Cynoscephalae. 
183. Death of Philopoemei>, -'The last of the 
Greeks." 



168. Defeat of Perseus. 
146. Corinth destroyed. 

Greece a Roman province. 



2E 



ROME, PERSIA, ETC. 

Privernum taken. 
Colony sent to Anxus. 



Samnites defeated. 



The *' Caudine Forks." 

The Etruscans defeated. 

Samnites defeated. 

Insurrection and subju- 
gation of the Herni- 
cans. 



War with the Marsi and 
Etruscans. 

Romans defeated by Pyr- 
rhus near Heracleia. 

Victory of Pyrrhus near 
Asculum. 

Romans triumphant in 
Southern Italy. 

Last year of the First 
Punic war. Sicily a 
Roman province. 

War with the Gauls. Q. 
Fabius Pictor and L. 
Cincius Alimentus, 
historians, flourished. 

Via Flaminia and Circus 
Flaminius. 

Battle of Cannas. 

Eighth year of the second 
Punic war. Hannibal 
fails in his attempt to 
raise the siege of 
Capua. 

War against the Ligu- 
rians continued. Death 
of Scipio Africanus. 
Death of Hannibal. 

Carthage destroyed by 

Scipio. 
Cassius Ilrmina and C. 

Fannius, historians, 

flourished. 



626 



APPENDIX. 






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o 


Justly called the " Father of History," equally 
remarkable for the clearness, truthfulness, and 
vivacity of nis narrative, and the extent and ac- 
curacy of his researches. He wrote in the Ionic 
dialect. 

Accurate, judicious, and profound. The in- 
ventor of the art of historical criticism. As a 
writer, concise, forcible, sometimes obscure, emi- 
nently suggestive, and in the speeches which he 
introduces in order to explain the motives and 
views of his leading characters, displaying an el- 
oquence which Demosthenes' studied as a model. 

The little that has been preserved of his writ- 
ings has not given a favourable idea of his ac- 
curacy. 

As a historian the Anabasis places him in the 
first rank of narration. The Hellenics or Greek 
history in continuation of Thucydides falls below 
not Thucydides only, but Xenophon's other works. 
The Cyropedia, once regarded as a history, is 
now universally acknowledged to be a philosoph- 
ico-historical romance : chronologically, and per- 
haps in merit, the first in its class. The "Me- 
morabilia" is a beautiful defence and exposition 
of the doctrines of his master, Socrates. His 
'style, clear, natural, and graceful, has won for 
him the name of the Attic bee. 


o 


History of the Ancients from Cyrus 
to th(3 taking of Sestos, 478 ; divided 
into nine books, each of which bears 
for title the name of one of the Muses. 

History of the Peloponnesian war 
from the beginning to 411, the middle 
of the twenty-first year. 

History of Persia and India, of 
which only a few fragments remain. 

The Cyropedia ; The Anabasis, or 
Retreat of the " Ten Thousand ;" The 
Hellenics ; The Memorabilia ; CEco- 
nomics, and various minor treatises. 


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LITERATURE. 62*7 



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LITERATURE. 629 



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SCULPTORS AND PAINTERS. 



G31 





K 
H 

X 


Chiefly celebrated as the master of Phidias, 
Myron, and Polycletus. 

Idealbeauty; sublimity of conception ; witli 
perfect accuracy, simplicity, and dignity in the 
execution. The statue of the Olympian Jove 
became the ideal of the Deity. 

Excelled in the statues of men ; less ideal 
than Phidias ; still his greatest work was a 
Juno, which became the type of the goddess 
as Phidias's Jupiter was of the god. The 
first name in sculpture after Phidias. 

The first to study animals successfully ; re- 
markable for variety of attitude, but less suc- 
cessful in expressing the intellectual and 
moral qualities ; and, according to Pliny, 
very deficient in the hair. 

One of the founders of the second Attic 
school ; strength of expression combined with 
grace. 

Expression; movement; delicacy; grace. 

He was a painter as well as sculptor. 

He followed the school of Polycletus ; care- 
ful in the hair and every minutia of execution ; 
and though a close student of nature, not 
negligent of ideal beauty. 




o 


The Olympian Jove; Minerva 
of the Acropolis, etc. 

Juno and an Amazon, in which 
he won the prize from Phidias, etc. 
He wrote a work on proportions, 
called the Canon of Form. 

The Discobolus, a celebrated 
figure of a cow, on which thirty- 
six epigrams are still preserved, 
etc. 

Bas reliefs on the tomb of Mau- 
solus ; Venus Victrix ; Group of 
Marine deities and Achilles ; The 
Group of Niobe, etc. 

The Cnidian Venus ; Diana, 
Apollo, Bacchus, Cupid, etc. 

Paris ; a great variety of works 
in all sizes, in bronze and marble. 

The Farnese Hercules, Statues 
of Alexander, Equestrian group 
of the chiefs who fell at the Gran- 
icus, etc. Excellent in portraits. 




>• 

K 
H 

z 
o 


Argos. 
Athens. 

Sicyon. 
ElcuthercB. 

Paros. 

Athens^ 

Isthmus of 

Corinth. 
Sicyon. 




•Hxvaa 


432. 

412. 






340 I 
490. 

Contemporary 
though younger 
than Phidias. 

First half of 4tli 
century B.C. 

Contemporary 
of Scojjos. 
Under Philij) 
and Alexander. 
Under Alexan- 
der. 




u 
2 
J'! 


«j CO ^ 

h § 1 = ill 

■^ X O '' -) li •_' > 



632 



APPENDIX. 



-<< 

» 


A great reformer in the art. His figures, 
though statuesque, were remarkable for grace 
and beauty of conception, and accuracy of 
drawing. He was the first to open the lips, 
and to give drapery a flowing and graceful 
character. 

The first to call attention to the effect of 
light and shade. 

His favourite subjects were single figures, 
which he finished with uuweaned patience. 
He excelled in the tender and graceful, but 
was not deficient in majesty and grandeur. 
His colouring was full of life and truthfulness. 

Remarkable for accuracy of drawing and 
harmony of proportion, in which his works be- 
came standards, like those of Polycrates in 
sculpture. 

He united the grace of the Ionic with the 
scientific accuracy of the Sicyonian school; 
and was regarded by the ancients as the great- 
est of painters. 

A careful student of nature. 


- « 

o 


His master pieces were at Del- 
phi, on subjects from the Epic 
cycle ; many of his works were at 
Athens also. 

One of his most celebrated 
works was Helen. 

The Athenian Desmos; Me- 
leager, Atalantis, etc. 

Venus rising from the sea ; Al- 
exander wielding the thunderbolt, 
etc. 


H 
Z 

P 

o 
o 


Thasos. 

Athens. 
Unknown. 

Ephesus. 
Colophon. 
Rhodes. 


•Hxvaa 


426? 

280. 
300. 


a 

H 

OS 

5 


400? 
455? 

Younger than 
Xeuxes. 

364. 
336. 




POLYGNOTUS. 

Apollodorus. 

Xeuxes. 

Parrhasius. 
Praxiteles. 
Protogenes. 



4 

i 



GENERAL EXAMINATION aUESTIONS. 

1. The original population of Greece. — Pelasgi. — HelleneSc 
— Foreign colonies. 

2. History and character of the Heroic age. — Invasion and 
conquest of the Dorians. — Greek colonies in Europe, Asia, and 
Africa. — Homer. — The Olympiads. — General character of our 
knowledge of these subjects. 

3. History of Athens from the early traditions to the first 
Persian invasion. — Who formed, the Athenian people ? — How 
were they divided ? — The Eupatrids. — Government. — The Ar- 
chonts. — Legislation of Draco and of Solon. — Constitution of 
Athens at the epoch of the Persian wars. 

4. Early history of Sparta. — Who formed the Spartan peo- 
ple ? — The Tribes. — The Spartans. — Periceci and Helots. — 
Constitution and legislation of Lycurgus. 

5. State of Northern Greece and the Peloponnesus at the 
beginning of the Persian war. 

6. Sketch of Persian history, and cause of the Persian in- 
vasion of Greece. — Relative strength of the two nations, and 
military reputation of each on the first invasion. 

7. History and results of the first invasion ; — internal and 
external. 

8. History and results of the second invasion ; — internal and 
external. 

9. Eminent men, and chief battles of the first and second 
invasions. 

10. Position of Greece after the second repulse of the Per- 
sians. 

11. Causes, character, and duration of the Athenian su- 
premacy. 

12. History of the Athenian supremacy. — Its influence upon 
the intellectual and artistic development of Greece. 

13. Administration of Pericles. — Its alleged cifects upon iho 
Athenian character. 

14. Internal history of Greece from the Persian to the Pe- 
loponnesian war. 

15. Causes and character of the Pclopoiniesian war. 

16. Division of the Peloponncsian war. — Principal battles. 
• — Leading men. — Chief incidents. 

2e* 



634 APPENDIX. 

17. The Sicilian expedition, 

18. Close and consequences of the Peloponnesian war.' — . 
State of Athens. — Sparta. — Other states and the colonies. 

19. History, duration, and character of the Spartan su- 
premacy. 

20. History, duration, and character of the Thehan su- 
premacy. 

21. Retreat of the Ten Thousand, and its consequences. 

22. State of G-reece at the accession of Phihp of Macedon. 

23. Rise of the Macedonian power, and character of the 
opposition of Demosthenes. 

24. State of Greece at the accession of Alexander. 

25. Personal history and character of Alexander. 

26. Alexander as a Greek. 

27. State of Persia at the accession of Alexander. 

28. History of the conquests of Alexander. 

29. Character of Alexander after the conquest of Persia. 

30. Results of his conquests. 

31. The successors of Alexander. — Different and final dis- 
tribution of his empire. 

32. The Achaean and ^Etolian leagues, and general history of 
Greece till the Roman conquest. 

33. Sketch of Greek, literature by divisions. — Epic poetry, 
Lyric poetry, Dramatic poetry, history, philosophy, &c. 

34. Sketch of Greek philosophy. 

35. Sketch of Greek art. 



THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. 

(FROM DONALDSON.) 

Art. 1. The Greek Language ((pcjvij 'E/IAt/v^ktJ) is that 
which was anciently spoken throughout the whole extent of 
Greece or Hellas ('EAAa^ ), a term which included all the Greek 
colonies (Herod. II, 182). But there were two countries to 
which this name was applied, — that which still hears the name, 
and which was distinguished as 7/ dpxata 'E/lAa^ (Plut. Tiinol. 
c. 37), or Grcscia Antiqua ; and the south-east of Italy with 
Sicily, which was called tJ iieydXi] 'EXXdg (Strabo, p. 253), or 
GrcBcia Magna. 

2. It was in the former of these, or Greece Proper, as it is 
sometimes designated, that this language was formed by a fusion 
of diiferent tribes ; and though the colonists in Asia Mi?tor and 
Magna Grcccia contributed largely to the development of 
Greek literature, the intellectual energies of the people, and con- 
sequently the living excellence of the language, were always 
most conspicuous in the mother-country ; and, in the end, all 
the scattered Greeks had learned to speak the language of 
Attica. 

3. The ancient Greek language is a member of the great 
Irido-Germanic family, and is therefore intimately connected 
with the old languages of the Indians, Persians, Celts, Sclavo- 
nians, Germans, and Italians. It belongs to the science of 
Comparative Philology to point out the nature and extent of 
this connection. 

4. Confining our attention to the Greek language, we find 
that this language, as we have it, consists of two elements — the 
Pelasgian and the Hellenic ; and Herodotus has informed us, 
that the Hellenes or Greeks owed their greatness to a coalition 
with the Pelasgians (I, 58. Varronianus, p. 14). The Pelas- 
gians {TieX-aayoi^ or HeXonF.q, " swarthy Asiatics," or " dark- 
faced men." Varron. p. 24. Kenrick Phil. Mus. II, 353) were 
the original occupants and civihzcrs of the Peloponncsc, which 
was called after their name, and also of many districts in north- 
ern Greece. These were afterwards incorporated with the Hel- 
lenes ("E/l/lT/i^fic, " the warriors :" comp. the name of their god 
'ATTe'/lAwv, Miiller, Dor. II, G, ^ 6), a cognate martial tribe from 
the mountains in the north of Thessaly. In proportion as the 
Hellenic or Pelasgian element in this admixture predominated 



636 APPENDIX. 

in particular districts, the tribes were called Dorians (AwpieZ^, 
" Highlanders," from 6a and opoq, Kenrick, Herod, p. lxi.), or 
lonians ("Icji^e^, " men of the coast," 'RLovia ; also AlyiaXelg, 
" Beach-men," or 'Axacoi, " Sea-men :" Kenrick, Fhil. Mus. II, 
p. 367). And these appear in historical times as the two grand 
subdivisions of the Hellenic race (Herod. I, 56). 

5. When, however, the Dorians or " Highlanders" first de- 
scended from their mountains in the north of Thessaly, and in- 
corporated themselves with the Pelasgians of the Thessalian 
plains, they were called ^olians {AloXelg, "mixed men"*), 
and this name was retained by the Thessalians and Boeotians 
long after the opposition of Dorian and Ionian had established 
itself in other parts of Greece. The legend states this fact very 
distinctly, when it tells us that " Hellen left his kingdom to 
tEoIus, his eldest son, while he sent forth Dorus, and Xuthus, 
the father of Ion, to make conquests in distant lands," (ApoUod. 
I, 7, 3, 1. Thirlwall, I, p. 101). 

6. Hence we find that of the Grreek colonies settled on the 
western coast of Asia Minor, the earliest and most northerly, 
which started from Boeotia, called themselves ^^olians ; that 
those who subsequently proceeded from Attica, and occupied the 
central district, called themselves lonians; while those who 
finally sailed from Argos, and took possession of the southern 
coast, bore the name of Dorians. 

7. The cultivation of Lyric poetry by the ^Eolians of Lesbos, 
the choral poetry of the Dorians, and the epic poetry of the 
lonians, gave an early and definite expression to certain provin- 
cial varieties which were called Dialects {didXEnroL), and the 
energetic and intelligent branch of the Ionian race which occu- 
pied Attica ('Attlut] or 'Aktckt], " the Promontory-Land"), sub- 
sequently gave such a distinctive character to their own idiom, 
that the Attic {f] 'Ardlg) was considered a fourth Dialect by 
the side of the Doric {t] Awp/^), the ^olic (i) AloXig), and the 
Ionic {rj 'lag). 

8. As every dialect or provincial variety is such with refer- 
ence to some standard of comparison, and as the Attic in the 
end became the general language, or " common Dialect" {kolvt) 
oidkeiCTog) of all the Greeks, Grammarians have always esti- 

* The proper meaning of AloTioc is "particoloured," and it is used 
especially to designate alternations of black and white in stripes: thus, 
the cat is called alTiovpog {aloTiovpog) from the stripes on its tail: and 
for the same reason aloloq is a constant epithet of the serpent. It is 
the opposite of cmlovq: so Athen. XIV, 622, c. invlovv pvO/u.dv 
Xiovreg aloTufi iitleu We do not agree therefore with Dr. Thirlwall 
(I, p. 102), that AtoAof is a by-form of "EHrjv. 



APPENDIX. 637 

mated the ^olic, Doric, and Ionic dialects by their deviations 
from the Attic standard. 

9. Considered, however, in themselves, the four Dialects 
may be divided into two groups, corresponding to the two main 
divisions of the Hellenic nation (art. 4). For there is much 
truth in Strabo's remark (p. 333), that the ancient Attic was 
identical with the Ionic, and the JEolic with the Doric. 

10. The Doric and -^olic Dialects agreed in representing 
the Pelasgo-Hellenic language in its first rude state of juxta- 
position. And if, on the one hand, the Hellenic element was 
more strongly pronounced in its roughness and broadness of ut- 
terance, on the other hand, the peculiarities of the Pelasgian, 
which were lost in the further development of Hellenism, were 
still preserved in the JEolic, and to a certain extent in the Doric 



11. Although the lonians, as such, contained the Pelasgian 
element in greater proportion than the ^olo-Doric tribes, their 
language gives less evidence of the lost Pelasgian idiom than 
those of the more northern tribes. The reason of this is plain. 
In their case there was no longer juxta-position, but fusion ; and 
the irreconcileable peculiarities of the Pelasgian and Hellenic 
idioms had been mutually resigned. The lonians, whose ear 
did not repudiate a concurrence of vowels, omitted the harsh 
consonants of the' Pelasgian idiom, and the Athenians carried 
this a step further, by contracting into one the syllables which 
produced an hiatus. 

12. The Attic Greek is the richest and most perfect lan- 
guage in the world. It is the only language which has attained 
to a clear and copious syntax, without sacrificing its inflexions 
and power of composition. It is the language of Sophocles, 
Aristophanes, and Plato. It had become the language of He- 
rodotus ; and even Homer's Poems, as they have descended to 
us, are to a large extent Atticized. 

13. Those who learned Attic Greek as a foreign or obsolete 
idiom, were said to Atticize (drrtKL^^eiv), and there is a largo 
class of later writers who are called Atticists ('ArTth'i.OTai). 
But those foreigners who spoke Greek from the car, and witli- 
out any careful observation of the rules of the Attic idiom, and 
who consequently mixed up with their Greek many words and 
dictions which were of foreign origin, were said to llcllcnize 
((■?iATjvt^etv) ; and there is a large class of Avrilers, including the 
authors of the New Testament, 1o whom we give the name of 
Hellenists {''EAArjVLorai). It is tlie object oi'the Greek scliohir's 
studies to make him not a Hellenist, but an Atticist, in the high- 
est sense of the word. 



638 APPENDIX. 



ORIGIN AISTD ARRANGEMENT OF THE LETTERS. 

1. Mythology attributes to the Phcenician hero, Cadmus, tha 
introduction into G-reece of an original alphabet of sixteen let- 
ters ; and the old grammarians have supposed that these six- 
teen were the following : — a, 3, y, 6, e, c, k, A, [i, v, o, tt, p, cr, 
T, V {Schol. Dion. Tkr. p. 781). There can be little doubt 
that the Greek alphabet is of Semitic origin, and there is every 
reason to believe that it originally consisted of four quaternions 
of letters : but it is a sound theory, which has been confirmed 
by the independent investigations of at least four or five differ- 
ent scholars, that for l, k, p, and v in the above list, we must 
substitute rj, d, and the two obsolete characters^ F ((3av) and Q 
[icoTTTTa), which are still retained as numerical signs after e and 
n respectively, and that the original arrangement of these six- 
teen letters was as follows : 

A. BPA. E. FHO. AMN. 2. O. MT. 

This order is artificial and systematic, as we shall see, if we 
consider the original value of these characters. For A, E, and 
O, were originally the representatives of breathings of which A 
was the lightest, E the heaviest, and O of intermediate weight : 
F was an aspirated labial, H an aspirated guttural, and 6 an 
aspirated dental : so that the nine mutes stood thus, each set 
being preceded by its appropriate breathing or vowel : 

Breathings, 

lifterwards Labials. Gutturals. DtDtiik. 

vowels. 

A B r A Media) 

E F H G Aspirata3 

O n O T Tenues, 

and the liquids A, M, N, 2 stood between the aspiratae and the 
tej^ues, because they probably completed a still shorter Semitic 
alphabet of only twelve characters. 

2. When F fell out, and H, the double aspirate, was taken 
to represent the double e, the first letters added to the above 

* They arc still found in inscriptions, the (3av before both consonants 
and vowels (Bockh. C. I. No. 11), the Komza only before o (id. ibid. 
No. 29, 37, 166). 



APPENDIX. 639 

were v and (p, two representatives of F, and Xy the substitute for 
H in its original use. The other additional letters were bor- 
rowed, as their names denote, from corresponding letters in the 
Hebrew alphabet, and from this was also taken the obsolete 
I>dv, of which we have spoken above. The Greeks added, for 
their own convenience, a double o (called u fieya, and written 
6)), and two combinations of Iliyfia or I^dv with lit, in one of 
which the n preceded, while in the other it followed the sibi- 
lant. These combinations were called -il and I^afiTrl, and were 
represented by the same sign in difierent postures, ^Z preceded 
and I.a/iim followed 'fi. Under the form T>, the 2a/x7rZ was 
used to represent the number 900. 

3. The lonians in Asia Minor were the first to adopt the 
complete alphabet of twenty-four letters, arranged as we now 
have it. The Samians have the credit of being the earliest 
employers of this extension of the written characters, and it was 
from them that the Athenians derived the additional letters, 
although they were not used in pubhc monuments until the 
Archonship of Euclides, 01. 94, 2. b.c. 403. Hence we read 
of rd ygdiiiiara rd an' HvkXelSov dpxovrog. Of course He- 
rodotus, who was an important contributor to the literary inter- 
course between Samos and Athens, had brought the improved 
alphabet into use among men of education at a much earlier 
period, and Euripides expressly distinguishes between r] and 
e as vowels in spelling the name Orjoevg {ajncd Athe/i. p. 
454 c). 

4. The earliest extant approximation to anything like a 
handwriting is the inscription on the prize vase brought from 
Athens by Mr. Burgon, which cannot be later than 600 b.c. 
The only abbreviation observable in this is the omission of e in 
the termination -Oev. The later Greeks used a number of con- 
tractions in their MSS., which were adopted in the early edi- 
tions, but are universally rejected by modern editors. 



640 APPENDIX. 



P. 198. 



Three ships, one Athenian, one of Troezen, and one of ^Egina 
had been stationed ofi' Sciathus to give advice of the movements 
of the enemy. They fled when the Persians came in sight : 
and the Troezenian and ^Eginetan were taken. The Athenian 
ran ashore at the mouth of the Peneus, and abandoning their 
ship, made their way home overland. But what makes this 
affair the more interesting, is the well attested fact that the Per- 
sians chose out the comehest man among the Trcezenians, and 
offered him as a sacrifice for victory at the prow of his ship. 
A collection of al^ the instances of human sacrifice among the 
more civilized nations of antiquity would form a sad chapter 
even in the history of superstition. 



ATHENIAN LOYE FOR HIGH BIRTH.— P. 322. 

It should be remembered that high birth among the Greeks 
implied a heroic or divine origin, thus connecting the individual 
with some object of public or private worship. Indeed nothing 
is more important, and perhaps, at the same time, more difficult, 
in the study of history, than to keep constantly in mind the 
peculiar manner in which the religious belief of a country affects 
its ideas upon every other subject. 



SOCRATES. 

I TRANSLATE from Constant's gi'eat work on Religion the fol- 
lowing admirable appreciation of Socrates : 

" Long before our era polytheism had reached its highest 
point of relative perfection ; but relative perfection, like every 
thing which partakes of human weakness, is transient in its na- 
ture. Polytheism, imperfect in ^schylus, perfect in Sophocles, 
began to decline at the very moment of its perfect development, 
for the germs of its decay are already manifest in Euripides. 
The gods had been multiplied to infinity by personifications and 
allegories ; and hence a strange confusion in doctrines, fables and 
practice. Such was the state of religion in Greece. In the 
fourth century the sophists had neglected the method of obsci-va- 
tion, and seem to have been so far from suspecting the import- 
ance of ethics, that they scarcely mentioned it ; devoting their 
lessons to abstract speculations, remoto from practical life. Soc- 



•' 



APPENDIX. 641 

rates founded his precepts upon conscience, upon self-knowledge ; 
and thus created the science of morals, which he taught in his 
lessons and exemplified by his life. He knew nothing of rhe- 
torical forms : ushig only a simple, laconic, and close logic. 
The details of his doctrines are httle known ; yet there is no 
doubt but w^hat they taught practical morality, founded upon 
the inspirations of conscience and the pleasures of virtue ; the 
existence of a supreme governor of the universe ; and the immor- 
tality of the soul. Thus the necessity of unity was felt both in 
politics and in religion, and while states were preparing for cen- 
trahzation, religion was upon the point of being purified and 
made one. 



LAWS OF DIOCLES.— P. 487-497. 

Although we know little more of this code than what is 
contained in some very unsatisfactory passages of Diodorus, yet 
it was evidently well adapted both to the character and the 
wants of the Spacusans, for they continued to hold to it with 
undiminished veneration as long as they were allowed to be 
governed by laws of their own. Subsequent legislators were 
regarded as mere expounders of the law, while the title of law- 
giver was reserved lor Diodes. Diodorus tells us that it was 
severe but discriminating, proportioning the punishment to the 
crime, and drawn up with conciseness and precision. It has 
been supposed with great apparent probability that Diodes took 
for models the laAvs of Zaleukos, Oharondes and Pythagoras. 
V. Wachsmuth Hellenische Alterthumskunde, v. i. pp. 741-2, 
k 85, 2d cd. 



THE ART OF WAR IN GREECE. 

Upon this interesting subject the reader will do well to con- 
sult the twelfth section of Heeren's Politics of Ancient Greece, in 
which he will find the leading questions discussed with the 
characteristic precision of that admirable writer. Tliose who 
have not that work at hand, should bear in mhid that llie char- 
acter of Grecian warfare must necessarily have paiiaken largely 
• of the general characteristics of mountain wariiire. If lie has 
studied his map attentively, he will have seen that there was 
very little room in those naiTow limits for the movement of 
large masses : that a march of a few miles always led to some 



642 APPENDIX. 

mountain pass or dangerous defile : that there were no strong 
and extensive bases ol' operation hke those of" the Adige and the 
Mincio in Lombardy, and consequently few occasions for the 
display of strategic skill. The early battles of the Greeks were 
desperate encounters of hand-to-hand, displaying judicious tactics 
in the arrangement of the troops, but pecuharly fitted to turn to 
account the perfect gymnastic training of the men ; a fact which 
will explain the superiority of the Spartans during the early and 
naiddle periods of Grrecian history. Epaminondas was the first 
to discover the great principle of concentrating the weight of 
your own army upon the weakest point of your enemy's, in 
which the secret of the art consists. The battle ofLeuctra was 
the opening of a new era in the art of war, which was soon de- 
veloped upon a vast scale by Philip and Alexander. 




Ilorologinm of Andronicus Cyrrhcstes at Athens. (Sec p. 585 ) 



INDEX. 



Abdera, 158. 
Abrocomas, 423. 
Abydus, battle of, 423. 
Academy, the, 399, 596. 
Acarnania, 6. 
AclKcans, 12, sq. 
Ach;can league, 568, sq. 
Ach;cus, 12. 
Achaia, 6, 57. 

, a Roman province, 578. 

AcharnJB, 28(5. 

Achelous. 4, 9. 

Achilles, 22. 

Achradina, 344. 

Acrisius, 18. 

Acroiiolis, Athenian, 382, 392. 

Acusilaiis of Argos, 234. 

Adiiriantus, 200. 

Admetus, 248- 



Adrastiis, 22. 

Aeotcs, 20 

JE'TK, 523. 

^galeos, Mt., Xerxes at, 209. 

yEgeus, 19. 

^gina, 7 ; described, 181 ; taken by the 
Athenians, 287. 

iEginctan scale, 59 ; sculpture, 149. 

TEginetans submit to tlie Spartans, 172. 

^:<losi)otami, battle of, 3G8. 

^gyptus, 15. 

vEoiians, 13. 

VKolic migration, 35. 

iEolua, 12 

-^schines, 512; Amphictyonic deputy, 
518; accuses Demosthenes, 553; re- 
tires to Rhodes, 554 ; account of his 
life, .V.)l. 

^schylus, 178 ; account of, 403, sq. 

-iEsymnetes, 8. 

iGtolia, 6. 



G44 



HISTORY OF GREECK 



JEtolian league, 571. 

^tolians reduced, 574. 

Agamemnon, 16, 22. 

Agathon, 587. 

Ageladas, 387. 

Agesilaus becomes king of Sparta, 436 
character, ib. ; his expedition against 
the Persians, 439 ; attacks Pharnabazus 
440 : routs the Persians on the Pacto 
lus, ib. ; his interview with Pharna 
bazus, 441 ; recalled, 442 ; homeward 
march, 446 ; offering at Delphi, 447 
takes LechsBum, 449 ; invades Bceotia, 
464 ; attacks Mantinea, 474 ; saves 
Sparta, 476, 485 ; expedition to Eg>'pt, 
486 ; death, tb. 

Agesipolis, 445 ; death, 459. 

Agis, 307, 326, 435. 

I v., 570. 

Agnon, 269. 

Agora, 26. 

, Athenian, 398. 

Agrigentum, 118, 488. 

Agyrrhius, 452. 

Aimnestus, 224. 

Ajax, 22. 

Alaric, 396. 

Alca?us, 132. 

Alcibiades, character of, 322 ; deceives the 
Spartan ambassadors, 324 ; at Olympia, 
325 ; attacks Epidaurus, ib. ; in Sicily, 
329 ; accused of mutilating the Hermag, 
331 ; arrest and escape of, 335 ; con- 
demned, lb. ; goes to Sparta, 336 ; ex- 
cites a revolt of the Chians, 348; dis- 
missed by the Spartans, 349 ; flies to 
Tissaphernes, 350 ; intrigues of, 351 ; 
proceedings at Samos, 354 ; arrested by 
Tissaphernes, 359 ; defeats the Pelopon- 
nesians at Cj'zicus, 360 ; returns to 
Athens, 361 , dismissed from the com- 
mand of the Athenian fleet, 363 ; flies to 
Pharnabazus, 376 ; murdered, ib. 

Alcidas, 300, 304. 

Alcmaeon, 88. 

Alcmaeonidae banished, 93. 

Alcman, 130. 

Alcmena, 15. 

Aleuadae, 507. 

Alexander, King of Macedon, 217. 

Alexander of Pheras, 480 ; defeated by 
Pelopidas, 482 ; subdued, 483 

Alexander the Great, 522 ; education, 526 ; 
accession, ib.; overawes the Thebans 
and Athenians, 527 ; generalissimo 
against Persia, ib. ; interview with 
Diogenes, 528 ; expedition against the 
Thracians, &c , ib. ; reduces the The- 
bans to obedience, tb. ; demands the 
Athenian orators, 529 ; crosses to Asia, 

530 ; forces the passage of the Granicus, 

531 ; progress through Asia Minor, ib. ; 
cuts the Gordian knot, 542 , dangerous 
Illness, 533 ; defeats the Persians at 
Issus, lb ; march through Phoenicia, 
535 ; besieges Tyre, 536 ; answer to 
Parmenio, 537 ; proceeds to Egypt, ib. ; 
visits the temple of Ammon, 538 ; defeats 
Darius in the battle of Arbela, 539 ; 
enters Babylon, ib. ; seizes Suza, 540 ; 
marches to Persepolis, ib. ; pursues 



Darius, 541; invades Hyrcania, 542; 
enters Bactria, 543 ; defeats the Scy- 
thians, ib. ; marries Roxana, 544 ; killa 
Clitus, lb. ; plot of the pages against his 
life, 545 ; crosses the Indus, ib. ; van- 
quishes Porus, lb. ; marches home- 
wards, 546 ; peril at Malli, ib. ; arrives 
at the Indian Ocean, 547 ; march through 
Gedrosia, tb. ; marries Statira, 54« ; 
quells a mutiny at Opis, ib. ; solemnises 
the festival of Dionysus at Ecbatana, 
549 ; his ambitious projects, 550 ; death, 
ib. ; character, ib. ; estimate of his ex- 
ploits, 551 ; funeral, 553 ; portraits and 
statues of, 582. 

Alexander, son of Alexander the Great, 
553, 561. 

Alexandria in Arachosia, 543. 

Alexandria in Ariorum, 542. 

Alexandria ad Caucasum, 543. 

Alexandria in Egypt, founded, 537 ; de- 
scription of, 584 ; literature at, 600. 

Alexandria Eschate, 543. 

Alphabet, Ionic, introduced, 379. 

Alpheus, 6, 7. 

Altis, the, 52. 

Ambracian Gulf, 4. 

Aminias, 211. 

Ammon, Jove, 538. 

Amompharetus, 223. 

Amphipolis, 269, 503. 

Amphissians, 518. 

Amphitryon, 15. 

Amphictyonic council, its origin and con. 
stitution, 49. 

Amphictyons, decree of the, at the end of 
the second sacred war, 513. 

Amyntas, 457 

Anacharsis, 84. 

Anacreon, 134. 

Anactorium, 125. 

Anaxagoras, 136 , charged with impiety, 
279 

Anaxibius, 432 ; slain, 453. 

Anaxicrates, 262. 

Anaximander, 136. 

Anaximenes, 136. 

Andocides, 334, 590. 

Androsthenes, 388. 

Anniceres, 490. 

Antalcidas, peace of, 454; mission to 
Persia, 457. 

Antigonias, Athenian tribe. 562. 

Antigonus, 553, 558 ; coalition against, 
561 ; assumes the title of king, 502 ; 
slain, 563. 

Antigonus Doson, 570. 

Antigonus Gonatas, 568. 

Antioch founded by Seleucus, 563. 

Antiochus, 303, 479. 

Aiitiochus Soter, 567. 

Antiochus III., 574. 

Antipater, defeats the Spartans, 553-, 
defeated at the Spercheus, 555 ; over- 
throws the allied Greeks at Crannon, 
556 ; demands the Athenian orators, 
557 ; declared regent, 558 ; death, ib. 

Antiphon, 351, 355; executed, 356; char- 
acter as an orator, 590. 

Antisthenes, 596. 

Anytus, 417. 



INDEX. 



645 



Apaturia, festival of, 306. 

Apelles, 582. 

Apollo Pythajus, 58 ; Temnites, 337 ; 
Epicurius, temple of, 399. 

ApoUodorus, 390. 

Apollonia, 125. 

Applan, GOl. 

Arachosia, 543. 

Aratus, 569. 

Arbela, battle of, 539. 

Arcadia, 6, 57. 

Arcadian confederation, 474. 

Arcadians transfer the presidency of the 
Olympic games to the Pisatans, 483. 

Arcesilaus, 596. 

Archelaus, 501. 

Archias 557 460 

Archida'mus,' 278,' 284, 2S5, 287, 288 ; he- 
sieges Plataja, 293. 

Archilochus, 129. 

Architecture, 141, 584. 

Archon, 80 ; Athenian, 88 ; eponjTnus 
and basileus, 91. 

Areopagus, court of, 91 ; reformed by Peri- 
cles, 256 ; hill of, 382, 398. 

Arginusa?, battle of, 365, 

Argives and Spartans, struggles between, 
78. 

Argolis, 7. 

Argonauts, 20. 

Argos, 7, 13, 15, 57; progress of, 257; 
head of a new confederacy, 321. 

Ariadne, 19. 

Ariaeus, 426. 

Ariobarzanes, 540. 

Arion, 131,402. 

Aristagoras, 163, sq. 

Anstafchus, 600. 

Aristides, character of, 183 ; recalled 
from exile, 203 ; defeats the Persians, 
212 ; organizes the confederacy of Delos, 
242 , change in his views ; 245 ; death, 
250 

Aristippus, 595. 

Arislocrates, 70. 

Aristodemus of Messenia, 74. 

Aristodemus of Sparta, 226. 

^.ristogciton (v. Ilarniodius). 

Aristophanes, his politics, 302; account 
of, 408, sq. 

Aristophanes of Byzantium, 600. 

Aristomenes of Messenia, 75. 

Aristotle, 526 ; account of, 597 ; method 
and philosophy, 598. 

Arrian, 60 J . 

Arsinoc, 566. 

Art, Greek, 30 , 140, sq. ; Athenian, ,380, 
sq. ; Greek, 579, sq. ; decline of, 585. 

Artabazus, retreat of 225 

Artaphernes, 164, 173. 

Artaxer.xes, 249, 420 

Artemisia, 206 ; her prowess, 211. 

Artemisium, battle of, 199. 

Asia Minor, Greek colonies in, 35. 

Asopius, 299 

Aspasia, 279. 

Assyrian empire, 159. 

Astacus, 287. 

Asty, the. 364. 

Astyochus, 349. 

Alheas, 518. 



Athena, 20 ; statue of, 395. 

Athenian navy, 299. 

Athenians, divided into four classes, 97; 
assist the lonians, 166 ; war with 
jEgina, 181 ; abandon Athens, 202 ; 
reject the Persian alliance, 217 ; consti- 
tution more democratic, 245 ; form an 
alliance with Argos, 257 ; assist Inarus, 
258 ; defeat the ^ginetans, 250 ; con- 
quer Bceotia, 261 ; reduce ^gina, ib. ; 
lose their power in Bceotia, 263 ; des- 
potic power of, 271 ; make peace with 
Persia, 262 ; conclude a thirty years' 
truce with Sparta, 264 ; subjugate 
Samos, 271 ; form an alliance with 
Corcyra, 275 ; their allies and resources 
in the Peloponnesian war, 263 ; their 
fleet annoys the Peloponnesus, 287 ; 
ravage the Megarid, ib. ; their decree 
against the Mytileneans, 302 ; take 
Pylus, 307 ; expedition against Bceotia, 
315 ; conclude a truce with Sparta, 318 ; 
peace of Nicias, 320 ; refuse to evacuate 
Pylus, 322 ; treaty with Argos, 324 ; 
conquer Melos, 327 ; massacre the in- 
habitants, 328 ; interfere in Sicilian 
affairs, ib. ; expedition to Sicily, 329 ; 
progress of, 333 ; insult the coasts of 
Laconia, 340 ; send a fresh fleet to 
Sicily, 341 ; defeated at sea by the Sy- 
racusans, 342 ; retreat from Syracuse, 
343 ; defeated by the Laceda-monians off 
Eretria, 356 ; gain a naval victory at 
Cynossema, 356 ; at Abydus, 359 ; at 
Cyzicus, 360 ; regain possession of the 
Bosporus, lb. ; totally defeated at yEgos- 
potarni, 368 ; ally themselves with 
Thebes, 444 ; form a league with Cor- 
inth and Argos against Sparta, 445 ; 
lose the command of the Hellespont, 
454 ; head of a new confederacy, 463 ; 
declare war against Sparta, ib. ; peace 
with Sparta, 468 ; form an alliance with 
the Peloponnesian States, 474 ; send an 
embassy to Persia, 479 ; support Alex- 
ander of Pherae, 460 ; their desire to 
seize Corinth, 461 ; reviving maritime 
power of, 482 ; deceived by Philip, 504 ; 
coalition against, 505 ; send an embassy 
to liiin, 512; court Philip, 513; send a 
llect to relieve Byzantium, 517 ; their 
alarm at the approach of Philip, 519; 
prostrated by the battle of ChiPronea, 
520 ; their piratical expedition to Oroi)us, 
577 , condemned in 500 talents by tho 
Romans, ib. 

Athens, its origin, 15, 19; early conBti- 
tulion of, 90 ; taken by the Persians, 
205 ; second occupation of, by the Per- 
sians, 216 ; rebuilding of, 244 ; long 
walls of, 259 ; incipient dcilmc of, 
203; crowded state of, during the Pe- 
loponnesian war, 286; jjlague at. 2^-8; 
dismay at, 347 ; oligarchy established 
at, 353 ; invested by the Ptlopoiine- 
sians, 371 ; famine at, ib. ; surrender 
of, 372 ; Spartan garrison at, 374 ; 
democracy restored at, .379 ; description 
of the city, 362, .s-^. ; origin of its name, 
363 ; rebuilt, .364 ; walls, ib. ; harUmrs, 
lb.; streets, &.c., 365; population, tb.: 



646 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



long walls rebuilt, 447; captured by 
Demetrius, 565 

Athos, Mount, canal at, 187. 

Atiaginus, 226. 

Attic tribes, four, 89 ; increased to ten, 
108. 

Attica, 5 ; early history of, 88 ; three fac- 
tions in, 95. 

B. 

Babylon, 153 ; taken by Cyrus, 158 ; sub- 
mits to Alexander, 539. 

Babylonians, the, 153 ; Aristophanes' 
comedy of, 302. 

Bacchiadae, oligarchy of the, 383. 

Bacchylides, 233. 

Bad, the, 85. 

Barbarian, meaning of the term, 48. 

Barca, 124. 

Bards, ancient, 30. 

Bardylis, 502. 

Basileus, what, 26. 

Bolus, temple of, 539. 

Bessus, 541 ; put to death, 543. 

Bias, 135. 

Bion, 600. 

Boar's grave, battle at the, 76. 

Boeotarchs, restored, 461. 

BcEotia, description of, 5. 

Boeotians, immigration of the, 32 ; their 
confederacy restored, 466. 

Boges, 243. 

Bosporus, Athenian toll at the, 360. 

Boule, 26. 

Brasidas, 308 ; his expedition into Thrace, 
317 ; death, 319 ; honours paid to his 
memory, 320. 

Brennus, 567. 

Bribery among the Greeks, 199. 

Bryas, 327. 

Bucephala, founded by Alexander, 546. 

Byzantines, erect a statue in honour of 
Athens, 518. 

Byzantium, 125 ; taken by the Athenians, 
240 ; second capture of, 272 ; third cap- 
ture of, 361 ; besieged by Philip, 516 ; 
relieved by the Athenians, 518. 



Cadmea, or Theban citadel, seized by the 
Spartans, 458 ; recovered, 462. 

Cadmus, 16. 

Cadmus of Miletus, 234. 

Calamis, 387. 

Callias, peace of, 468. 

Callias of Chalcis, 517. 

Callicrates, 576. 

Callicratidas, 363, 

Callimachus, 600. 

CaUippus, 494. 

Callirrhoe, fountain of, 104. 

Callistratus, 463. 

Callixenus, 366. 

Cambunian mountains, 2. 

Cambyses, 158; conquers Egypt, 159; 
death, ib. 

Canachus, 387. 

Carduchi, 429. 

Carneades, 590. 



Caryatides, 397. 

Carthaginians invade Sicily, 215, 488. 

Caspian gates, 541. 

Cassander, 559 ; establishes an ohgarchy 
at Athens, 560 , takes Pydna, ib. ; kills 
Roxana and her son, 561. 

Casting, art of, 148. 

Catana, surprised by the Athenians, 334. 

Cathaei, 546. 

Caucones, 14. 

Cecropidae, 383. 

Cecrops, 15. 

Celts invade Macedonia, 567. 

Cephallenia, 7, 287. 

Cephissus, the, 382. 

Ceramicus, the, 398. 

Ceryces, the, 351. 

Chabrias, 451, 463 ; defeats the Lace- 
daemonian fleet at Naxos, 465 ; slaiu. 
505. 

Chaereas, 354. 

Chaerephon, 417. 

Chaerilus, 402. 

Chaeronea, first battle of, 263 ; second 
battle, 520. 

Chalcedon, 301. 

Chalybes, the, 430. 

Chares, 481, 505, 517. 

Chares (sculptor), 585. 

Chariclcs, 340. 

Charidemus, 509. 

Charilaus, 01, 77. 

Chariots of war, 30. 

Charon of Lampsacus, 234. 

Charon of Thebes, 400. 

Chians, revolt of the, 348. 

Chileos, 219. 

Chilo, 135. 

Chionides, 407. 

Chios, attacked by the Athenians, 505. 

Chirisophus, 431. 

Chremonidean war, 568. 

Chronology, Grecian, 28. 

Chryselephantine statuary, 395. 

Cimon of Cleonae, 150. 

Cimon, son of Miltiades, 242 ; his cha- 
racter, 252 ; assists the Lacedaemo- 
nians, 255 ; banished, 257 ; his sen- 
tence revoked, 261 ; expedition to Cyprus 
and death, 262 ; his patronage of art, 
391. 

Cinadon, conspiracy of, 437. 

Cirrhaean plain, 51, 505. 

Cithseron, Mount, 5. 

Cities, independent sovereignty of, 54. 

Clearchus, 420, 425. 

Clearidas, 322. 

Cleippides. 298. 

CleobiUus. 135. 

Cleombrotus, 462 , assists the Phocians, 
466; invades Bceotia, 470 ; slain, 471. 

Cleomenes, 106, 111, sq. 162. 

Cleomenic war, 571. 

Cleon, 286 ; character of, 301 ; his vio- 
lence, 310 ; his expedition against 
Sphacteria, 311 ; to Thrace, 319; flight 
and death, ib. 

Cleopatra, Philip's wife, 522. 

Cleopatra, Philip's daughter, marries 
Alexander of Epirus, 523.- 

Cleophon, 300. 



INDEX. 



647 



Cleruc/ii, 112, 268. 

Clistlienes of Sicyon, 83. 

Clisthenes, 107 ; his reforms, 108 ; their 
effects, 113. 

Clitus saves Alexander's life, 531 ; killed 
by Alexander, 544. 

Cnemus, 291. 

Cnidus, battle of, 442. 

Codrus, death of, 88. 

Colchians, the, 431. 

Colonies, Greek, 115, sq. ; relation t» the 
mother country, ib. ; how founded, 
116; mostly democratic, ib. ; in Asia 
Minor, 117; in Sicily, 118; in Italy, 
120 ; in Gaul and Spain, 123 ; in Africa, 
124; in the Ionian Sea, ib. ; in Mace- 
donia and Thrace, 125 ; progress of, 
228. 

Comedy, old Attic, 408 ; new, 588. 

Conon, supercedes Alcibiades, 363 ; de- 
feated by Callicratidas, 364 ; accepts 
the command of the Persian fleet, 439 ; 
oicupies Caunus, 441 ; proceeds to 
Babylon, 442 ; defeats the Spartan fleet 
at Cnidus, ib. ; reduces the Spartan 
colonies, 447 ; takes Cythera, ib. ; re- 
builds the long walls of Athens, 446 ; 
seized by Tiribazus, 451. 

Copais, lake, 5. 

Corax, 5. 

Corcyra, 7, 121 ; troubles in, 304 ; mas- 
sacre at, 313 ; defended by an Athenian 
fleet, 407. 

Corcyrieans, quarrel with Corinth, 273 ; 
send an embassy to Athens, 274. 

Corinna, 231. 

Corinth, 57 ; despots of, 83 ; battle of, 
445 ; massacre at, 449 ; congress at, 
521 ; another congress at, 527 ; destroy- 
ed by Mummius, 578. 

Corinthian gulf, 5. 

Corinthian order, 145 ; war, 445. 

Corinthians assist the Epidamnians, 274 ; 
ally themselves with Argos, 449 ; con- 
clude a peace with Thebes, 481. 

Coronea, battle of, 446. 

Corupedion, battle of, 566. 

Cottyus, 519. 

Cotys, 576. 

Cranai, 383. 

Crannon, battle of, 556. 

Crantor, 596. 

Crater us, 546. 

Crates, 596. 

Cratinus, 408. 

Crete, 7, 38. 

Creusis, 470. 

Crimesus, battle of, 497. 

Crissa, 50. 

Critias, 372 ; seizes Salamis and Elcusis, 
377 ; slain. 378. 

Crito, 418. 

Critolaus, 578. 

Crcesus, 150, 154 ; fall of, 157. 

Croton, 120. 

Cryptia, 64. 

CumsD, 118. 

Cunaxa, battle of, 424. 

Cyclades, 7. 

Cyclic poets, 40. 

Cyclopean walls, 112. 



Cyllene, Mount, 6. 

Cylon, conspiracy of, 92. 

Cynics, the, 596. 

Cynosarges, the, 596. 

Cynoscephalae, battle of, 482. 

Cynuria, 78. 

Cypselus, 83. 

Cyrenaic sect, 595. 

Cyrene, 124. 

Cyrus, empire of, 155 ; captures Sardis, 

156 ; takes Babylon, 158 ; death, ib. 
Cyrus the younger, arrives on the coast, 

362 ; his expedition against his brother 

Artaxerxes, 420 ; march, 422, sq. ; slain, 

425. 
Cythera. 7. 
Cyzicus, 117, 359; recovered by the 

Athenians, 360. 

D. 

Daedalus, 148. 

Damocles, story of, 490. 

Danae, 15. 

Danai, 15. 

Danaus, 15, 18. 

Darius, 159; his administration, 161; 
Tliracian expedition of, ib. ; extorts the 
submission of the Macedonians, 162 ; 
death, 186. 

Darius Codomanus, defeated by Alexander 
at Issus, 533 ; overthrown by Alexander 
at Arbela, 539 ; nmrdered, 543. 

Datis, 173. 

Decarchies, Spartan, 370, 437. 

Decelca, 340. 

Delium, Athenian expedition against, 315 j 
battle of, 316. 

Delos, confederacy of, 241; tribute, 269; 
synod removed to Athens, 270 ; lustra- 
tion of, 307. 

Delphi, temple of, 50; oracle, 54; taken 
by the Phocians, 506 , oracle of concern- 
ing Philip, 523. 

Demades. 557. 

Demaratus, 182. 

Denies, Attic, 108. 

Demetrias, Athenian tribe, 562. 

Demetrius of Phalerus, 560 ; character of, 
561 ; retires to Thebes, 562. 

Demetrius Poliorcetes, 561 ; besieges 
Salamis, 562 ; besieges Rhodes, ib. ; 
takes Athens, 565 ; king of Maccdon, 
ib. ; death, 566. 

Demetrius of Pharos, 572. 

Demiurgi, 20. 

Democracy, 80 ; Athenian, progress of, 
301. 

Demosthenes (general), 307, 311. 

Demosthenes (orator), account of, 508; 
Philippics, ib. ; first, 509 ; Olynthiacs, 
510; embassy, 512; second Philippic, 

515 ; oration on the Peace, ib. ; mission 
into Peloponnesus, ib. ; third Philippic, 

516 ; oration on the Chersonese, ib. ,• 
presented with a golden crown, 517 ,• 
goes envoy to Thebes, 519 ; fights at 
Chieronea, 520 ; his conduct allcr 
Philip's death, 526 ; proposes religiou.s 
honours for Philip's assassin, ib. ; hi.s 
opinion of Alexander, 527 ; exertions 



648 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



to rouae Greece, ib. ; embassy to Alex- 
ander, ib. ; accused by ^schines — 
speech, on the Crown, 554 ; condemned 
of corruption, 555 ; recalled from exile, 
556 ; demanded by Antipater, 557 ; 
escapes to Calaurea, ib. ; death, ib ; 
character as an orator, 592. 

Dercyllidas, 438, 447. 

Diacria, 95. 

Digeus, 577. 

Diasia, 93. 

Dicasteries, 256. 

Dinarchus, 593. 

Diodes, 487. 

JDiodorus Siculus, 601. 

Diodotus, 303. 

Diogenes, his interview with Alexander, 
527. 

Dion, 489 ; patriotic projects of, 491 ; 
exiled, 492 ; takes Syracuse, 493 ; as- 
sassinated, 494. 

Dion Cassius, 601. 

Dionysius the elder, tyrant of Sy- 
racuse, 488, sq. ; death and character, 
490. 

Dionysius the younger, 490 ; expelled by 
Dion, 493 ; retires to Corinth, 496. 

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 601. 

Dionysus, theatre of, at Athens, 397. 

Diopithes, 516. 

Dithyramb, invention of the, 132 ; the 
source of tragedy, 402. 

Dodona, oracle of, 14. 

Dorcis, 241. 

Dorians, 12, 13 ; in Peloponnesus, 32 ; 
migrations of the, 37 ; three tribes of, 62. 

Doric Hexapolis, 37 ; order, 144. 

Doris, 5. 

Dorus, 12. 

Draco, laws of, 92. 



Ecclesia, the, 109. 

Education, Spartan, 66 ; Athenian, 413. 

Egestaeans, the, deceive theAthenians, 329. 

Egypt, its influence on Greece, 15. 

Eiou, Athenian colony at, 253. 

Eisphora, the, 463. 

Elea, founded, 158. 

Eleans, 34 ; attack the Arcadians at 
Olympia, 483. 

Eleusinians, condemned to death by the 
3000 at Athens, 378. 

Eleutheria, festival of, 227. 

Elis, 7, 57 ; reduced by the Spartans, 435. 

Embassy of the three philosophers to 
Rome, 577. 

Embroidery, 30. 

Ennea Hodoi, 253. 

Epaminondas, 460 ; named Bceotarch, 
461 ; his character, 404 ; embassy to 
Sparta, 468; military genius of; defeats 
the Spartans at Leuctra, 471 ; invades 
Laconia, 475 ; establishes the Arcadian 
contederation, and restores the Messe- 
nians, 476 ; again invades Peloponnesus, 
478 ; saves the Theban army, 480 ; res- 
cues Pelopidas, ib. ; naval expedition of, 
482 ; last invasion of Peloponnesus, 484 ; 
death oi; 4tJ6. 



Epariti, 476. 

Epeans, 34. 

Ephesus, 117. 

Epheta;, 92. 

Ephialtes, 195. 

Ephialtes (the friend of Pericles), 256. 

Ephors, 64 ; power of the, 65. 

Epic poetry, 40. 

Epicharmus, 401. 

Epicnemidian Locrians, 5. 

Epicurean sect, 596. 

Epicurus, 565, 590. 

Epidamnus, 125, 273. 

Epidaurus, 7. 

Epigoni, 22. 

Epimenides, 94. 

Epipolae, 337. 

Epirus, 4. 

Epitadas, 311. 

Epyaxa, 422. 

Equals, Spartan, 438. 

Erectheum, 268. 

Eretria, capture of, 174. 

Eteocles, 22. 

Euajphnus, 73. 

Eubcea, 7 ; revolt from Athens, 264 : 
second revolt of, 356. 

Euboic scale, 59. 

Euclides, archon, 380. 

Euclides of Megara, 595. 

Euclides of Alexandria, 600. 

Eudamidas, 458. 

Eumenes, 553. 

Eumenes, King of Pergamus, 576. 

Eumenides of ^Eschylus, 256. 

Eumenides, cave of the, 398. 

Eumolpidffi, 335, 351. 

EupatridcB, 20 ; nature of their govern- 
ment, 91. 

Euphaes, 73. 

Euphranor, 581. 

Euphrates, surveyed by order of Alex" 
andcr, 550. 

Eupolis, 408. 

Eupompus, 582. 

Euripides, account of, 406 ; character as a 
poet, 407. 

Euripides the younger, 587. 

Eurybiades, 193. 

Eurydice, 560. 

Eurotas, 7. 

Eurymedon, battle of the, 252. 

Eurymedon, 307, 313 ; banished, 328. 

Eurj^stheus, 18. 

Evagoras, 439. 



R 



Farnesian bull, 586. 

Fathers, Greek, 603. 

Few, the, 266. 

' Five Thousand,' the, 353, 355. 

Flaminius, T. Q., 575. 

' Four Hundred,' Athenian Senate or 

Council of, 98 ; enlarged to five hundred, 

109; their judicial power abrogated, 

256. 
' Four Hundred,' conspiracy of the, 353 ; 

put down, 3.56. 
Franchise, Athenian, restricted, 3S0. 
Frc€incn, 27. 



INDEX. 



649 



G. 

Galatia, 567. 

Galen, 602. 

Gargapliia, fountain of, 2Q0. 

Gaugamela, battle of (v. Arbela). 

Gelon of Syracuse, 192, 215. 

Generals, 10 Athenian condemned, 367. 

Geomori, 20, 80, 89. 

Geranean mountains, 5. 

Gerusia, Spartan, 65. 

Good, the, 85. 

Gordian knot, the, 542. 

Gorgias, 328, 414, 590. 

Government, in the heroic age, 25. 

Granicus, battle of the, 531. 

Graphe paranomon, repealed, 353. 

Greece, Ibrm of, 2 ; physical features of, 
7, sq. ; climate, 9, sq. ; products, ib. ; 
reduced to a Roman province, 578. 
Greek language, 13, 48 ; history, early, 
48. 

Greeks, character of the, 8 ; causes which 
united them, 48 ; disunion of, on the 
approach of Xerxes, 191 ; celebrate 
the battle of Salamis, 214 ; expedition 
of the Ten Thousand, 422 ; retreat of, 
426, sqq. ; arrive at the Euxine, 430 ; at 
Byzantium, 432. 

Gyges, 153. 

Gylippus, arrives in Sicily, 339 ; captures 
the fort of Labdalum, ib. 

II. 

Ilamilcar, 215. 

Hannibal, 572. 

IlarmoUius and Aristogiton, conspiracy of, 
105. 

llarmosts. Spartan, 370, 437. 

Harpagus, 158. 

Harpalus, 554. 

Ilecatjeus, 165, 234. 

Ilegias, 387. 

Helen, 22. 

Heliaea, 110. 

Helicon, 5. 

Hellanicus, 234. 

HellanodicjE, 51. 

Hellas, 2. 

Hellen, 12. 

Hellenes, 2. 

Hellenotamiae, 242. 

Hellespont, bridge over the, 187. 

Helots, origin of, 34 ; condition, 63 ; re- 
volt of. 254 ; massacre of, 314. 

Hephajsiion, 546 ; marries Drypetis, 548 ; 
death, 549. 

HeraclidsD, return of the, 32. 

Heraclitus, 136. 

Hercules, 18. 

Hermae, mutilated, 330. 

Hermione, 7. 

Hermippus, 279. 

Hermocrates, 328, 487. 

Ifermolaus, .545. 

Herodotus, 235 ; account of his work, 236, 
*.7- ; at Thurii, 269. 

Heroes, 17. 

Heroic ape, 18 ; manners of, 27, sq. 

Hoiiod, 127. 



Hetaerae, 279. 

Hicetas, 494, 496. 

Hiero of Syracuse, 231, 233. 

Hieromnemon, 49. 

Hipparchus, 104 ; assassinated, 105. 

Hipparinus, 494. 

Hippias, 104 ; expelled from Athene, 106. 

Hippocrates, 315. 

Hippodamus of Miletus, 384. 

Histiaeus of Miletus, 162 ; crucified, 168, 

History, rise of, 233. 

Homer, 39 ; his identity, 41 ; date, ib. 

Homeric poems, their value, 24 ; preserva- 
tion of, 42 ; arranged by Pisastratus, 43; 
poetical unity of, 46. 

Horologium, the, 585. 

Hypcrbolus, murdered, 351. 

Hyperides, 555, 593, 

Hyphasis, the, 546. 



Iambic verse, 129. 

Ibycus, 233. 

Ictinus, 263, 394. 

Ilissus, 382. 

Ilium, or Troy, 23. 

Inaros, revolt of, 358. 

Ion, 12. 

Ionia, subjugated by the Persians, 170. 

lonians, 12, 13 ; four tribes of, 89 ; revolt 

of the, 165; defection from Sparta, 241. 
Ionic migration, 36. 
Ionic order, 145. 
lophon, 587. 
Iphitus, 51. 
Iphicrates, tactics of, 450 ; successes of, 

541 ; recalled, ib. ; defeats the LacediB- 

monians near Abydus, 453; indicted, 505. 
Ipsus, battle of, 503. 
Ira, fortress of, 76. 
Isajus, 591. 
Isagoras, 107, 111. 
Ismenias, 479, 480. 
Isocrates, 591. 
Issus, battle of, 533. 
Isthmian games, 50, 51, 53. 
Ithaca, 7. 
Ithome, becomes subject to Sparta, 74 •, 

Mount, 476. 



.lason, 20. 

Jason of PherjB, 472 ; assassinated, 473. 

Jerusalem, Alexander's reported visit ta 

537. 
Jocasta, 21. 
Joscphus, 001. 
Jove, temple of, at Olympia, 399. 



Kings, Grecian. 25. 

Knights, Athenian, 97. 

luiiglus of Aristoi)liaiwrsPxtract from, -100, 



I.. 

Lacetlrcmonians (v. Sparta). 
I.acudxnioniuu, 275. 



2F 



650 



HISTOEY OF GREECE. 



Lachares, 565. 

Laconia, 7 ; reduced by the Spartans, 71 ; 
northern frontier of, 77. 

Laconizers, what, 257. 

Lade, battle of, 168. 

Lffivinus, M. Val., 572. 

Laius, 21. 

Lamachus, 329 ; advises an attack on 
Syracuse, 333 ; slain, 338. 

Lamian war, 556. 

Lampsacus, 367. 

Laocoon, 5S6. 

Larissa, 429. 

Lasus of Hermione, 230. 

Laurium, 9 ; silver mines at, 183. 

Legends, heroic, their value, 24. 

Leleges, 14. 

Leonidas, 194 ; his death, 196. 

Leonnatus, 553. 

Leontiades, 458. 

Leontines, 328. 

Leotychides, 182, 227 ; treachery of, 254. 

Leosthenes, 555. 

Lesbos, confiscation of, 303; revolt of, 
348. 

Lesche, at Delphi, 390. 

Leucas, 125. 

Leuctra, battle of, 471. 

Lichas, 349. 

Literature, Greek, history of, 126, 229, 
400, 587 ; revival of in the West, 603 

Locrians, 5 ; Epizephyriau, 121. 

Locris, 6. 

Long walls, Athenian, 384 ; rebuilt, 448. 

Lucian, 602. 

Lycabettus, 382. 

Lycambes, 129. 

Lyceum, 399, 597. 

Lycians, destruction of the, 158. 

Lycornedes, king, 20. 

Lycomenes of JNIantinea, 474, 477 ; defeats 
the Spartans, 478, 480. 

Lycon, 417. 

Lycophron, 84. 

Lycortas, 575. 

Lycurgus (legislator), 60. 

Lycurgus (orator), 593. 

Lydian monarchy, 153. 

Lygdamis, 103, 235. 

Lyric poetry, 128 ; occasions of, 129 ; de- 
velopment of, 229. 

Lysander, appointed Navarchiis, 362 ; 
Epistoleus, 367 ; intrusted by Cyrus 
with his satrapy, ib. : his proceedings 
after the victory of -ilgospotami, 370; 
blockades Pirasus, ib. ; takes possession 
of Athens, 372 ; establishes the Thirty 
Tyrants, 373 ; triumph, ib. ; honours, 
377 ; re-enters Athens, 378 ; his ambi- 
tious schemes, 436 ; despatched to the 
Hellespont, 440 ; expedition into Bceotia, 
444 ; slain, ib. 

Lycias, 269, 591. 

Lysicles, 521. 

Lysicrates, choragic monument of, 584. 

Lysimachus, 553, 566 ; slain, 567. 

Lysippus, 582. 

M. 
Macedonia, description of, 500. 



Macedonian empire, partition of, 553 ; 

overtlirow, 576. 
Macedonians, their origin, 501. 
Machanidas, 573. 
Macrones, the, 431. 
Magi, 153. 
Magna Graecia, 120 ; causes of the dechne 

of its cities, 123. 
Magon, 496. 
Malian Gulf, 4. 
Main, the, 546. 
Mantinea, 57 ; battle of, 326 ; taken by the 

Spartans, 385 ; rebuilt, 474 ; battle of, 

485 ; third battle of, 573. 
Mantineans, invoke the aid of Sparta 

against the Thebans, 484. 
Marathon, battle of, 176. 
Mardians subdued by Alexander, 542. 
Mardontes, 227. 
Mardonius, 171 ; adroit flattery of, 212 ; 

negotiations with the Athenians, 217 ; 

marches against Athens, 218 ; retreats, 

219: death, 224. 
Masistius, 220. 
Massagetaj, 158. 
Massalia, 123. 
Mausoleum, the, 580, 584. 
Mausolus, 505. 
Mazaeus, 540. 
Medea, 21. 
Medes, the, 152. 
Media, wall of, 427. 
Medon, first Athenian archon, &S. 
Megabazus, 162. 
-Alegabyzus, 258. 
Megacles, 83, 93, 101, 103. 
Megalopolis founded, 476 ; battle of, 553. 
Megara, 57 ; revolutions of, 85 ; long walls 

at, 257; revohs from Athens, 264; 

complains of Athens, 277 ; Athenian 

expedition against, 314. 
Megaric sect, 595. 
Megaris, 5. 
Melcart, 539. 
Melesander, 292. 
Meletus, 417. 
Melos, 327. 
Menalcidas, 577. 
Menander, 588. 
Mende, 318. 
Mcnelaus, 22. 
Menon, 428. 
Messenc, 58. 
Messene founded, 476 ; taken by Lycortas, 

575. 
Messenia, 7. 
Messenian war, first, 73 ; second, 75 ; 

third, 254. 
Messenians conquered by the Spartans, 

74 ; subjugated, 77. 
Mespila, 429. 
Methone, 507. 
Metellus. 578. 
Meton, 330. 

.Miletus, 117; fall of, 169; revolt of, 348. 
Milo the Crotoniate, 121. 
-Miltiades, 174 ; accusation and death of; 

180. 
Mindarus, 358. 
.Minos, 18, 20. 
.Minotaur, 19. 



INDEX. 



66l 



Minyans, 38. 
Mnaseas, 511. 
Mnasippus, 467. 
Morea, 6. 
Moschus, 600. 
Mosynteci, 432. 

Mummius, 578 ; his ignorance of art, ib. 
Munychia, 384. 
Museum, 382. 
Mycale, battle of, 227. 
Mycenae, 13, 16; ruins of, 29, 141. 
Myron, 389. 
Myronides, 259. 

Mytilene, naval engagement at, 364. 
Mytileneans, revolt of the, 298 ; embassy 
to Sparta, 299 ; capitulate, 300. 

Nauclides, 281. 

Naucrary, 90. 

Naupactus, 33 ; taken by the Athenians, 
261. 

Navarchia, Spartan, 358. 

Naxos, Spartan expedition against, 164 ; 
revolt of, 252 ; battle of, 465. 

Neapolis, 337. 

Nearchus, voyage of, 547. 

Nemean games, 51, 53. 

Neodamodes, 64. 

Nictea, founded by Alexander, 546. 

Nicias, 310 ; reduces Cythera, 314 ; con- 
cludes peace Avith Sparta, 320 ; appoint- 
ed commander in Sicily, 329 ; his dilatory 
proceedings there, 335 ; desponding 
situation of, 340; indecision, 311 ; sur- 
render, 344 ; death, 345 ; character, ib. 

Nicostratus, 304. 

Nike Apteros, temple of, 391. 

Nimroud, 429. 

Nineveh, 429. 

Nisaeus, 494. 

Nobilior, M. Fulv., 574. 

Nobles, 27, 60. 

0. 

Oceanus, 30. 

Odeum, 267, 399. 

(Edipus, 21. 

CEnophyta, battle of, 201. 

(Eta, Mount, 4. 

Oligarchy, 80. 

Olympia, 7 ; temple of, plundered by the 
Arcadians, 484. 

Olympiad, first, 12. 

Olympian Jove, 14. 

Olympias, 522 ; takes refuge with Alexan- 
der in Epirus, 522 ; whether concerned 
in Philip's assassination, 524 ; puts 
Eurjdice to death, 500 ; murdered, ib. 

Olympic games, 51. 

Olympus, 4. 

Olyntliiac orations of Demosthenes, 510. 

Olynthian confederacy dissolved, 457 ; its 
extent, 510. 

Olynthus, 457 ; taken by the Spartans, 
459. 

Onatas, 387. 

Ouoiuarchus, 507. 

Opuntian Locriaus, 5. 



Oracles, 54. 

Orators, Athenian, demanded by Alex- 
ander, 529 ; ten Attic, Alexandrian 
canon of, 590. 

Oratory, Greek, rise and progress of, 589. 

Orchomenos, 326, 466, 473. 

Orders of architecture, 144. 

Oropus, 481, 577. 

Orthagoras, 82. 

Ortygia, 336. 

Ossa, 4. 

Ostracism, introduced by Clisthenes, 110. 

Othryades, 78. 

Othrys, Mount, 4. 

Oxyartes, 544. 

Ozohan mountains, 5. 

P. 

Paches, 300, 304. 

Pactolus, the, 154. 

Paeonians, 502. 

Passtum, 120. 

Painting, origin and progress of, 150 ; 
development of, 389; Sicyonian school 
of, 582. 

Pamisus, river, 7. 

Pamphilus, 582. 

Panathenaja, 19. 

Pancratium, 52. 

PangEBUs, Mount, 253, 504. 

Pan-Ionic festival, 36. 

Parabasis, comic, 409. 

Parah, '^b. 

Paris, 22. 

Parmenio, 537; put to death by Alex- 
der, 543. 

Parnassus, Mount, 5. 

Parnes, Mount, 5. 

Parnon, Mount, 7. 

Paropamisus, 543. 

Parrhasius, 391. 

Parthenia;, 123. 

Parthenon, 267, 394. 

Parysatis, queen, 427, 441. 

PasargadcB, 541. 

Pauhis, L. ^m., 576. 

Pausanias, king of Sparta, vanity and 
treason of, 240; recall and impeach- 
ment, 247 ; conviction and death, 248. 

Pausanias (second), 378 ; expedition into 
Bojotia, 444 ; condenmed to death, 563- 

Pausanias assassinates Philip, 523. 

Pausanias (historian), 602. 

Pedieis, 95. 

Peers, Spartan, 438. 

Pelasgians, 14. 

Pelasgicon, the, 286. 

Pel ion, 4. 

PeU)indas, character of, 460 ; gains a 
victory at Tegyra, 466 ; subdues Alex- 
ander of Pheraj, 478 ; imprisoned by 
Alexander, 480 ; defeats Alexander, 
482; slain, 483. 

Peloponnesian confederacy, meeting of, 

277 ; decides for war ajrainst Alliens, 

278 ; war, coinrnoiicomeiit of, 283 ; in- 
vasion of Attica, 285 ; ThucycUdcs' 
character of the war, 305. 

Pclopouncsians, utteuipt lo surprise Pi- 
rjjeus, 29ti. 



652 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



Peloponnesus, 6, 

Pelops, 16. 

Peneus, 4. 

Penj-ab, the, 545. 

Pentacosiomedimni, 97. 

Pentathlum, 52. 

Perdiccas, 276. 

Perdiccas (Alexander's general), 552 ; 
marches against Ptolemy, 558 ; assas- 
sinated, lb. 

Periander, 83 ; his cruelty, 84 ; abilities 
and power, ib. ; and Arion, 131. 

Pericles, character of, 255 ; innovations 
of, 256 ; his administration, 257 ; re- 
duces Eubcea, 264 ; plans for adorning 
Athens, 267 ; his banishment demanded 
by the Lacedaemonians, 279 ; pleads for 
Aspasia, ib. ; persuades a war, 281 ; 
funeral oration by, 288 ; accused of pec- 
ulation, 289 ; death and character, 290. 

Pericles, age of, character of art in, 386. 

Perinthus, siege of, 516. 

PericEci, 62. 

Peripatetics, 596. 

Persepolis, taken and burnt by Alexan- 
der, 541. 

Perseus, 18. 

Perseus, 575 ; defeated by the Romans, 576. 

Persian Gates, 540. 

Persians, 155 ; their cruelties towards 
the Ionic Greeks, 169; invade Greece, 
171 ; demand earth and water from 
the Grecian States, 172 ; second inva- 
sion of Greece, 173 ; land at Marathon, 
174 ; third invasion of Greece, 188 ; 
their number under Xerxes, 189 ; de- 
struction of their fleet by a storm, 198 ; 
their progress, 203 ; attack Delphi, 204 ; 
take Athens, ib. ; retreat of, 214 ; their 
fleet reassembles at Samos, 216. 

Phosdo, Plato's, 418. 

Phalanx, Macedonian, 503. 

Phalaris of Agrigentum, 119. 

Phalerum, 384. 

Pharnabazus assists the Lacedasmonians, 
360 ; magnanimity of, 442. 

Phayllus, 507, 511. 

Pherecydes of Syros, 234. 

Phidias, 267 ; accused of peculation, 280 ; 
his style, 388 ; his statue of the Olym- 
pian Jove, 399. 

Phidon, 58. 

Phigalian marbles, 399. 

Philemon, 588. 

Philip of Macedon, carried to Thebes as a 
hostage, 478 ; education of, 501 ; cha- 
racter, 502 ; defeats the lllyrians, 503 ; 
assumes the crown, ib. ; takes Amphi- 
polis and Pydna, 504 ; takes part in 
the sacred war, 507 ; loses an eye, ib. ; 
reduces Thessaly, 508 ; expedition into 
Thrace, ib. ; takes Olynthus, 511; oc- 
cupies Delphi, 513 ; overruns Illyria, 
515; second expedition into Thrace, 
516; manifesto to the Athenians, 517 ; 
compelled to evacuate tlie Chersonese, 
518 ; expedition into Scythia, ib. ; 
elected general in the war against Am- 
phissa, 519 ; seizes Elatea, ib. ; defeats 
the Thebans and Athenians at Chapro- 
nea, 520 ; hi« conduct ufler the battle, 



521 ; clemency towards Athens, ib. ; 
appointed generalissimo against Persia, 

522 ; chastises the Spartans, ib. ; family 
(euds, lb. ; omens of his death, 523 ; 
assassinated, ib. , character, 524. 

Philip IV., 565. 

Philip v., 571 ; assists the Achaeans, 572 ; 
forms an alliance with Hannibal, xb.-y 
defeated by the Romans, 574. 

Philip Arrhidaeus, 553. 

Philippi founded, 504. 

Philippics of Demosthenes, 508 ; first, 
509 ; second, 515 ; third, 516. 

Philocrates, 452. 

Philomelus, 506 ; slain, 507. 

Philopoemen, 573; takes Sparta, 575; 
taken and put to death, ib. 

Philosophy, Greek, origin of, 136 ; Ionic 
school of, ib. ; Eleatic school, 137 ; 
Pythagorean school, ib. ; various 
schools, 596. 

Phocseans, 158. 

Phocians, 505 ; defeated by the Thebans, 
507 ; reduced by Philip, 513. 

Phocion, 465 ; character of, 510 ; his 
expedition to Eubcea, 516 ; to Byzan- 
tium, 517 ; his rebuke of Demosthenes, 
526 ; refuses Alexander's presents, 229 ; 
accusation and death, 559. 

Phocis, 5. 

Phcebidas, 465. 

Phoenicians, 16. 

Phormio, victories of, 297. 

Pharos, the, 242. 

Phratriaj, 90. 

Phryne, 581. 

Phrynichus, .351, 355. 

Phrynichus (dramatist), his Fall of Mile- 
tus, 169 ; account of, 402. 

Phyllidas, 460. 

Phylo-basileus, 90. 

Pinacotheca, 393. 

Pindar, 231 ; his style, 233 ; his house 
spared by Alexander, 529. 

^findus. Mount, 4. 

Pirceus fortified, 245, 268; re-fortified, 
447 ; surprised by Teleutias, 453. 

Pirithous, 20. 

Pisa, 7. 

Pisander, 442. 

Pisistratus, usurpation of, 101 ; his strata- 
gem, 103 ; death and character of, 104. 

Pissuthncs, 271. 

Pittacus, 135. 

Plague at Athens, 288. 

Platffia, battle of, 221 ; surprised, 282 ; 
besieged by the Peloponnesians, 293 ; 
surrenders, 295 ; destroyed, ib. ; re- 
stored by the Lacedit;inonians, 456 ; 
again destroyed by the Thebans, 467. 

Plataeans join the Athenians, 176 ; mas- 
sacre of the, 295. 

Plato, visits Sicily, 489 ; sold as a slave, 
490 ; second visit to Sicily, 491 ; life 
of, 593 ; philosophy, 594. 

Pleistoanax, 264. 

Plutarch, 601. 

Pnyx, the, 382, .398. 

Pcecile Stoa, the, 392, 59». 

Poetry, Greek, 40. 

Poleniarch, 91. 



INDEX. 



663 



Polemon, 596. 

Polus of Agrigentum, 414. 

Polybius, 577, 601. 

Tolybus, 21. 

Polychares, 73. 

Polycletus, 388. 

Polycrates ol' Samos, 160. 

Polygiiotus, 389. 

Polynices, 22. 

Polysperchon, 558 ; expedition to Pelo 

ponnesus, 560. 
Porus, 545. 

Potidsa, 276, 292, 457, 504. 
Pratinas, 402. 
Praxias, 388. 

Praxitas defeats the Corinthians, 449. 
Probuli, 347, 352. 
Prodicus, 590. 
Prodicus of Ceos, 414. 
Prose composition, origin of, 233. 
Propylifia, 268, 393. 
Protagoras of Abdera, 414, 590. 
Prytaneum, 99. 
Prytanies, 109. 
Prytanis, 80. 

Psammetichus of Corinth, 85. 
Psyttaleia, 209. 

Ptolemies, patronize learning, 600. 
Plolemy, 5.58 ; defeated at Salamis, 562. 
Ptolemy Ceraunus, 566, 567. 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 566. 
Pydna, 560 ; battle of, 576. 
Pylagora;, 49. 
Pyliis, 307. 

Pyrrhus, 565 ; king of Macedonia, 566. 
Pythagoras, 121, 137. 
Pythagorean clubs suppressed, 139. 
Pythia, 54. 
Pythian games, 51. 
Pythodorus, 328. 
Pythonicus, 331. 

Rhapsodists, 42. 

Rhegium, 121. 

Rhetra of Lycurgus, 61. 

Rhodes, 7 ; siege of, 562 ; colossus at, 585. 

RhcEcus, 148. 

Romans, direct their attention towards 
Greece, 573 ; declare war against Philip 
v., 574 ; proclaim the freedom of Greece, 
lb. ; declare war against Perseus, 576 , 
spoliation of Greek works by, 586. 

Royalty, abolished in Greece, 79 ; cau.sc 
of its abolition, 80. 

Roxana, married by Alexander, 544 ; mur- 
dered, 501. 

s. 

Sacred Jland, Thcban, 46.3. 

Sacred war, first, 51; second, 505, bar- 
barity of, 507; progress of, 511 ; termi- 
nation, 513; results, 514. 

Sages, the seven, 134. 

SaliEthus, 300, 301. 

Salamis, 7; acquired by the Athenians, 
95 ; battle of, 209. 

Salamis (in Cyprus), battle of, .562. 

Samos, revolt of. 271 ; subdued, ib ; its 
importance to Athens, .348 ; revolutions 
at, 354; subdued by Lysandcr, 373. 



Sappho, 133. 

Sardis, 153 ; burnt, 166. 

Saronic gulf, 5. 

Scarphea, battle of, 578. 

Scione, 318. 

Scopas, 220. 

Scopas (sculptor), 580. 

Scyros, reduction of, 242. 

Scythini, tlie, 430. 

Sedition, Solon's law respecting, 99. 

Seisactheia, the, 96. 

Seleucus, 558 ; founds Antioch, 563 ; suc- 
ceeds to the greater part of the Macedo- 
nian empire, 567; assassinated, ib. 

Selinuntine sculptures, 149. 

Sellasia, battle of, 571. 

Selymbra, 125. 

Sestos, reduced by the Athenians, 228. 

Seuthes, 433. 

Sicilian expedition, 332; terrainationof,344. 

Sicily, dissensions in, 328. 

Sicyon, 7 ; despots in, 82. 

Silver mines, 9. 

Simonides of Amorgos, 130. 

Simonides of Ceos, 230. 

Sinope, 117. 

Sisygambis, 534. 

Sitalces, 287, 292, 297. 

Slaves, 27. 

Smerdis, 159. 

Smilis, 148. 

Smyrna, 36. 

Social war, 504; ill effects of the, 505; 
second, 572. 

Socrates, at Delium, 316; his opinion of 
the Sicilian expedition, 330 , opposes 
the condemnation of the ten generals, 
366 ; refuses to obey the commands of 
the Thirty, 374 ; summoned before them, 
375 ; sketch of his life, 415 ; his teaching 
and method, 416 ; how he differed from 
theSophistSjii.; wisdom of, 417; unpopu- 
larity and indictment of, ib. ; condemned, 
lb.; refuses to escape, 418; death, i^. 

Sogdiana, fortress of, taken, 544. 

Sollium, 287. 

Solon, 94 ; legislation of, 96 ; supposed 
interview with Crcesus, 100 ; laws of, 
brought down into the Agora, 256. 

Sophists, prohibited from teaching, 375 , 
description of the, 413. 

Sophocles, at Samos, 272 , account of, 405 ; 
character as a poet, 406. 

Sparta, 13, 57 ; landed property in, 09 , 
power of, 78 ; head of the Grecian States, 
172 ; earthquake at, 253 ; allies of m the 
Peloponnesian war, 283 ; introduction 
of gold and silver at, 437 ; league against, 
445 ; congress at, 467 ; rapid fall of, 474 , 
entered by Epaminondas, 485 ; taken by 
Antigonus Doson, 571 ; taken by Philo- 
pwrnen, 575. 
Spartan constitution, 62 ; tribes, ib. ; ed- 
ucation, 66 ; women, 68 ; money, 70 ; 
fleet totally defeated at Cyzicus, 360, 
7nnra defeated by Iphicrates, 450. 
Spartans, make war on Arcadia, 77 ; 
alone retain their kings, 79 ; overthrow 
the despots, 82 ; send an embassy to Cy- 
rus, 157 ; conduct of, at Thennopvl.-p, 
195 ; selfish conduct of, 202 ; their apa- 



654 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



thy, 218 ; dismiss the Athenians, 255 ; 
oppose the Athenians in BcEotia, 260 ; 
require the Athenians to withdraw the 
decree against Megara, 280 ; invade At- 
tica, 285 ; reject the advances of Alcibi- 
ades, 323 ; send an embassy to Athens, 
lb. ; invade Argos, 325 ; force the Ar- 
gives to an alliance, 327 ; establish them- 
selves at Decelea, 340 ; invade Elis, 435 ; 
duration of their supremacy, tb. ; assist 
the Phocians against the Thebans, 444 , 
defeated at Haliartus, ib. ; lose their col- 
onies, 447 ; proclaim the independence 
of the Boeotian cities, 456 ; garrison Or- 
chomenus and Thespise, ib. ; assist 
Amyntas against the Olynthians, 457 ; 
height of their power, 459 ; expelled 
from Bceotia, 466 ; attack Corcyra, 467 ; 
solicit the aid of the Athenians, 477 ; de- 
feat the Arcadians, 478 ; send an embassy 
to Persia, 479 ; excluded from the Am- 
phictyonic council, 513 ; attempt to 
throw off the Macedonian yoke, 553 ; 
their decline and degradation, 569 ; call 
in the Romans, 578. 

Speusippus, 596. 

Sphacteria, blockaded, 309 ; captured, 312. 

Sphodnas, 462. 

Sporades, 7. 

Statira, 534, 548; murdered by Roxana, 553. 

Statuary, 30 ; progress of, 148 ; schools 
of, 149, 387, 579. 

Stesichorus, 132. 

Sthenelaidas, 278. 

Stoics, 596. 

Strabo, 601. 

Slrategi, Athenian, 110. 

Stratonice, 565. 

Sunium, fortified, 347. 

Susa, treasures at, 540. 

Susarion, 402. 

Sybaris, its luxury, 120; destroyed, 121. 

Sybarites, 269. 

Sybota, naval battle off, 275. 

Syennesis, 422. 

Syntaxis, the, 463. 

Syracusans, their vigorous defence, 336. 

Syracuse, 118; description of, 336; naval 
battle at, 340 ; engagement in the Great 
Harbour of, 342 ; constitution of, 487. 

Syssitia, 68, 438. 

T. 

" Table Companions," the, 425. 

TiBnarum, 7. 

Tanagra, battle of, 260. 

Taochi, the, 430. 

Tarentum, 123. 

Taygetus, Mount, 7. 

Tearless battle, the, 478. 

Tegea, 57 ; reduced by the Spartans, 78. 

Teleclus, 73. 

Teleutias, 452, 453. 

Temenus, 58. 

Tempe, 4 ; pass of. 192. 

Temples, Greek, description of, 143 ; of 
Diana at Ephesus. 146 ; of Juno at Sa- 
mos, 147 ; of Delphi, ih. ; of the Olym- 
pian Jove, lb. ; at PjEstum, ib. ; at Se- 
linus, lb. , in .^gina, ib. 



" Ten Thousand," expedition and retre*t 
of the, 419, sqq. 

" Ten Thousand," the Arcadian, 476. 

Teos, revolt of, 348. 

Terillus, 215. 

Terpander, 128. 

Tetralogies, 403. 

Thais, 541. 

Thales of Miletus, 136. 

Thasos, reduced, 253. 

Theagenes of Megara, 85. 

Thebans, surprise Plataea, 281 ; expel king 
Agis from Aulis, 440 ; invade Phocis, 
444 ; form an alliance with Athens, ib. ; 
forced into Lacedsemonian alliance, 459 ; 
rise of their ascendency, 473 ; defeated 
by Alexander of Pherae, 480; fit out afleet, 
482 ; their proceedings at Tegea, 484 ; 
ally themselves with the Athenians 
against Philip, 519 ; humbled by Philip, 
521 ; rise against the Macedonians, 528. 

Thebes, Seven against, 22. 

Thebes, 16; reduced by Pausanias, 227; lib- 
erated from the Spartans, 461 ; declared 
head of Greece by the Persians, 479 ; de- 
stroyed, 529 ; restored by Cassander, 560. 

Themistocles proposes a fleet, 182 ; his 
character, 183 ; his advice to fight at 
Salamis, 206 ; his stratagem to bring 
on an engagement, 207 ; his message to 
Xerxes, 213 ; his rapacity, ib. ; re- 
warded by the Spartans, 214 ; his views, 
243, sq. ; goes ambassador to Sparta, 
244 ; corruption of, 246 ; ostracised, ib. ; 
flight, 248 ; reception in Persia, 249 ; 
death, ib. ; tomb, 250. 

Theocritus, 600. 

Theodorus of Samos, 148. 

Theognis, 85. 

Theopompus, 74. 

Theramenes, 355, 371, 373 ; his death, 375. 

Thermopylae, 4 ; pass of, 193 ; battle of, 195. 

Theron of Agrigentum, 215. 

Thespis, 229, 402. 

Theseum, the, 392. 

Theseus, 18, 19, 88; bones of brought to 
Athens, 242. 

Thessalians, 32. 

Thessaly, 4 , submits to Xerxes-, 192. 

Thesmothetae, 91. 

Thessalus, 335. 

Thetes, 27, 97, 245. 

Thimbron, 433, 438 ; defeat and death, 452. 

Thirty years' truce, 264. 

Thirty Tyrants at Athens, 373 ; pro- 
scription of the, 374 ; defeated by 
Thrasybulus, 377 ; deposed by the 
Spartans, 379. 

Thrasybulus of Miletus, 84. 

Thrasybulus, 354 ; takes Phyle, 377 ; 
seizes Piraeus, 378 ; defeats the Thirty, 
lb. ; defeated by Pausanias, 379 ; 
marches into Athens, ib. ; commands an 
Athenian fleet, 452; restores theAthenian 
power in the Hellespont, ib. ; slain, ib. 

Thrasyllus, 354. 

Thrasvmelidas, 308. 

Thucydides (states.), 265 ; ostracised, 267. 

Thucydides (the historian), in Thrace, 
318 ; banished, ib. ; account of, 410 ; his 
history, 411. 



I 



INDEX. 



655 



Thurii, 236, 269. 

Thyrea, reduced, 314. 

Tigranes, 227. 

Timocrates, 443. 

Timogenidas, 226. 

Timolaus, 445. 

Timoleon, character of, 494 ; expedition 
to Sicily, 495 ; defeats the Cartha- 
ginians, 497 ; becomes a Syracusan 
citizen, 498. 

Timotheus, 463 ; his success on the west- 
ern coasts of Thrace, 465 ; attacks Za- 
cynthus, 466, successful naval expedition 
of, 482 ; indicted and condemned, 505. 

Tiriba2us, 429,451. 

Tiryns, remains of, 29, 141. 

Tissaphernes, 348 ; 359, 420, 428 ; attacks 
the Ionian cities, 438; beheaded, 441. 

Tithraustes, 441, 443. 

Tolmides, 261, 263. 

Torone, 318. 

Tragedy, Greek, origin of, 402. 

Trapezus, 431. 

"Treasury" of Atreus, 142. 

Triparadisus, treaty of, 558. 

Trilogies, 403. 

Triphylian cities, 474, 479. 

Tritiys, 90. 

TrcBzen, 7. 

Trojan expedition, 22. 

Troy captured, 24. 

Tyche, 337. 

Tyrant, value ol the term, 81. 

Tyre, besieged by Alexander, 536. 

Tyrtajus, 75, 130. 



u. 



Ulysses, 22. 
Uxians, the, 540. 



Venus de' Medicis, 586. 

w. 

Wolf, Homeric theory of, 44. 
Writing, use of, 44. 

X. 

Xanthian marbles, 149. 

Xanthippus, 180 ; recovers the Thracian 
Chersonese, 228. 

Xenocrates, 596. 

Xenophanes, 137. 

Xenophon, account of, 412; his works, 
ib. ; accompanies Cyrus, 422 ; hia 
dream, 428 ; saluted General of the Ten 
Thousand, ib. ; returns to Athens, 433 ; 
joins Agesilaus, 446. 

Xerxes, character of, 186 ; subdues Egypt, 
lb. ; chastises the Hellespont, 187 ; 
marches towards Greece, 188 ; reviews 
his troops, ib. ; crosses the Hellespont 
189 ; number of his host, ib. ; takes 
Athens, 209 ; his alann and retreat, 212. 

Xuthus, 12. 



Zacynthus, 7. 

Zalcucus, laws of, 12X ; suicide, 19a, 

Zca, 384. 

Zcno, 598. 

Zengitas, 97. 

Zeus Eleutherios, 226. 

Zeuxis, 390. 

Zoroaster, 153. 




Calliope, the Muse of Epic Poetry. 



QUESTIONS 



DE. WILLIAM SMITH'S HISTOEY OF GEEECEI 
By Rev. CHARLES BICKMORE. 



INTRODUCTION. 

OUTLINES OF GRECIAN GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 1. Describe the three peninsulas in the South of Europe. 

§ 2. What is the latitude, and what are the names, of the chain of 
mountains bounding Gx'eece to the North ? — What advantages of position 
hdd Greece ? 

§ 3. What are the extreme latitude and longitude of Greece, and what 
its dimensions and extent ? — What do you observ^e of the political state 
of Greece in ancient times ? — Whence arose its celebrity ? 

§ 4, How did the Greeks call themselves and their country ? — Whence 
have we the names Greeks and Greece ? — What was the original extent 
of the name Hellas? — What tribes were not reckoned Hellenes f — What 
was the north boundary of Hellas proper? — In what more extended sense 
was the word Hellas used ? — What countries would thus be included in 
it? 

§ 5. Below the map are the names of 22 countries ; name these, and 
note their position. — Give a rough sketch of this map and its principal 
features. — What mountain chain in Greece corresponds to the Ajtennines 
in Italy ? — What are the North and iSouth boundaries of Thessaly ? — 
What are the position and height of the European Olympus? — What 
other Olympus was tiiere? — What otiier mountains are on the coast of 
Thessaly? — What break is there in these mountains? — What gives ce- 
lebrity to the opening ? — What se])aratcs Thessaly from Epirus ? — Con- 
trast the two countries. — Which is tlic largest river in Greece? — Where 
does it flow? 

§ (I. Name and describe the two gulfs north of Central Greece. — 
Name the countries of Central Greece. — Describe the i)Osition of Mounts 
Tymi)hrestus, Othrys, and CEta. — What names do the mountains whicli 
branch from the Southeast of Pindus boar? — What mountains branch 
from its Sontlnrestf 

§ 7. Describe Doris and its ])nsiii(in. — What rivor rises tlicre ? — Xamo 
and distinguish the several Locrians, stating their ])()siti()n. — Describe 
Phocis. — Name its chief niouiuain, stating the height. — What are tlie 
boundaries, character, and extent of Bceotia? — Name tlic river and laka 
of Bceotia. — Describe Attica. — What separates it from the rest of 

2f* 



658 QUESTIONS ON Book I. 

Greece ? — What is its South promontory ? — What country comes be- 
tween Attica and Corinth ? — What gulfs does the Isthmus separate ? — 
Describe them. — How wide is the Isthmus, and what is its character? 

§ 8. What countries form the west of Central Greece ? — State the chief 
peculiarities of these countries. 

§ 9. Whence came the name relojwnnesus ? — What several natural 
objects is it conceived to resemble ? — AYhat is the central region of the 
Peloponnesus? — Which is the chief river of the Peloponnesus, and where 
does it flow? — Where and of what height is Mount Cyllcne? 

§ 10. What countries besides Arcadia did the Peloponnesus contain? 
— ^Describe Achaia. — Name the states comprised in Argolis, stating their 
several positions. — What gulfs enter or border on this country? — Which 
are the most Southern Grecian states? — What divides them ? — What was 
TiEnarum ? — What its modern name ? — What is the river of Laconia ? 
— What river drains Messenia? — Describe Elis. — Whence its chief ce- 
lebrity ? 

§ 11. What Avere the position, extent, and character of Euboea? — - 
Where were the Cyclades, and whence their name ? — What does Sporades 
mean? — AVhere were the islands so called? — Where were Crete and 
Rhodes? — Name the isles W. of Greece. — Where was Cythera ? — What 
islands occur to you as similarly situated ? 

§ 12. What political influence had the physical features of Greece ? — 
Name its chief mountain-passes, and state the military advantages they 
aiforded. — ShoAv by comparison the great extent of coast in Greece.- — 
Of what advantage was this ? 

§ 13. "What effects had the seA'eral natural peculiarities of Greece on 
the character of its people ? 

§ 14. IV/iat is the natural deficiency of Greece? — How is this caused? 
What was the agricultural produce of ancient Greece ? — What were its 
mineral products ? 

§ 15. Give some account of the climate of Greece. 



BOOK I. 

THE MYTHICAL AGE. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE EARLIEST INHABITANTS OF GREECE. 

§ 1. What is the character of the earliest statements relative to Greek 
histor}- ? — What general rule may be laid down with regard to the cred- 
ibility of history ? — When did the Greeks begin to employ writing for 
recording events ? — Why should we read traditions in connection with 
history ? 

§ 2. What descent did the Greeks claim for the ancestors of their 
tribes ? — Give the supposed genealogy of the four great diA-ision^ of the 
Greek race. 

Note. — This genealogy would be most easily given acd remembered in such a form 
aa followu : 



Chap. II. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 65a 







Deucalion— Py 

1 1 


rrha 






Hellen 




Dorus 




1 
Xuthus 




.(Eolus 


The Dorians 


1 
Ion 




1 
Achseus 


The J^olians 



I I 

The lonians The Achseans. 

The young student will do well to consult Dr. Smith's Classical Dictionaiy, and read 
ihere the legends concerning the mythic characters here mentioned, and trace up their 
genealogy to the gods of Greek worship. 

§ 3. Where was the traditional seat of Hellen's kingdom ? — What does 
the author tell us respecting the ^olians ? — Name some of their cities. 
•—What is recorded of the AchaBans of early times? — Which became in 
historic ages the more important tribes ? — What were the two famous 
states descended from these ? 

§ 4. What is the great guide in tracing the origin of nations ? — What 
are the Asiatic and what the European branches of the Indo-European 
race? 

§ 5. What traces exist in legends concerning the language and coun- 
tries o( the Fehisgians ? — What is known of the mode of life and religion 
of the Pelasgians? — What account is given of the division of thePelasgi 
into tribes, and of the rise of the Hellenes ? 

§ G. On what grounds does the author discredit the traditions of an 
Oriental origin for Greek civilization ? 

§ 7. Give the tradition respecting the foundation of an Egi-ptian col- 
ony in Attica. — Record the story of Danaus. — In what A-arious countries 
are pyramids found ? 

§ 8. Tell the stories respecting Pelops. 

§ 9. Why does the author assign more credit to the legends of PhcE- 
nician colonies? — Whence and whither is Cadmus said to have come? 
— From whom did the Greeks gain the art of writing ? — Wliat i)roves 
this ? 

CHAPTER II. 

the GRECIAN HEROES. 

§ 1. During what period and between what events is the Homeric ago 
reckoned? — Name the throe most celebrated Grecian 7/erof^.s-, stating some 
distinguishing circumstance respecting each. 

§ 2. What was the jjarentage of Hercules? — What goddess was op- 
posed to him, and whom did she set over him ? — Name the 1'.^ lahors of 
Hercules. — State the legend relative to his death. 

§ 3. What was the ])arentagc of Theseus ? — Record some of his ex- 
ploits. — Relate the story of his adventures in connection with Crete. — 
What Attic institutions are assigned to Theseus ? — Who was the great 
friend of Theseus? — What were tlieir joint exploits? — Where and how 
is Theseus said to have ])erislied ? 

§ 4. State the origin of Minos and the legends concerning liim. 

§ 5. Which are the three most celebrated of the exi)editions of tho 
Heroic or IMythic age ? 

NoTK. — If the reader will cone lit Dr. Smith's Chi-^sical Dictionary-, articles Calvdon, 
Mkleaoeb, and Atai.anta, he will find an account of anotlier scarcely less* famous joint 
exploit. The Hunt of thk Calyboman Boao. 



660 QUESTIONS ON Book I. 

— Tell the story of the Argonautic Expedition, naming its leader, its 
object, and the chief heroes engaged in it. 

§ 0. What remark is made respecting the ancient royal family of 
Thebes in connection with literature? — What circumstances attended 
the birth and nurture of GEdipus ? — Recount his subsequent histor\^ — 
What are the particulars of the first expedition against Thebes? — What 
was the war of the Epigoni, and what its result ? — Find in a classical 
dictionary and state the country and parentage of Helen and the par- 
ticulars of her maiTiage. 

§ 7. What caused the Trojan war ? — What was the number of the 
Grecian fleet ? — Who were the principal Greek heroes in the Trojan war, 
and for what was each famous ? — Who were the chief men among the 
Trojans ? — Read in a classical dictionary the articles AuUs and Iphi(/enia, 
and state the result of your reference. — State briefly the argument of the 
Iliad. 

§ 8. Relate the adventures of Achilles after the close of the Iliad. — 
What are the legends concerning the fall of Troy ? 

§ 9. What after the fall of Troy were the adventures of Agamemnon, 
of Ulysses, oi Diomedes, oi Idomeneus? — Where the history does not help 
you, refer to the classical dictionary. 

§ 10. Who has fixed the commonly received date of the fall of Troy, 
and to what year ? 

§11. State the author's views with regard to the real or fictitious char- 
acter of events and personages assigned to the Heroic ages. 

§ 12. What amount of truth and what value is undoubtedly assignable 
to the Homeric poems ? 

CHAPTER III. 
state of society of the heroic age. 

§ 1 . What was the government of Greece in the Heroic age ? — What 
were the position, rights, and duties of the King? — What qualities was 
he obliged to have in order to keep his power ? — What bodies acted as a 
check on his absolute sway ? 

§ 2. Who formed the j3ov\rj ? — What power had this council ? 

§ 3. Describe the dyopd, and its uses in the Heroic age. 

§ 4, What distinction had the nobles in Heroic times? — What various 
occupations prevailed among the freemen ? — In what condition were the 
slaves ? 

§ 5. Mention the more favorable circumstances in the social life of the 
Heroic age. — State the various features which then disfigured the aspect 
of society. 

§ 6. Give examples of the great simplicity of manners which then pre- 
vailed as shown in the proceedings of the men and of the women. 

§ 7. Mention some circumstances which show advancement in arts 
and civilization in the Heroic age. — What architectural remains belong to 
this time? 

§ 8. Who were the c\\\q.^ traders, and how did they conduct their com- 
merce? — How far had thej^ne arts advanced? — How was poetry culti- 
vated ? 

§ 9. What were the ideas and knowledge prevalent as to natural phe- 
nomena and geography ? 

§ 10. Describe the style of warfare, and the ainns of the Heroic ages. 



CiiAP. V: SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 661 



CHAPTER IV. 

BETURX OF THE HERACLID^ INTO PELOPONNESUS, AND FOUNDATION 
OF THE EARLIEST GREEK COLONIES. 

§ 1. How far must we receive, and in what respects must we dis- 
credit, the legends respecting the population of Peloponnesus and Asia 
Minor ? 

§ 2. At what date and under what circumstances ai-e the Boeotians 
said to have occupied the country to which they gave name ? 

§ 3. What date is assigned to the Dorian conquest of the Pelopon- 
nesus ? — Why is it probable that the Dorian conquest is much later than 
the date thus assigned ? — State what may be regarded as certain re- 
specting the Dorian conquest. 

§ 4. What mythic name is given to this conquest, and why? — Name 
the leaders of tlie successful enterprise. — Where is Naupactus, and whence 
its name ? — What is it now called ? — Whom had the Heracleids to op- 
pose, and with what success? — What migrations resulted to the Achteans 
and lonians ? 

§ 5. Specify the countries of the Peloponnesus given to each of the in- 
vading chiefs. — Name the chief towns of Argolis acquired by Temenus 
and his successors. — Which town of Laconia resisted the Dorians, and 
what was the consequence? — Where were AmycliB and Helos? — Who 
migrated from JNIessenia on the Dorian conquest? — Who founded the 
Dorian ])ower in Corinth, and what race were then expelled ? 

§ G. On what grounds does the author reject the mythic legend of the 
Dorian conquest? 

§ 7. What Greek tribes settled in the W. of Asia Minor? — What por- 
tion of it did they respectively occupy ? 

§ 8. Which were the chief yEolic colonies ? 

§ 9. Who is said to have led the lonians, and from what country did 
they sail? — What rivers bounded the country of the Ionic colonics?—. 
Name the cYnci Ionian colonies. — What islands did they also occupy? 

§ 10. Give an account of the most celebrated Doric migration.— itate 
what cities were thereby founded, and where they were situated. 

§ 11. Wliat ishmds were peoi)lcd by Dori^ colonies ? — Give an account 
of the Mini/an expedition to Crete. — State the cities thus founded. 

§ 12. How long a jieriod was the ^lytliical age earlier than the com- 
mon date given for the first 01ymi)iad? — Show that early Greek chro- 
nology can not be authentic. 

CHAPTER V. 

THE POEMS OF HOMER. 

§ 1. State several circumstances Avhich shcnv the importance of the 
Ihinn-ir Pocns. — Name those Avorks. 

§ 2. Wns prose or jxx'tri/ earlier cultivated? — What were the earliest 
poems ? — What evidence have we of the existence of jioems before 
Homer? 

§ 3. What events mark the beginning and end of the Epic Cyci.k ? — 
Who arranged the poems which describe the events it comprises? — liow 
came the term '■'■Cyrlic writer to imply contempt? 

§ 4. Recite the cou])let naming the cities which claim Homer a.s a 



662 QUESTIONS ON Book II. 

native. — ^What legends are told of him? — What was his probable time ? 
— Give reasons for the belief. 

§ 5. Contrast the condition of literature in the early times of Greece 
with that of our own time. — How and on Avhat occasions were the Iliad 
and Odyssey first published to mankind ? — Give an account of the Rhap- 
sodies, and state the probable derivations of the term. 

§ 6. When did copies of the Homeric poems begin to be found ? — 
How came variations to be made in the text? — What great personages 
are said to have directed their attention to their collection and arrange- 
ment? 

§ 7. With what critics did the opinion arise that the Iliad and Odyssey 
were not originally single poems? — State Bentlet's views. — What was 
Wolfe's hypothesis? 

§ 8. What proofs show that the Homeric Poems were originally not 
written? — What is the proof from the digamma? 

§ 9. What reasons render it probable that the poems may hare been 
.remembered without writing ? 

§ 10. What does Dr. Smith state to be the usual -conclusion of the best 
modern scholars ? 



BOOK II. 
GROWTH OF THE GRECIAlSr STATES. 

(B.C. 776-500.) 

- CHAPTER VI. 

GENERAL SURVEY OF THE GREEK I'KOPLE. 

§ 1. What compass of time does Book II. embrace? — What circum- 
stance materially adds to the difficulty of Grecian history? — What great 
event first taught the Greeks the necessity of union ? 

§ 2. What ties united the Greeks? — What did th^ word jSapfiapoQ 
mean in a Greek's mouth. 

§ 3. What twofold origin was there to meetings? — G»ve instances of 
each kind. 

§ 4. Give two derivations for the word o/i^iKT-uovi'a.- -How did the 
most celebrated gain its importance ? — Where did it hold its meetings ? — 
What tribes were the original members of the congress? —What were 
the duties of the Amphictyonic council? — What was the date and cause 
oi i\\Q First Sacred War? — State its duration and result. 

§ 5. Name the four great Grecian festir ah. — Where were the Olympic 
Games held? — What is tlie date of the first regular Olympiad? — When 
was the festival established, and by whom ? — State some circumstances 
ihat show the imjiortance in Avhich it was held. — What exercises and 
races were practiced there? — What prize and what honors were gi^tin to 
the victors ? 

§ G. Give an account of the constitution of the Pijthian Games. — Where 
wei'e they heUl ? — Where were the Nemean and Ist/unian Gaines respect- 
ively celebrated ? — In whose honor in each case ? 

§ 7. What advantages arose from the great festivals and games ? 

§ 8. What may we reckon the third bond of union among the Greeks? 



# 
Chap. VII. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 663 

— Which was the most celebrated Grecian oracle? — Give a detailed ac- 
count of it. 

§ 9. Mention some practices inconsistent with civilization from which 
the Greeks were free. 

§ 10. What remark must be carefully borne in mind respecting the 
political relations of the Greeks ? — How far did they carry their patriot- 
ism and their divisions ? — What resulted from this ? 

CHAPTER VII. 

EARLY HISTORY OF PELOPOXXESUS, AND LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS. 

§ 1. Name some princes with their cities famous in the Peloponnesus 
in the Heroic age. — How wei'e their houses displaced? — What states 
were included in Elis, and from whom Avas the population of each de- 
scended? — What were the limits and position of Achaia? — What was 
the name and character of the central region of the Peloponnesus? — 
What its cities ? 

§ 2. Name the Dorian states in the Peloponnesus. — Whence arose the 
power of Argos in early times ? 

§ 3. At what time and where did Phidon flourish ? — Give an account 
of his exploits. — What institutions of a permanent character are ascribed 
to him ? 

§ 4. To whom did the ancients refer the Spartan laws ? — -Why can not 
we be certain of the truth of this ? 

§ 5. What date does the author ascribe to LYCURGUS ? — What is 
the commonly received date ? 

Note. — In the common chronology n.a SSi is the date for Lycurgii?, which may he 
remembered as three eights nearhj. The date in Dr. Smith's text is also that of the 
regular Olympiad, or nearly three sevens. It is t\venty-three years earlier than the 
foundation of Rome, 29 years before the fera of Nahonassar and "tlie end of the first As- 
syrian monarchy. See Comparative Tables of History and Chronology by W. E. I?ick< 
more, published by Bell and Daldy. 

— What disinterested conduct is recorded of Lycurgus in his early life? 
—What countries is he said to have visited ? — VVhat sanction did he gain 
for his laws? — Under what circumstances did he leave Sparta? 

§ G. What was the position of tlie Spartans in their country? — What 
the special object of Lycurgus's laws ? 

§ 7. How was the popuhition of Laconia divided? — Who were the 
Spartans, and what their condition ? — How did inecpiality among them 
arise ? 

§ 8. What were the condition, privileges, and employments of tlic Pe~ 
riccci f 

§ 9. What were the condition and employments of the TTelota ? — 
What accounts are given of the origin of those ])C()j)lc and of their name ? 
— How did they dress, and what treatment did they receive? — Give an 
account of the Cnjptia. — Explain the word Neodamodes, and its ai)i)li- 
cation. 

§ 10. What various y)owcrs had a nominal or real share in the Spnr^ 
tan government? — How did it hapiv-n tliore were t/ro kings? — What 
power had the kings at various times? — What ]irivileg(N did ilicy always 
retain? — What was the Seiiate called? — What ])ow(r had thoy?— What 
influence had the popfilar (tsseinltii/ / — What jjowcr had the Ejthors orig- 
inally and subsequently? — What then was the true character of the Spar- 
tan government ? 

§ 11. What was the relation between a Spartan citizen and the state? 



664 QUESTIONS ON Book II. 

— How were the hahes treated ? — How were the young boys trained ?— 
What literary culture had the young Spartans? — How did the grown 
vien live and occupy themselves ? — Describe the Sysdtia. 

§ 12. How were the Spartan girls brought up ? — Give instances of the 
patriotism and hardness of Spartan mothers. 

§ 13. What regulation is erroneously ascribed to Lycurgus respecting 
the land? — Why is this discredited? — When and how did the notion 
probably arise ? 

§ 14. What money had the Spartans? — Show that this did not come 
from Lycurgus's institution. — Did it secure honesty? — State and give in- 
stances of two characteristic qualities of the Spartans. 

§ 15. Describe the position of Sparta. 

% IQ. State the effect and results of Lycurgus's legislation. 

CHAPTER VHI. 

HISTORY OF SPARTA. THE MESSENIAN, ARCADIAN, AND ARGIVE WARS. 

§ 1. Against what powers were the eai'ly wars of Sparta waged ? — 
With what results ? — From what sources have we the account of the 
two first Messenian wars ? — What dates are assigned to them ? 

§ 2. What origin is assigned to the first Messenian war? — Give the 
two accounts of the story. — What private quarrel brought on the war ? 
— How did it begin? — How did Euphaes conduct the war? — What 
strong positions did the Messenians occupy? — What sacrifice did the 
oi'acle declare necessary? — Who succeeded Euphaes? — What was his 
fate ? — How and when did the war end ? — ^What became of the Messe- 
nians ? 

§ 3. How long an interval was between the first and second Messenian 
wars? — Who was the great hero of the second war? — How were the 
Peloponnesian states divided in the struggle ? — What were the earliest 
exploits of Aristomenes ? — What leader did the Spartans obtain, and 
how did he aid them ? — What great battle did Aristomenes gain ? — How 
was his subsequent defeat occasioned? — What fort did he fortify? — Re- 
count some of his subsequent adventures. — AVhere did he end his days? 

Note. — The end of the second Messenian war may be remembered by 666, which is 
the time of Tullus Hostilius, fourth king of Rome, and 60 yeare before the captivity of 
the Jews under Nebuchadnezzar. 

§ 4. Mention some particulars of the struggle between the Spartans 
and Tegea. — State its result. 

§ 5. Relate the history of the combat in which Othryades gained 
renown. — What did Sparta thereby gain ? 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE AGE OF THE DESPOTS. 

§ 1. How does the author account for the abolition of royalty in tha 
Greek states ? — What magistrates took the place of kings? 

§ 2. Distinguish betwen Oligarchy and Democracy^ explaining the der- 
ivation of the words. — What does Gelimori mean ? — What rulers over- 
threw the oligarchies ? 

§ 3. How does the Greek word Tvpavvoq differ in sense from tlie En- 
glish word Tyrant? — What Avord does the author use to express Tvpai'- 
vog? — How did these rulers most commonly-rise to power? — What waJ3 
the usual progress of events under the despots? 



Chap. X. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 665 

§ 4. What part did Sparta take with regard to the despots? — Which 
party did she wish to favor ? — Show that the result was not always ac- 
cording to her views. 

§ 5. Where is Sicyon? — Who founded the despotic dynasty there? — 
Who was. the last of that dynasty ? — State the chief events in the his- 
toiy of this Clisthenes of Sicyon. — What other CUsthenes was descended 
from him ? 

§ 6, Who founded the dynasty of the despots of Corinth ? — What fam- 
ily did he overthrow, and when ? — Whence did he have his name ? — 
Who succeeded him? — What was the nature of Periandp:r's rule? — • 
What anecdotes are told of him? — What was the condition of Corinth 
under him? — What were his domestic troubles? 

§ 7. What poet gave an account of the Megarian revolutions ? — What 
was the course of events there ? 

CHAPTER X. 

EARLY HISTORY OF ATHENS DOWN TO THE USURPATION OF PISISTRATUS. 

§ 1. What is the subject of Chap. X,? — What characters are famous 
in early Athenian history, and for what ? 

§ 2. Tell the story of Codrus. — What office was substituted for that 
of king ? — What successive clianges were made in the office ? — Was 
Athens under a democracy or an aristocracy during this time ? 

§ 3. What orders of people existed at Athens under its oligarchy? — 
Compare them with the Roman orders. — What tribes existed in Attica 
in early times ? 

§ 4. Give some account of the supposed si;bdivision of tlie Athenian 
tribes. — What customs were connected with this subdivision? 

§ 5. What docs the author consider the tirst historical date in the af- 
fairs of Athens ? — How many archons were annually chosen ? — What 
various duties had tiiey? — What is the origin of the word^reo;)a(7«s.s' — 
Who formed the council that met tlicre? 

§ G. Who was the earliest hyislator of Athens? — What rendered his 
appointment requisite? — AMiat was the nature of his legislation? — Is 
the po])ular opinion certainly correct? 

§ 7. Did Draco's laws secure quiet to Athens? — Give an account of 
the origin oVCijlon, and of the distinction he acquired. — What was the 
result of his attempts to gain ])ower ? — What sacrilege was committed, 
and on M'hom did its consequences fall ? — At what date were the Alcvuv^ 
omdcr. expelled ? 

§ K, Whom did the Athenians invite to advise them relative to the 
purification of their city? — What ])lan did he recommend? 

§ 0. Give an account of Solon's parentage and early life. — How did 
he act with regard to the recovery of Salamis, and with what success ? 

§ 10. What factions divided Attica ])rior to Solon's legislation? — 
"What was the condition of the poor, and whence did it arise ? 

§ 11. When was Solon chosen Archon, and with what j)0wer ? — Why 
did he not make himself absolute ? 

§ 12. What were his first measures for relieving the peojile? 

§ 13. How did he act relative to Draco's laws? — Ex])lain O/ic/nrchy 
and Timocracy. — How did Solon divide the Athenian citizens ?— What 
were the names, the pro])crty, and the duties of each class? — How did 
lie greatly extend the power of the less wealthy classes? 

§ 14. What business did he assign to the new Senate? — How ai>d 



666 QUESTIONS ON Book IL 

from whom was this body chosen? — ^What duties did he assign to the 
Areopagites ? — Name some institutions of a later age than Solon. 

§ 15. Have we any detailed account of Solon's laws? — State some of 
his regulations and enactments, specifying their objects. 

§ 16. What remark did Solon make on his laws? — What countries 
did he subsequently visit ? — Tell the story concerning his supposed con- 
versation with Croesus. 

§ 17. Who headed each of the three factions at Athens after Solon's 
legislation ? — What advantages had Pisistratus ? — By what stratagem 
did he gain a force for his defense? — Relate the close of Solon's history. 

CHAPTER XI. 

HISTORY OF ATHENS FROM THE USURPATION OF PISISTRATUS TO THE 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEMOCRACY BY CLISTHENES. 

§ 1. Give the date of Pisistratus's usurpation. — How was he expelled ? 
— By what stratagem restored ? 

§ 2, What caused his second expulsion ? — By what means and under 
what circumstances did he finally gain power ? 

§ 3. Describe the measures he adopted to secure his rule. — Show that 
his government was not oppressive. — Describe some of his great public 
works. — Name his exertions in favor of learning. — What great Roman 
has been compared to him, and on what grounds ? 

§ 4. Who succeeded Pisistratus ? — State some instances of their taste 
and good government. — What occasioned the conspiracy of Han/iodhis 
and Aristogeiton? — State what then occurred. — What was the fate of 
the two conspirators ? 

§ 5. What change in lUppias did the death of his brother occasion ? 
— What alliances did he contract? — What family attempted his over- 
throw ? — How did they gain the aid of the Spartans ? — How was Hip- 
pias finally expelled ? — Whither did he retire ? 

§ G. What was the date of Hippias's expulsion? — How nearly does 
this synchronize with the expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome ? (See 
Bickmore's Tables as before.) — How was the memory of the Pisistratida? 
regarded, and why? — What honors were paid to the descendants of 
Harmodius and Aristogeiton ? 

§ 7. Who was the rival, and who the supporters, of Clistiienes in 
his changes in the Athenian constitution ? 

§ 8. What was the most important change made by Clisthenes ? — 
Describe it minutely. — What peculiar arrangement showed his sagacity ? 
— Describe the Demes, and say how they v>'ere governed. 

§ 9. What alteration did he make in the Senate? — What were the 
Prytanies ? — What divisions were there of the Attic year and senate ? — 
What was intrusted to the Epistates ? 

§ 10. Describe the ECCLESIA.— What power had it?— Wliat was 
the nature of the constitution of Clisthenes ? 

§ 11. What change did Clisthenes make in the judicial power of tlie 
people i*"— How did he alter the viilitary arrangements of the state ? — On 
what occasion did this system prominently appear? 

§ 12. What was the etfect of the ostracism? — Why was it requisite, 
and what its object? — W^hat ])recautions were taken to guard against 
its abuse? — Describe the method of voting and origin of the name. — 
Wliat proves its utility? 

§ 13. How did Isagoras and his party strive to destroy the power of 



Chap. XII. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 6G7 

Clisthencs ? — What government was then set up ? — How did the Athe- 
nian ])eople act? — What was the final result of these attempts ? 

§ 1-i. Why did Clisthenes send envoys to Sardis ? — How did the re- 
sult of this embassy offend the Athenians? — What measures did Cleo- 
menes devise ? — How were they frustrated ? — What vengeance did the 
Athenians take on the Thebans and Chalcidians? — What increase of 
power did they thus gain? 

§ 15. Describe the third attempt of the Spartans against the Athenian 
democracy. — How was it frustrated? — Quote the language of the Co- 
rinthian envoys. — To what places did Hippias successively go? 

§ IG, What effect had the establishment of democracy on the Athe- 
oian character ? 

CHAPTER XII. 

HISTORY OF THE GREEK COLONIES. 

§ 1 . What is the subject of Chap. XII. ? — Where was Trapezus ? — 
Where Massalia ? — Is it always so spelt in ancient writers ? — Where 
was Cijrene? — In what sense were these places in Hellas? 

§ 2. Give from the note the Greek terms connected with a colony. — 
What were the chief causes of sending out colonies among the Greeks? 
— What was the relation of the colony to the parent state ? — What me- 
morials were maintained of their connection? — What notable exception 
was there in Greek history to the observance of this connection ? 

§ 3. What remarkable contrast may be drawn between Greek and 
modern colonies ? — How did a Greek colony choose its site for a city ? — 
What buildings did they at once provide ? — What various relations sub- 
sisted between the Greek colonists and the aboriginal inhabitants ? — 
Wh :t effect had colonization on the development of democracy ? — Ac- 
count for this. — Name with their position some Greek colonies that 
gained great wealth. — Describe the four groups into which the Greek 
colonies may be divided. 

§ 4r. W^hat three Greek tribes founded colonies on the W. coast of 
Asia Minor? — Which of these became most eminent? — How? — Which 
Ionic city was at first most flourishing? — What colonics were formed by 
it ? — What Ionic city was afterward famous ? — What were the sources 
of its power ? — What famous colony did the rhoca}ans i)lant ? — Distin- 
guish the Phocivans from the Pliocians. 

§ 5. About what time were the colonics founded whose origin we can 
historically trace? — With what events then in Roman, Jewish, and As- 
syrian histories would their foundation be nearly contemporary ? (Sec 
Bickmore's Tables.) — What was the oldest Greek colony in Italy? — 
Where was it placed ? — In the reign of what Hebrew king would tliifl 
be? 

§ G. What tribes and settlements were in Sicily before the Greeks? — 
Which were the two most powerful Greek cities in that island? — De- 
scribe their position. — Name from the note some other Greek cities in 
Sicily. — What extent and ijojxdation did Syracuse attain ? — At what 
time and under whom did its affairs become known? — (live some ac- 
count of agriculture. — What is known (Concerning I'halaris? — What 
celebrated modern controversy is connected with him ? — Draw a rough 
map of Sicily with the j)ositions of the Greek cities. — What power subse- 
quently checked their ])rogress? 

§ 7. What name given to S. Italy shows the importance of its Greek 



<J68 QUESTIONS ON Book II. 

settlements? — Which were the two most powerful Greek cities in S. 
Italy? — Describe their position. — For what was Sybaris remarkable ?^ — 
In what respects Avas Croton famous ? — Describe, Avith its particulars an J 
result, the Avar betwixt them. 

§ 8. Name the three Greek tOAvns in S. Italy next in importance to 
Sybaris and Croton, and state their position. — Whence arose the early 
celebrity of the Epizephyrian Locri ? — GIac some account of Zaleucus 
and his laws. — What can you state concerning Rhegium ? 

§ 9. When, by Avhom, and under what circumstances Avas Tarentum 
founded? — What advantages had it? — What circumstances caused the 
decline of the Greek cities in S. Italy ? 

§ 10» Where was Massalia ? — What its modern name ? — Wherein lay 
its importance? 

§ 11. When, how, and from whom did the Greeks obtain permission 
to settle in N. Africa ? — What Avere the two most important Greek cities 
in N. Africa ? — What advantages had Gyrene ? — How was it long gov- 
erned ? 

§ 12. Name the chief Greek cities in and near Epirus. — What can 
you state Avith regard to Corcyra ? — Which Avere the chief colonies in 
Macedon ? — What Avere the most flourishing colonies in Thrace ? 

CHAPTER XIH. 

HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 

§ 1 . What Avas the character of the Greeks as respects literature ? — 
What two kinds of composition Avcre alone cultivated before the historic 
ages ? — GiA'e me your idea of the nature of Kj^ic and of Lyric poetry, 
and of the qualities predominant in each. 

§ 2. What Avere the subjects of the Ilovieric poems? — On what do 
ihose ascribed to Hesiod treat ? — What qualities have the poems in com- 
jnon? — Where were they respectiA'ely composed? 

§ 3. What works bear the name of Hesiod? — What do we learn of 
Hesiod's history from his own statements ? — What does the author mean 
by a didactic poem ? — By Avhat classes Avere Hesiod's })oems esteemed, 
and Avhere Avere they despised? — What opinions haA-e been held as to 
the date Avhen Hesiod Avrote ? 

§ 4. What causes tended to the rise and advancement of Lyric poetry ? 
— On Avhat occasions did the Greeks employ it? 

§ 5. What sorts of Averse did Archilochus iuA^ent? — What is said of his 
history ? 

§ 6. What Avriters named Simonides require to be distinguished from 
each other? — What remains are extant of the earlier of that name ? 

§ 7. What Lyric poets did Sparta produce? — What notice haA-e Ave 
already had of one of these ? — What can you tell me of tlie other ? 

§ 8. What two poets greatly improved Choj'al poetry ? — Tell the story 
of Ai-ion. — Look into the classical dictionary for Orion, and discriminate 
these persons. — What can you tell of the Dithyramb? — Relate Avhat is 
known o{ Stesi chorus. — What particular improA'cment is ascribed to him ? 

§ 9. What Lyric Avriters Avere natives of Mitykne ? — What character- 
istics are common to their Avorks ? — Relate the history o{ Ah-xeus. — What 
great testimonies were giA'en to the excellence of Sappho's poetry? — 
What legends and facts are extant concerning her life? 

§ 10. When and where did Anacreon flourish? — What do Ave knoAV 
of his life? — What Avas the nature of his poetry? 



Chap. XIV. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 669 

§11. For what were the seven Sages renowned ? — Give their names, 
countries, and sayings as commonly reckoned. 

§ 12. Whicli were the earliest schools of Greek philosophy ? — Who 
were the chief philosophers in each ? — Give some account of Thales. 
— ^Who was the most iUustrious of the Ionic school ? — Who were among 
his hearers ? — What did he teach ? 

§ 13. What was the prevailing idea o^ Xenophanes ? 

§ 14. Where and when was Pythagoras born? — What countries did 
he visit ? — Do you know the word Metempsychosis, and what it means ? 
— What Orientals teach this doctrine ? — What sciences did Pythagoras 
teach ? — Where did he chiefly teach ? — How was his influence in this 
place shown ? — What was the result of the Crotoniat conquest of Sybaris 
to the Pythagorean order ? 

CHAPTER XIV. 

HISTORY OF ART. 

§ 1. What circumstances evince the great eminence of Grecian art? 

§ 2. Whence does the cultivation of Architecture arise? 

§ 3. Where arc found the earliest productions of Grecian builders ? — . 
Describe the three gradations of improvement, citing an instance of each. 
— Descril)e Avhat is called the Treasury of AtrcAis. 

§ 4. Whence was the form of the Greek tem])le derived? — What may 
have been the origin of the column':' — Wiiat were the three parts of the 
Greek temple ? — What is meant by IJyi)a'tlir(il? — What arc the parts of 
the column ? — What of the entablature ? — What are the three Greek or- 
ders ? 

Note. — Writers on arcliitecture differ as to whether the idea of a column arose from 
a free, or whether the Greeks imitated the architecture of the Kgyptvins. The liomnn 
copie:i of the Grecian orders were varied in many particuhirs. The addition of the 
Tuscan and Comjiosite orders complete the FrvE Obdeks of Svsteafatic Auciiiteo 
TCTRE. The Ttisran was massive and simple, bearing much resemblance to the Done. 
Tlie Coviposite was even more ornamented than the Corinthvin. 
— Wiiat additional orders are found in ancient buildings? — Wliat are 
their characteristics ? 

§ 5. Describe the Doric order. — What are triglyphs and metopes ? — 
Describe the Tonic order. — What especially characterizes the Corintldan 
column ? — Wlicnce did this ornament arise? 

§ 6. Describe the famous temple at Ei)hesus. — "VVTien was it built ?— v 
When and how destroyed? — In what part of Holy Scripture is the Ephe- 
sian goddess noticed ? — AVhere had the goddess Ilcra a famous tem])le ? 
y — What great structure did Pisistratns begin ? — Who completed it ? — 
What great ancient Greek temples still exist entire or in part? 

§ 7. Of what material were the earliest statues ? — What legendary 
names are assigned to the families of the earliest sculptors ? — When 
were the first statues in mar1)le and metal made ? 

§ 8. What inventions in the sixth century n.c. occasioned great im- 
provement in statuary? — In what cities were the earliest schools of im- 
proved sculpture founded? — What statues of men were the earliest pro- 
duced? 

§ t) Name and describe some specimens still extant of early sculpture. 
— Where were they found, and where arc they now? 

§ 10. How near does Homer come to the mention of painting? — 
What was tlic earliest use of paintinr/? — Wiiat instances of early puint- 
i'lgs and jjainters can you record? 



670 QUESTIONS ON Book III. 



BOOK III. 
THE PERSIAN WARS. 

(B.C. 500-478.) 

CHAPTER XV. 

THE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

§ 1. What is the subject of Book III. ? — What space of time does it 
embrace? — Wliat change appears in Grecian history at this time? 

§ 2. What was the capital of the Assyrian monarchy ? — How far did 
that empire extend ?^What strong evidence have we of its advance- 
ment ? — AVhat monarchies succeeded it ? 

§ 3. Where was Media, and wliat its capital? — Vy^hat was the lan- 
guage and religion of the Medes? — How far did their dominions ex- 
tend ? — At what date did they take Nineveh ? — What event in Sacred 
History does this date mark ? — According to Herodotus, who were kings 
of Media ? 

§ 4. Where was Babylon, and what the limits of Bahylonia ? — Describe 
the city of Babylon. — What authority is there for this ? — What conquests 
did Nebuchadnezzar make ? 

§ 5. What third kingdom rose on the ruins of the great Assyrian 
empire ? — Where was it, and what its capital ? — How many dynasties 
of Lydian kings do the traditions reckon ? — Whom may we call the 
first historic king, and when did his reign begin ? — What was the char- 
acter of the Lydians ? — What invention is attributed to them ? — What 
advantages did the lonians in Asia derive from the Lydian kingdom ? 

§ 6. Who was the last king of Lydia ? — For what is his name pro- 
verbial ? — Describe his success against the Ionic cities. — How did he 
rule them ? — State the extent of his dominions. — What connection had 
he with Greeks ? — What kings were his allies ? 

§ 7. Describe the usual rise, progress, and fall of Asiatic kingdoms. — 
State from a classical dictionary the leading points of the legends con- 
cerning the elder Cyrus. — Name the limits of his empire. — Describe 
the Persians under Cyrus the Great. — What combination of figures 
makes liis time easily remembered ? 

§ 8. What were the motives of Crcescs in going to war with Cyrus ? 
— What advice and prophecy did the oracles give him? — Where and 
with what result took place the first engagement ? — What was Croesus's 
subsequent plan ? — How was it frustrated ? — Under what circumstances 
did the Persians take Sardis ? — How did Croesus end his days ? 

§ 9. What conversation occurred between Cyrus the elder and the 
Spartan envoys ? — Who was general for Cyrus in the conquest of the 
Asiatic Greeks? — State some particulars of the fall of their cities. — 
What other conquests did Harpagus make for Cyrus? — How did Cyrus 
take Babylon? — What v.-as liis own end? — In what prophetical books 
is he mentioned? — How did he act to the Jews? — Who succeeded 
Cyrus ? 

§ 10. Who were the two last in tlie succession of the native kings of 
Egypt ? — How did Cambyses act in Egypt ? — What revolution occurred 



\ 



^HAF. XVI. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GEEECE. 671 

in Persia while Cambyses was in Egypt ? — How did Cambyses meet his 
death ? — How long did the reign of the false Smerdis last ? — Who then 
became king of Persia, and at what date ? 

§ 11. What remarkable man was despot in Samos in the time of 
Cambyses? — Give some instances of his power and good fortune. — Re- 
late the story told by Herodotus of his correspondence with Amasis, and 
its results. — Conclude the history of Polycrates. — What poets did he 
patronize ? — What great works did he have constructed ? 

§ 12. What revolts had Dakius Hystaspes to quell in the commence- 
ment of his reign ? — What expressive comparison did the Persians in- 
stitute of their first three kings 1 — State some important institutions of 
Darius Hystaspes. 

§ 13. What was the first great expedition and conquest which Darius 
Hystaspes projected ? — How was his naval force supplied, and what its 
amount? — By Avhat route did he enter Scythia? — What orders did he 
leave with the Greeks under his command ? — What success had he in his 
invasion of Scythia? — Who urged the Greeks to destroy the bridge? — 
How was this advice deprived of effect ? 

§ 14. What general was left by Darius in Europe ? — What conquests 
did he effect? — What reward was given to Ilistiaius? — How were his 
plans of acquiring power subsequently defeated ? 

CHAPTER XVI. 

THE IONIC KEVOLT. 

§ 1. Whom did Darius leave to govern Asia Minor, and what was its 
ca])ital? — Who represented Histiosns at Miletus? 

§ 2. How was Aristagoras induced to interfere in the affiiirs of 
Naxos ? — How did he obtain aid for his enterprise ? 

§ 3. What wa.s his plan against Naxos, and how was it defeated? — 
What then was the result of the undertaking? 

§ 4. What troubles ])ressed on Aristagoras after his return from Naxos ? 
— What method did he devise to extricate himself? — In what remark- 
able way did he receive a message from Histiaius? — How did he effect 
his puri)ose? — What remarkable person oi)j)osed his views? 

Note. — Dr. Smitli and Bishop Thirhvall ppeak of letters being branded hy Ilistiaeus 
on the head of tlie f<hivc ; Mitford of the writing Ixjiug (raced in an indeiible ntdin. I 
doubt if either of tliese modes woidd bo efTectual. Herodotus uses tlie ^^■ord ecmf e, 
from which I conclude that the Bkin was 2}"^i'-'fured^ and coloring-matter introduced 
into the openings. This would be a species of tattooing. The noble Tliracians used to 
tattoo themselves, as wc learn from Herodotus. 

§ 5. To what state and to what king of it did Aristagoras npply for 
aid? — AVhat arguments did he use to i)crsuade him ? — Detail the remain, 
ing incidents of his stay at Si)arta. — Whither did he next resort ? — What 
special motives had the Athenians to aid the lonians ? 

§ (J. What aid from European Greece joined the rcA-olted lonians? — 
Describe the progress and result of the expedition of the allied tro()])s into 
the interior. — Give the date at which Sardis was thusbunu'd, — Wherein 
consisted the importance of the event? — How did Darius display h'u 
anger ? — To what cities did the revolt extend ? 

§ 7. How and where did Aristagoras perish? — On what pretext did 
HistiiBus gain ]iermission to visit Ionia? — What observation did Artu- 
pherncs make? — Relate liis subsequent adventures and deatli. 

§ 8. What was the object of Artapht-nu'S in the sicgi' of Miletus?— 
What plan of resistance did t^e lonians adopt? — What was the strengtl* 



G72 QUESTIONS ON Book III. 

•f the opposing fleets? — What skillful commander was placed over the 
lonians? — What were his measures, and what their result? — Who be- 
trayed the Greeks ? — What portion of the fleet fought with courage ? — 
Where did the action take place ? — What geographical change occurred 
there ? 

§ 9. In what singular way did the Athenians show their distress on 
the capture of Miletus ? — What treatment did the subdued Greeks re- 
ceive from the Persians ? 

CHAPTER XVII. 

THE BATTLE OF MAKATHON. 

§ 1. Whom did Darius appoint to avenge him on the Athenians ? — 
What route did this general pursue ? — What disasters befell his forces ? 

§ 2. What demand did Darius make from the Greek cities while pre- 
paring to renew his attempts? — What were his probable motives ? — How 
were his envoys received at the several states ? 

§3. Whom did Darius set over his second Grecian expedition? — 
What force composed it ? — What instructions were given to the com- 
manders ? — How far was the expedition successful ? — On what part of 
Attica did they land ? 

§ 4. What illustrious Athenians were among the generals at the 
time of the Persian invasion ?— Relate the previous history of MILTI- 
ADES. 

§ 5. Why did not tlie Spartans come to aid Athens? — What differ- 
ence of opinion prevailed among the Athenian generals ? — How was a 
preponderance gained by the more spirited of them ? 

§ G. What state alone sent help? — How many did this make the 
Greeks ? — What was the probable number of the Persians ? — Describe 
the plain of MARATHON. — AVhat was the arrangement of the Per- 
sians ? — By what disposition did Miltiades remedy his inferiority of 
numbers? — What feelings may we suppose to have prevailed among the 
Greeks, and why? — Describe the commencement of the battle. — How 
was the repulse of the Athenian centre remedied? — How far did the 
Athenians pursue? — Mention the losses on each side. — Give the date 
of the battle. 

§ 7. What attempt did the Persians make ? — On what did they ground 
their hopes of success ? — How were they frustrated ? 

§ 8. With what feeling was the victory at Marathon regarded by the 
Athenians ? — What would have been the probable result of a victory 
gained by the Persians? — What honor was paid to those who fell at 
Marathon ? 

Note.— The young student would read with hoth pleasure and advantage the lively 
narrative of this battle in Professor Creasy's deservedly popular work, "• Tlie Fifteeh 
Decisive Battles of the World, from Marathon to Waterloo." 

§ 0. What honors were paid to Miltiades ? 

§ 10. What expedition did Miltiades next project? — What were his 
motives? — What his success? 

§ 11. Who became the accuser of Miltiades? — To what penalty was 
he sentenced ? — How did he die ? 

§ 1 2. What circumstance gives importance to the war between Athen!x 
and TEgina? — What mythical celebrity had that island? — Whence did 
the Tl^jginetans acquire their Avealth ? — How did they use it ? 

§ 13. Ilow had the iEgiuetans provoked Athens ? — What motive* led 



I 



Chap. XVIU. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 673 

its rulers to submit to the Persian demand ? — What peculiar act of thb 
Athenians claims especial notice ? — What disputes were thus produced at 
Sparta ? — What Spartan was thus driven to Persia ? — What was the is- 
sue of the expedition against ^gina? 

§ U. What two motives prevailed with THEIMISTOCLES to pro- 
pose the formation of a fleet? — Whence was the money procured? — 
What obsei-vation is made by Herodotus on this matter ? 

§ 15. Depict the good and bad sides of the character of Themistocles. 
— Contrast with this the conduct of ARISTIDES. — What was the result 
of their opposition ? 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE BATTLES OF THERMOPYLAE AND ARTEMISIU3I. 

§ 1. What events prevented Darius from renewing his attempts against 
Greece ? — How was the death of Darius advantageous to Greece ? — Who 
was the successor of Darius Hystaspes, and what the new king's char- 
acter ? — How was Xerxes induced cO invade Greece ? 

§ 2. Give some account of the various tribes summoned by Xerxes to 
form his armies. — State some other particulars of his preparations. 

§ 3. Describe the operations at the Hellespont. — Of what absurd con- 
duct was Xerxes guilty there ? — What other great work was accomplish- 
ed ? — Describe this. — Is there any proof of the fact ? 

§ 4. Where did Xerxes pass the winter prior to his attempt on Greece ? 
— Describe his advance from that place to Abydos. 

§ 5. Give an account of the demeanor of Xerxes at Abydos. — Describe 
the passage of the Hellespont. — How does the vast amount of the amiy 
become evident ? 

§ G. Where and how did he number his army? — How many are the 
fighting men said to have been? — What number is said to have been 
made up in all ? — How may we suppose an over-statement to have 
arisen ? 

§ 7. Describe the route and progress of Xerxes through the country N. 
of Greece. 

§ 8. Where did the congress of the Grecian states assemble ? — Which 
were the most prominent ? — What states N. of tlie Isthmus joined to 
resist the Persians ? — What states in the Peloponnesus declined to join 
in the defense of Greece? — Detail the conduct of the more distant 
Greeks. 

§ 9. What instances of patriotic concession did the Athenians show? 
— Describe the pass of Tempe, naming its river and mountains. — Why 
was not this defended ? 

§ 10. Give a description of the nature and position of the pass op 
Thermopylae. — Whence lias it its name? — What farther adrantages 
had it ? 

§ 11. Who commanded the fleet? — Where did it first await the Per- 
sians ?— How large a force was at first sent to THERMOPYL^ ?— Of 
whom was it composed, and under whose orders ? 

§ 12. How were the Spartans employed when Xerxes arrived at Ther- 
mopylae? — What conversation ensued? — How long did tbc Persians re- 
main inactive ? — What successive attacks were then made, ami with what 
result? 

§ 13. Who betrayed tlie western path? — Describe the way in which 
tlvis information was used by the Persians. — What course did LEONl- 

2 (J 



674 QUESTIONS ON Book in. 

DAS pursn© with regard to himself and the various Greeks under his 
command ? 

§ 14. Describe the engagement between the three hundred and the 
Persians. 

§ 15. What memorials recorded the exploits at Thermopylee ? 

§ 16. What force made up the Greek fleet? — What slight loss did 
they sustain ? — What mark of fear did they show ? 

§ 17. What great disaster weakened the Persian fleet ? — To what ex- 
tent of loss ? 

§ 18. How was the Greek fleet prevented from leaving Artemisium a 
second time ? — What measure did the Persians devise to hinder the es- 
cape of the Greeks? — Describe the first engagement at Artemisium and 
its result. 

§ 19. What farther loss befell the Persian fleet from the weather ? — 
What accession did the Greeks gain ? 

§ 20. Give an account of the second battle at Artemisium. — Why did 
the Greeks withdraw ? — What stratagem did Themistocles adopt, and 
with what hopes ? 

CHAPTER XIX. 

THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS. 

§ 1. What plan did the Spartans chiefly rely on after the battle of 
Thermopylse ? — How was the folly of this manifest ? 

§ 2. Where did the fleet stay after its departure from Artemisium ? — 
To what places did the Athenians remove? — W^hat responses did they 
obtain from the oracle ? — How did Cimon and the rich men act ? 

§ 3. W^hat towns did Xerxes destroy in Boeotia ? — What was the re- 
sult of the attack on Delphi ? 

§ 4. Describe the position of the Athenian Acropolis. — Give an ac- 
count ®f the attacks of the Persians upon it. — What was now the 
strength of the Persian fleet ? — How many ships had the Greeks to op- 
pose this ? — What occurred in the Persian council of war before the bat- 
tle of Sal amis ? 

§ 5. How did the first council of the Grecian commanders decide ? — 
r|y what arguments and threats did Themistocles obtain a reversal of 
*flis decision ? — What farther intelligence again shook the confidence of 
the Peloponnesians ? 

§ 6. By what artifice did Themistocles oblige the Greeks to fight at 
vALAMIS ? — Where was Aristides just before the battle? — Describe 
his reconciliation with Themistocles. — How were the Grecian command- 
ers at last convinced of their being surrounded ? 

§ 7. Describe the arrangement of the Persian fleet for the battle of 
Salamis. — Where was Xerxes during the battle? — Specify the positions 
of the ships of the several Greek states. 

§ 8. How are the Greeks said to have acted at the beginning of the 
battle ? — How was their courage said to have been reanimated ? — Give 
the best account in your power of the battle op Salamis. — Specify 
the conduct of Artemisia. 

§ 9. At the battle of Salamis what was the loss on each side ? — What 
special service did Aristides render during the battle ? — How did Xerxes 
treat the Phoenician sailors that had escaped ? — What effect had the de- 
feat at Sakimis on the mind of Xerxes ? — What arguments did Mardo- 
nius use in addressing him ? 



Chap. XX. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 675 

§ 10. What second message was borne by Sicinnus to Xerxes from 
Themistocles ? — What may have been the motive of the last named ? — 
llovr did he act to the Ishinders ? 

§ 11. What nations and forces Avere to be left with Mardonius? — De- 
scribe the return of Xerxes to Asia. 

§ 12. On whom did the Greeks confer special honors ? — To what de- 
ities did they make offerings? — What occuiTedwith regard to the prizes 
for wisdom and conduct ? 

§ 13. At the time of the battle of Salamis what power had the Sicil- 
ian Greeks to resist? — How had the Carthaginians a pretext for inter- 
fering ? — Who were the ojjposing generals in the battle of Himera. ? 
— What was the result of that engagement ? 

CHAPTER XX. 

BATTLES OF PLAT.^SA AND MTCALE. 

§ 1. In the spring following the battle of Salamis what occurred in 
the Greek and Persian fleets respectively ? 

§ 2. How did most of their Grecian allies act toward the Persians ! 
— On what measure did Mardonius greatly rely? 

§ 3. Who bore the proposals of Mardonius to the Athenians ? — What 
was offered to them? — How did the Athenians receive the offers? — De- 
scribe the conduct of the Spartans. 

§ 4. How did the Athenians show their resolution to maintain the 
war? — How were the Spartans at length roused from their selfish inac- 
tion ? — What force did they send ? — Who commanded it ? 

§ 5. AVhat position did Mardonius occupy? — Show its advantages. — 
What forces composed the Grecian army? — Describe the march of the 
Greeks. — Where was their first position ? — W^hy did they quit it ? 

§ 6. Describe the second position of the two armies. — How long did 
they continue thus opposed to each other ? — What policy did Artabanus 
recommend ? 

§ 7. What mark of good-will did Alexander shoAv the Greeks? — 
What changes followed ? — How were the Greeks induced to retreat ? — 
What occurred in the attempt to effect this retreat ? — Describe the con- 
duct of Amompharetus. 

§ 8. Describe the part of the Battle of Platjea fought between the 
Persians and Spartans. — With whom were the Athenians meantime 
engaged ? — How many Persians witlidrew in good order ? — Describe 
the action at the camp. — What is said to hare been the loss of the Per- 
sians ? 

§ 9. Describe tlie booty gained in the battle of Plataja. — How was it 
disposed of? — What was the date of the battle? 

§ 10. What occurred at Thebes after the battle of Plataja ? 

§ 11. Give some anecdotes respecting individual Sjjartans. 

§ 12. What signal honors were conferred on Plata\a and its terri- 
tory ? 

§ 13. What hallle in Asia was contemporary with that at Platica? — 
Describe the position of the Persian forces at Mycale. — Give tlie partic- 
ulars of the battle there. 

§ 14. AVhat were the results, to the islands and coast towns of the 
Greeks, of the failure of tlie expedition of Xerxes? 

§ 15. Describe the subsequent proceedings of the fleet of the Greeks. 



676 QUESTIONS ON Book IV- 



CHAPTER XXL 

HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 

§ 1. Name the three great founders of Tragedy, — Who were the great 
hyric poets, and what their respective countries ? 

§ 2. What various countries did Simonides visit ? — Relate the legend 
of his protection by Castor and Pollux. — What celebrated actions did 
his poems record? — Name the different sorts of his poems. — Does much 
of them remain ? 

§ 3. Where and when was PINDAR born ? — From what lyric writei-a 
did he gain improvement? — What celebrated sovereigns were his pa- 
trons ? — How did the Athenians show their respect to him ? — What tes- 
timony was paid to his merit long after his death ? — Which of his poems 
remain ? — What is their characteristic ? — What Latin poet especially 
speaks of his excellence ? 

§ 4. Give some account of Ihycus and of Bacchylides. 

§ 5. What species of composition were the Greeks late in cultivating ? 
— At what time were the books of Moses written? 

§ 6. At what time must we place the earliest attempts of the Greeks 
in prose composition? — Name the earliest Greek prose-writers. — Give an 
account of what is known of Hecatceus and his works. — What can you 
tell me respecting Charon of Lampsacus ? — What is known of Hellani- 
cus of Mitylene ? 

§ 7. Where and when was Herodotus born? — What dialect did he 
adopt, and why ? — In what island did he sojourn while a young man ? 
How far did his travels extend ? — Where did he pass the latter part of 
his life ? — Quote the story from Lucian respecting the publication of his 
histoiT. — What great honor was paid to his books ? — Who is said to have 
been present ? 

§ 8. What is the subject of Herodotus's history ? — What mythological 
subject does he touch on ? — Give a brief sketch of the historic subjects 
in Herodotus's book, and of the way they are introduced. 

§ 9. Show what feeling mutually subsisted between Herodotus and 
Athens. 

§ 10. Describe the peculiar excellences and deficiencies of the styla 
of Herodotus. 



BOOK IV. 

THE ATFIENIAl^ SUPREMACY AND THE PELO- 
PONNESIAN WAR. 

(B.C. 477-404.) 
CHAPTER XXII. 

' prom the expulsion of the PERSIANS TO THE DEATH OP THE- 
MISTOCLES. 

§ 1. After the expulsion of the Persians from Greece proper what 
places did they still hold? — What force was sent to dispossess them, and 
under what commanders? — What were the acliiovements of this force? 



Chap. XXIII, SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 677 

§ 2. Describe the conduct ofPausanias. — What projects had he form- 
ed? — How was his design made evident? 

§ 3. What circumstances pave Athens the supremacy at sea ? 

§ 4. What name was given to the league which Athens headed ? — Of 
what states was it composed? — What money was contributed? 

§ 5. Who succeeded Aristides in the command ? — What were the 
first places he took? — Wherein consisted their importance? 

§ G. Name the great battles in the Persian war, and state the share 
that Athens had in each battle. — To what great citizens did that city 
particularly owe her eminence ? — Show this by a little detail. 

§ 7. How was the rebuilding of the fortifications of Athens viewed ? 
— What species of advice did the Spartans give ? — Describe the artifice 
of Themistocles at this crisis, and its success. 

§ 8. What was the onginal poi-t of Athens? — What ports did Themis- 
tocles add to it ? — How did he defend these ? 

§ 9. What farther step toward democracy was made at Athens during 
the Persian war ? — Who became opponents of Themistocles ? — How did 
that statesman give oifense ? 

§ 10. What constitutions prevailed at Athens and Sparta respectively ? 
^Of what was Themistocles accused ? — Whither did he first retire ? 

§ 11. Was Pausanias proved guilty of treason on his first recall? — In 
vThat way did he again go out? — How did he conduct himself? — What 
schemes did he form at home ? — Detail the mode of his complete detec- 
tion. — Describe the end of Pausanias. 

§ 12. How did the fall ofPausanias affect Themistocles? — Relate the 
latter statesman's adventures till his arrival in Asia Minor. 

§ 13. Whom did Themistocles find on the throne of Persia? — How 
did the Persian king treat him? — What promises did Themistocles make? 
— What various statements are made as to his death ? — Draw the char- 
acter of Themistocles. 

§ 1-i. What honors were paid to the memory of Aristides ? 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

RISE AND GRO-WTII OF THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE. — FROM TUB BATTLE 
OF EURYMEDON TO THE THIRTY YEARS' TRLCE WITH SPARTA. 

§ 1. What great qualities had Cimon as a party leader? — How did 
he increase his popularity? 

§ 2. What island was the first to resist the power of Athens? — With 
T\-hat result? 

§ 3. Where is the Eurymedon ? — Describe the actions fought there 
by Cimon. — Give the date of these battles. 

§ 4. How did the dispute between Athens and Thasos arise ? — Whence 
arose the wealth of that island ? — What success had it against Athens? 

§5. What induced Sparta to ])ropose invading Attica? — How was 
this purpose frustrated ? — Describe the causes and progress of the revolt 
called the Third Messenian War. 

§ G. Detail the various circumstances which had conspired to depress 
Sparta and raise Athens. 

§ 7. What force, and under whose command, proceeded to the aid of 
Sparta? — How was this force treated? — What statcsnum was now ris- 
ing to rival Cimon at Athens ? 

§ 8. Describe the parentage, manners, and character of PERICLES. 
— With what philosophers did he hold intercourse ? 



678 QUESTIONS ON Book IV. 

§ 9. Why was Pericles hostile to the court of Areopagus? — ^What 
may be regarded as among the last measures which completed the dem- 
ocratic power in Athens ? 

§ 10. What great dramatist left Athens in connection with political 
strife ? — What befell Cimon at this time ? — Who was Ephialtes, and how 
did he fall ? 

§ 11. With what powers opposed to Sparta did Athens under Pericles 
successively effect alliance ? — What advantages were gained by the union 
with Megara? — What was the port of Megara? — What name was given 
to the fortifications connecting a town with its port? — What was the 
most notable instance ? 

§ 12. Who was Inarus ? — What assistance did he obtain from the 
Athenians ? — What was the fate of this armament ? 

§ 13. What disaster befell the ^ginetans in their attempts against 
Athens ? — What was the success of the Corinthians on land ? — Who 
was the victorious Athenian general ? — What was the nature of the 
force under him ? 

§ 14. Describe the LoxG Walls at Athens. 

§ 15. What pretext did the Spartans find, after suppressing the Messe- 
nian revolt, for invading continental Greece ? — What was the real object 
of this invasion? — Describe its progress and the amount of its success. — 
Name, with its date, the battle thus gained. 

§ 16. Describe the conduct of Cimon just previous to the battle of 
Tanagra? — When and how was Cimon recalled? 

§ 17. By what battle did the Athenians regain their influence in Boe- 
otia ? — What other continental states did they acquire ? — What injuries 
did their fleet inflict on Laconia ? — What western islands were gained 
in the same expedition ? 

§ 18. At what date was the five years' truce concluded by Cimon? — 
Describe the circumstances under which Cimon died. — What success 
had the fleet which had been under his command ? 

§ 19. What are said to have been the terms of the pacification with 
Persia? — Show on the map the points that limited the progress of the 
Persian war-ships. — How far is this pacification confirmed in histoiy ? 

§ 20. By what measures did Athens make the subjection of her allies 
more complete ? — When her power was greatest, what continental states 
were under her control ? 

§ 21. How did Athens lose her predominance in Boeotia? — Who 
made an attempt to recover it, and with what success? — What other 
states threw off^ her yoke soon after? 

§ 22. What important island did Pericles recover? — What was tl»Q 
date and what the terms of the Tlurtij Years'' Ti^ce ? 

Note. — We may take this opportunity of calling the student's attention to the date 
B.C. 444, as tlie Mr\ of PEKtCLES. Tlie three similar figures make it easy to remem- 
ber, and the empire of Athens — her great glory in arms, in arts, in taste, in literature 
— her entei-prising spirit and gi-eat energy, render this epoch one of the most remark- 
»ble in the history of mankind. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

FROM THE THIRTY TEARS' TRUCE TO THE WAR BETWEEN CORINTH 
AND CORCYRA. 

§ 1. Wlio succeeded Cimon in the lead of the aristocracy at Athens? 
'—Wherein did he fall short of the characters of Aristides and Cimon? 
"—What arrangements did the party adopt, and with what result ? 



I 



Chap XXV. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 679 

Note. — The politician Tfmcydides was the son of Melesias ; the great uistoeiah 

was TlIUCYDIBES, THE SON OF 0l02U8. 

§ 2. What were the opposing opinions of Pericles and the Aristocratia 
party ? 

§ 3. How did Pericles obtain the sole direction of affairs at Athens? 
— To what elevation did he propose to raise his country ? — Describe the 
chief erections raised in the Acropolis of Athens during Pericles' ad- 
ministration. — What other great sacred buildings did he commence ? — 
What defensive work was built by his direction? — Was his political 
tjcheme equally successful ? 

§ 4. Distinguish the two kinds of settlements made by the Athenians. 
— Describe the nature of a KXijpovxia. — What territories were chiefly 
thus occupied ? — What were the two chief colonies settled by Pericles ? 
— Where were these respectively ? 

§ 5. What increase had been made in the conti^butioH of the Athe- 
nian allies? — To what purposes was it applied? — Of what other wrongs 
had the subject states to complain ? — Which of the islands for some time 
retained a nominal independence ? — Can any thing be said in extenua- 
tion of the conduct of Athens? 

§ 6. How did the quarrel between Athens and Samos arise? — Detail 
the chief events and the final result of the contest thus produced. — Why 
did not the Peloponnesians interfere to aid Samos? — What other city 
was subjugated at the same time ? 

CHAPTER XXV. 

CAUSES OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

§ 1. Describe the position of Epidamnns. — How did its affairs pro- 
duce a dispute between Corinth and Corcyra? — Where is Corcyra?-^ 
What now called, and to what power subject ? — Which state gained tha 
first decisive advantages ? 

§ 2. What preparations did Corinth make to regain her power?— 
To whom did the Corcyraans apply ? — Describe the debate on the sub- 
ject before the Athenian assembly. — What resolution did that assembly 
adopt ? 

§ 3. Show the superiority of the naval tactics of the Athenians. — De- 
scribe the action between the Corcyra\an and Corinthian fleets. — How 
were the Coiinthians prevented from renewing their attacks? — How did 
the Corinthians treat their {)risoners? 

§ 4. What offense had Perdiccas of Macedon received from the Athe- 
nians?- — What measures did he take to obtain revenge? — What success 
had the Athenians against the Potidwans and Corinthians? 

§ 5. What complaints did the Megarians and the -^^^ginetan? make 
in the congress of Peloponnesians against Athens? — Describe the lan- 
guage of the Corinthian envoy. — By what arguments did the embassa- 
dor from Athens defend his country's conduct f — Describe what followed 
in the Lacedemonian assembly. 

§ G. What su])]K)rt did the Peloponnesians gain from religion? — At 
what date did these events take place? 

§ 7. What was the first demand of the Pelo])onnp8ians on the Athe-. 
nians? — What was its object, and what the expectations of those who 
made it? 

§ 8. For what was Aspasia celebrated? — What charge was brought 
against her, and who else was included in the charge ? — How did Peri- 



680 QUESTIONS ON Book IV 

cles act ? — What various faults were alleged against Phidias ? — How did 
the Athenians meet the charge of impiety made by the Peloponnesians ? 

§ 9. What was the second demand of the Spartans ? — What was their 
ultimatum? — What was the object of this ? — How did the Athenians an- 
swer it ? 

§ 10. What treacherous act preceded the declaration of war? — De- 
Bcribe the particulars of this. — What was its success? — How did the The- 
ban re-enforcements and the Platseans respectively act ? 

§ 11. When -the Athenians heard of the attempt on Plataea, what 
measures did they adopt ? — What was the state of men's minds at this 
epoch ? — ^What unusual prodigy occurred ? 

§ 12. Enumerate the allies and forces on the side of Sparta. — State 
what powers were under Athenian influence. — What resources had 
Athens already collected ? 

§ 1 3. What Spartan was inclined to peace just prior to the Pelopon- 
nesian war ? — ^What messenger Avas sent to Athens ? — What resolution 
had the Athenians made ? 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR. — FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR TO 
THE CAPTURE AND DESTRUCTION OF PLAT^A. 

§ 1. Describe the conduct of Archidamus in the iuA'asion of Attica. — 
What policy had Pericles recommended ? — How was it carried out ? — 
What famous popular leader was just rising ? 

§ 2. Describe the successes of the larger naval armament of the Athe- 
nians. — What operations did their smaller squadron carry out? 

§ 3. How did the Megarians fare in the war ? — What remote alliance 
did the Athenians form ? — What measures of reserve did they adopt ? — 
What remarkable ceremony took place at Athens toward the end of tho 
year ? 

§ 4. What formidable disaster befell the Athenians in the second year 
of the Avar? — Describe the eifect of this on men's bodies and on their 
conduct. — Mention some circumstances that shoAV the scA'crity of the 
visitation. 

§ 5. In what Avay did Pericles striA'e to divert the minds of the people 
ftom their despair ? — Hoav Avas he treated on his return ? 

§ G. What domestic losses did Pericles sustain ? — What feeling did he 
show ? — From Avhat cause did he die ? — What remark did he make on 
his death-bed? — DraAv the character of Pericles, stating his great mental 
qualities. 

§ 7. How far were the Lacedjemonians successful Avith their ships ? — 
What cruel proceedings disgraced the Peloponnesians? — What retalia- 
tion did the Athenians make ? 

§ 8. Hoav did the siege of Potidsea terminate? — What terms were 
granted ? — Hoav did the Athenians regard this ? 

§ 9. On Avhat measure did Archidamus resoh'e ? — What negotiations 
preceded the commencement of the siege ? — Hoav Avere they rendered 
unavailable ? — What force occupied Plataea ? — Describe the first meas- 
ures of the besiegers. — What effectual plans of resistance did the Pla- 
ta;ans adopt? 

§ 10. Describe the besiegers' AA^alls. — Give a minute account of the es- 
cape made by a portion of the gan-ison. 

§11. What promise did the Spartans make to the survivors of the 



Chap. XXVIII. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 681 

Platffian garrison ? — Describe what was called the trial. — State how the 
garrison and the buildings were disposed of. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

PELOPONNESIAN AVAR CONTINUED. — FROM THE SIEGE OP PLATJEA TO 
THE SEDITION AT CORCYRA. 

§ 1. What remarks may be made on the general character of the 
events of the first ten years of the Peloponnesian war ? 

§ 2. How does the great power of Sitalces appear evident ? — Against 
what power did he make attempts, and with what success ? — Describe 
the exploits of Phormio in the third year, — Give an account of the Pe- 
loponnesians' attempt to surprise the Piraeus, and its consequences. 

§ 3. What event menacing to the Athenian power occurred in the 
fourth year of the war ? — Why were the Athenians unable to take Mity- 
lene by surprise? — What promise did the Peloponnesians make the Mit- 
ylenaeans? — What was the condition of Athens at this time? — How did 
they contrive to equip a fleet ? 

§ 4. Who was placed in command of the Peloponnesian squadron in- 
tended to relieve Mitylens? — How was his aid rendered ineffectual? — 
Who was the Lacedaemonian envoy in Mitylene? — What measure did 
he advise, and with what result ? — On what conditions did Mitylene sur- 
render ? 

§ 5. Name some of the persons of low origin and pursuits who had 
become speakers in the Athenian assembly. — Describe particularly the 
character and conduct of Cleon. — Discriminate the authorities on which 
this account rests. — State the particulars of the cniel decree passed 
against the Mitylenoeans by Cleon's influence. 

§ 6. Mention some cruel acts which took place in the Peloponnesian 
war. — How was an assembly called to reverse the Mitylenaean decree ? 

§ 7. What arguments did Cleon and Diodotus respectively put forth 
for and against the reversal of the decree ? — How was the sentence of 
the Athenian assembly conveyed in time ? — How were the people and 
the town of Mitylene treated ? — What were the cause and manner of the 
death of Paches ? 

§ 8. How did the dissensions in Corcyra hegin, and what were the 
opposing parties? — What attempts did the Oligarchs make, and how 
were they frustrated? — Describe the conduct of the rival naval com- 
manders. — Give some account of the cruelties of the triumphant Demo- 
crats. 

§ 9. Give some account of the reflections of Thucydides on the state 
of the times of the Peloponnesian war. 

CHAPTER XXVHI. 

peloponnesian war CONTINUED.— from THE SEDITION AT CORCTRA 
TO THE PEACE OF NICIAS. 

§ 1. What prevented the invasion of Attica by the Pcloiwnncsiai.s in 
the sixth year of the war ?— Name and describe the religious proceedings 
pursued by the Athenians. 

§ 2. Who became commander of the Spartans in tlic seventh vcnr?— 
What obliged him to leave Attica?— Describe tlie circumstances under 
which the Athenians fortified a post at Pylos. — Who commanded it, and 
what force had he ? 

2 G * 



682 QUESTIONS ON Book IV. 

§ 3. Give a rough sketch of the plan on p. 309, and indicate the more 
important positions on it. — State the measures adopted by the varioua 
portions of the Peloponnesian armaments to drive the Athenians from 
Pylos. — Describe the measures of the Athenian commanders for defense. 
— Relate the particulars and result of the first Spartan attack. 

§ 4, Of what omission had the Spartans been guilty ? — Describe, with 
its result, the naval engagement. — What extreme measures were adopted 
by the Spartans to save their men on Sphacteria ? 

§ 5. What terms did Cleon cause the Athenians to demand of the 
Spartan envoys from Fylos ? — AYhat was the result thereof ? 

§ 6. Under what circumstances did Demosthenes send from Pylos to 
Athens for new assistance? — What measures had he himself adopted? 

§ 7. Describe what occurred at Athens on the arrival of Demosthenes' 
message. — What force had Cleon, and what did he undertake? 

§ 8. What circumstances, intentional and accidental, favored Cleon's 
enterprise ? — What force did Demosthenes employ against the Spartans 
in Sphacteria ? — Describe the circumstances Avhich resulted in their sur- 
render. 

§ 9. What advantages might the Athenians have derived from their 
capture at Sphacteria? 

§ 10. What was the conduct of Eurymedon at Corcyra? — ^What new 
cruelties took place there ? — To what acts have they been compared ? 

§ 11. W^hat successes did Nicias gain in the eighth year ? — What very 
cruel act of treachery and ingratitude did the Spartans commit at this 
time? 

§ 12. How far were the Athenians successful against Megara? — By 
whom Avas their complete success prevented ? — Relate the adventures 
which preceded the battle of Delium. — Describe the position of Delium. 
— What were the forces and arrangements on each side in that battle ? 
— Give the particulars and result of the engagement. — Name two distin- 
guished Athenians who fought there. — How did these two act? 

§ 13. How were the Spartans induced to send Brasidas to Thrace? — 
What force had he? — Describe his march thither. — What excellent 
qualities had Brasidas? — What towns in Thrace did he successively 
take? — What great Greek writer had a share in these events? — De- 
scribe what happened to this writer. 

§ 14. How was the truce of the ninth year prevented from ending in a 
general pacification ? 

§ 15. Describe the events which resulted in the deaths of Cleon and 
Brasidas. 

§ 16. What statesmen negotiated the truce between Sparta and Ath- 
ens ? — How long was the truce to last ? — At what date was it made? — 
What were its terms ? — In what light did the Peloponnesian allies view 
it? 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED. — FROM THE PEACE OF NICIAS TO 
THE EXPEDITION OF THE ATHENIANS TO SICILY. 

§ 1. What state did the disappointed allies of Sparta attempt to raise 
to the head of Greece ? 

§ 2. What causes of difference arose between Athens and Sparta just 
after the truce of Nicias ? 

§ 3. Give some account of the origin and family of Alcibiades.— ' 



Chap. XXX. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 683 

Describe his character. — Give some anecdotes of his capricious con- 
duct. 

§ 4. "What offense had the Spartan government given Alcibiades? — 
What plan of policy did he adopt to thwart Sparta ? — What embassies 
resulted from this? — What treacherous and dishonorable trick did Al- 
cibiades devise to embroil Athens and S])arta? — Describe some subse- 
quent events connected with the alliances of the Greek states. 

§ 5. Describe the appearance made by the Athenians, and the suc- 
cesses of Alcibiades at the Olympic festival. — Why did this surprise the 
Peloponnesians ? — How may it have been accomplished ? 

§ G. What alliances and successes did Alcibiades gain in the Pelo- 
ponnesus ? 

§ 7. How was the Argive army saved from destruction in B.C. 418 ? — 
In what way did Alcibiades prevent a permanent peace between Argos 
and Sparta ? — Describe the first battle of Mautinea. — State the result. 

Note. — The most imjjortant battle of Mantinea was fought in u.c. 362 : an account 
of it will be found in chap. xL of Dr. Smith's History. 

§ 8. What revolutions occurred at Argos at this time ? — How were 
they occasioned? — What were the relations of Sparta and Athens after 
the truce of Nicias ? 

§ 9. Which were the last islands added by Athens to her empire ? — 
How did the conquerors treat their new acquisitions ? 

§ 10. What cities in Sicily were combined in opposing alliances early 
in the time of the Peloponnesian war ? — Which of these had applied to 
Athens, and when ? — What expeditions had Athens in the early years 
of the Peloponnesian war sent to Sicily ? — What had resulted from these ? 

§ 11. What Sicilian state asked aid from Athens in 416 B.C. ? — What 
arguments did the envoys use ? — Who supported them, and from what 
motives ? — How were the Athenians misled as to the wealth of Egesta ? 

§ 12. What generals w^ere first appointed to command the Great 
Sicilian Expedition of Athens ? — What views had Kicias relative to 
the enterprise ? — How were his attempts to stoj) it batfied ? 

§ 13. Describe the feelings and exertions with which the Athenians 
prepared for their Sicilian expedition. — Who disapproved the under- 
taking ? 

§ 14. What outrage produced alarm at Athens just prior to the Sicil- 
ian expedition ? — How may we account for the tenor it occasioned ? — 
How did the Athenians act to Alcibiades en the occasion ? — What ad- 
vantage did his enemies thus gain ? 

§ 15. Describe the state of the armament intended against Syracuse. 
—Also the scene that marked its dcj)arture. 

CHAPTER XXX. 

PEL0P05NESIAN WAR CONTINUEP. — THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION CON- 
TINUED. 

§ 1. Sj)ecify the force of the Sicilian armament, and its several kinds 
of ships and troops. 

§ 2. What reception did it meet with in the several towns of Italy ? — 
With what impressions did the Syracusans receive the news of the ex- 
pedition ? 

§ 3. What news did the swift vessel bring liack from Egesta? — Wba' 
several jjrojjosals did each of the Athenian generals make? 

§ 4. Which of these plans was followed? — With what success? 



684 QUESTIONS ON Book IV. 

§ 5. What measures were taken against Alcibiades after his departure 
for Syracuse ? — In what state of feeling was Athens ? 

§ 6. What was the principal charge alleged against Alcibiades ? — In 
what way was he taken ? — How did he escape ? 

§ 7. What were the first proceedings and achievements of Nicias aftei 
the departure of Alcibiades ? — How did he gain a landing at Syracuse, 
and where did he winter ? 

§ 8. What preparations did the Syracusans make during the wint€i 
of B.C. 415? — What was the conduct of Alcibiades at Sparta? 

§ 9. Describe the city, the harbors, and the principal positions at Syr. 
acuse, constructing a rough map similar to the one on p. 3B7. — Trace 
on the map lines showing the principal fortifications. 

§ 10. What important position did Nicias occupy ? — What works did 
he plan and execute ? — What were the first attempts of the Syracusans 
to counteract these ? — How did Lamachus fall, and what effect had his 
loss? 

§11. What Spartan commander was sent into Italy, and with what 
force? — Describe his progress till he had reached Syracuse. — What 
message did he send Nicias ? — What defensive works did he construct ? 
— What additional force did he receive ? — What course did Nicias adopt, 
and what was the posture of his affairs ? 

§ 12. How did the Athenians act on the receipt of Nicias' dispatches 
from Syracuse ? — What injurious and annoying plan did the Spartans 
adopt in Attica on their actively renewing the war? — What was then 
the position of aff\iirs in Athens ? — ^What marks of extraordinary spirit 
did the Athenians notwithstanding display ? 

§ 13, What were the results of the first naval engagement at Syra- 
cuse? — What improvements did the Syracusans make in their ships? — 
With what result was the second sea-battle fought ? 

§ 14. Describe the force brought by Demosthenes. — What measures 
did he attempt? — What plans did he recommend? — Why were they 
severally rejected? — What efforts were made on each side for a final 
naval encounter ? 

§ 15. Give a particular description of the last naval battle, stating the 
force on each side, and the issue of the combat. 

§ 16. What was the plan formed by the Athenian generals for their 
escape? — By what artifice was it delayed? — Describe the departure of 
the Athenian army from its encampment. — Relate the incidents of their 
march for the first five days. 

§ 17. Describe, with the circumstances which preceded it, the surren- 
der of Nicias. — How were the prisoners treated ? — What was the fate of 
the generals ? 

§ 18. Give an account of the character of Nicias. — Describe the merits 
of Demosthenes as a general. — Do you remember a great exploit of his 
in the former part of this history ? 

CHAPTER XXXI. 

FROM THE END OP THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION TO THE OVERTHROW OF 
THE FOUR HUNDRED AT ATHENS. 

§ 1. How is intelligence of the Athenian defeat at Syracuse said to 
have reached Athens? — How was the news received? — Describe the 
condition of Athens at that time. — What event most depressed the 
Athenians ? 



Chap. XXXII. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 686 

§ 2. What measures were adopted for defense ? 

§ 3. What various states began to rise against Athens? — How was 
the revolt at Chios effected? — What other states followed the example? 

§ 4. How did the Athenians find funds for a fleet ? — What were the 
terms of the bargain between the Spartans and Persians ? — Relate the 
particulars of the revolution at Samos. 

§ 5. What successes cheered the Athenians ? — How did Tissaphernes 
act toward th« Spartans ? 

§ G. Describe the conduct of Alcibiades at this juncture, and his ad- 
vice to the Persian satraps. 

§ 7. What proposals did Alcibiades make in order to obtain his return 
j to Athens? — What measures were taken to carry out his views? 

§ 8. Who opposed and who supported the establishment of an oligarchy 
at Athens ? — How was it effected ? 

§ 9, How did Alcibiades hide his deception in promising Persian 
help? — What new bargain was made between Sparta and the Persian 
satraps ? 

§ 10. How was the oligarchical movement defeated at Samos? — In 
what way did the oligarchs at Athens assail the democracy ? 

§11. Where was the meeting convened to change the constitution ? — ■ 
Enumerate and describe the changes. 

§ 1 2. Describe the conduct of the new government at Athens. — Re- 
cord its negotiations with the Spartans, and their success. 

§ 13. What communications took place between the Four Hundred 
and the fleet at Samos ? — Who were the leaders of the counter-revolution 
there ? — How was Alcibiades restored, and what were his first proceed- 
ings? 

§ 1 4. How were the envoys of the Four Hundred received by the fleet 
at Samos ? — What message was sent back ? 

§ 15. What leaders among the Four Hundred were opposed to each 
other? — In what policy? — What was the fate of Phrynichus? 

§ 16. Describe the circumstances under which the Athenians loft 
Euboea. 

§ 17. Wherein lay the great importance of the loss of Euboea? — In 
the restoration of democracy, what modification was made in the old 
constitution? — What vengeance was inflicted on the Four Hundred? 

CHAPTER XXXII. 

FROM THE FALL OF THE FOUR HUNDRED AT ATHENS TO THE BATTLE 
OF iEGOSPOTAMI. 

§ 1. How was it that the contest was now altogether maritime? — 
What was the respective naval power of the two confederacies? — In 
what quarters was the war successfully can-ied on ? 

§ 2. Who were the Athenian and Spartan commanders in the battle 
off Cynossema? — What remarkable structure was erected by the Eu- 
boeans ? 

§ 3. Where was the next engagement? — Describe it. — How was it 
decided ? 

§ 4. How did Tissaphernes treat Alcibiades? — Relate the particulars 
of the action m which Mindarus was slain. 

§ 5. By what measures did the Athenians follow up tlioir victory ?— 
What pro])osals of peace were made ? — How was a treaty prerentfid ? 

§ 6. What help did Pharnabazus render the Spartans'? 



686 QUESTIONS ON Book IV 

§ 7. What towns successively fell before the arms of Alcibiades ? 

§ 8. Describe the reception of Alcibiades. — What measures were taken 
m his favor ? 

§ 9. What several wounds had Alcibiades previously inflicted on his 
country's power ? — What measure did he take to conciliate the priests ? 

§ 10. What two important historic personages at this time came into 
notice ? — What was the character of Cyrus, and what his command ? — 
What were the office, origin, and character of Lysandee ? 

§ 11. What occurred at the banquet where Cyrus entertained Ly- 
sander ? 

§12. What conduct of Alcibiades excited dissatisfaction? 

§ 13. What change was made in the command of the Athenian 
forces ? 

§ 14. Who succeeded Lysander in command? — Describe the new 
leader's conduct. 

§ 15. Describe the events which placed Conon in a perilous position. 

§ 16. State the efforts made to relieve him, and the numbers of the 
opposing fleets. — Where did the great action take place? 

§ 17. In what different ways were the fleets drawn up for battle? — 
What Avas the result and what the respective losses in the battle ? — How 
did Eteonicus effect his escape ? 

§ 18. What charge was brought against the Athenian commanders at 
Arginusief — What did they allege in defense? — What circumstances ex- 
cited the people against them ? — What w^as their fate ? — Who refused to 
condemn them ? 

§ 19. How did Lysander again obtain the direction of the Spartan 
fleet? — What extraordinary aid and power did Cyrus give him? — 
Where did he station his fleet ? 

§ 20. Where did the Athenian fleet take its station? — What disad- 
vantages had this place ? — What was the respective conduct of the Athe- 
nians and Spartans ? — What advice did Alcibiades give ? — Describe the 
BATTLE OF JEgospotami. — At what date was it fought? 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 

from the battle of ^gospotami to the overthrow of the thirty 
tyrants and the re-establishment of democracy at athens. 

§ 1 . How was intelligence of the defeat at ^gospotami brought to 
Athens ? — How was the news received ? 

§ 2. How did Lysander follow up his victory? — What was his plan 
for subduing the city of Athens ? — What form of government did he set 
up in the towns he took ? 

§ 3. What measures did the Athenians take for their defense? — De- 
scribe the first measures of Lysander against Athens. — How did the 
people show their spirit ? 

§ 4. How did T/ierowenes act? — What may have been his view in 
this ? — What proposals were made in the assembly of the Peloponnesian 
confederacy as to the fate of Athens ? — What terms were allowed to the 
city ? 

§ 5. At what date did Lysander take possession of Athens? — How 
long then had the war lasted ? — Describe the way the terms of the capit- 
ulation were carried out ? — How long had Athens maintained her pow- 
er? — What reflections are made on her possession and use of it? 

§ 6. Give some account of the origin and character of Ciitias. — De- 



Chap. XXXIV. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 687 

scribe his proceedings for setting up an oligarchy. — What name was 
given to this government ? 

§ 7. Describe the return of Lysander to Sparta. 

§ 8. Give some account of the cruel tyrannies of The Thirty. — Ex- 
plain the particulars of the noble conduct of Socrates, showing how the 
occasion arose. 

§ 9. How did the name Cothurnus apply to Theramenes? — What 
measure was taken by his advice ? 

§ 10. Describe the fate of Theramenes, with the circumstances pre- 
ceding and accompanying it. 

§ 11. How many persons are said to have perished under The Thirty ? 
— ^\Vhat measures did they take to suppress mental culture ? 

§ 12. Where did Alcibiades close his days? — Describe his death. — 
Give your opinion of his character. 

§ 13. Show the great supremacy assumed by the Spartans. — What 
honors were heaped on Lysander ? 

§ 1-4. What illustrious Athenian began the deliverance of his country 
from The Thirty? — What post did he occupy, and what were his first 
successes ? 

§ 1 5. By what measures did Critias strive to secure his power ? 

§ 10. Describe the success of Thrasybulus at the Firyeus. 

§ 17. On the death of Critias what new tyranny succeeded that of 
The Thirty ? — How did the freedom of the Athenians find indirect aid 
even among the Spartan authorities ? 

§ 18. How was an opportunity given to re-establish the democracy at 
Athens ? 

§ 19. Describe the restoration of the Athenian democracy. — How was 
this event rendered memorable in a literary j)oint of view ? 

§ 20. How did the newly-established democracy act? — What was the 
subsequent position of Athens ? 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 

ATHENS, AND ATHENIAN AND GRECIAN ART DURING THE PERIOD OF 
HER EMPIRE. 

§ 1. How is Athens situated? — Name and describe the chief emi- 
nences in its position. — What streams sujjply it with water? — Quote 
Milton's description. — Draw a rough plan of Athens, indicating the 
most important positions. 

§ 2. Whence had Athens its name? — What were the old names of 
its people ? — What building was begun by the Pisistratidie ? 

§ 3. What portion of the structure of Athens was due to Themis- 
tocles? — Describe the nature and extent of his erections. — Describe the 
various long walls. 

§ 4. Give some idea of the appearance of Athens and of the structure 
of its houses. — What was its ^lopnlation, and how composed? 

§ r>. At what time should the period of highest excellence of Athenian 
art be fixed ? — In what various arts and branches of literature was this 
eminence displayed ? 

§ G. Name some of the earliest sculptors. — State their conntrv. time, 
and peculiarities. 

§ 7. Give some account of the history of PIIIDrAS, stating the time 
of his birth and manner of his death.— What are the characteristics of 
his works ? 



688 QUESTIONS ON Book IV. 

§ 8. What is known of Polycletus ? — What was his most famous 
work ? — What were the excellences and the works of Myron ? 

§ 9. What painter was contemporary with Phidias? — What works did 
he execute ? — What excellences and deficiencies marked his works ? 

§ 10. Name the other great painters of the period, — iNIention some 
circumstances indicating the great fame of Zeuxis. — Tell the story of 
the contest between Zeuxis and Parrhasius. 

§ 11. What public buildings were erected at Athens under the ad- 
ministration of Cimon ? — Describe the temple of Nt'o/ dTTTtpoQ, stating 
its position. — Mention the dimensions, stjle, and ornaments of the T'^e- 

SEUM. 

§ 12. Give a rough plan of the Acropolis, showing the site of the 
principal buildings. — Describe the appearance of the Acropolis. — When 
and at what cost were the Propyl^a erected ? — Describe the Propylsea. 

§ 13. What names had the Parthenon? — Who were its architects? 
— What its dimensions ? — Describe its sculptures. 

§ 14. Mention the chief circumstances in the description of the Chrys- 
elephantine statue of Athene. — Describe the position, appearance, and 
proportions of the statue of Athene Promachos. 

§ 15. Describe the ERECHTHEtrai. — Give the legends respecting Erech- 
theus. — What objects of legendary interest were contained in the Erecli- 
theum ? 

§ 16. Describe, with their positions and uses, the Dionysiac theatre; 
the Odeum of Pericles ; the Areopagus ; the Pnyx ; the Agora ; the 
Ceramicus ; the Lyceum. 

§ 17. What great architectural works in the Peloponnesus are de- 
scribed ? — Give an account of the statue of Jupiter at Olympia. 

§ 18. What remarks are to be made on the temple at Phigalia? 

CHAPTER XXXV. 

history of athenian literature down to the end of the 
pelopontsesian war. 

§ 1. Among which portion of the Greek race did literature first begin ? 
— At what time did the Athenians become literary ? 

§ 2. Among what tribe and from what source did dramatic literature 
begin? — Give the derivation of the words Tragedy and Cb/Hec?^.— What 
is known of Epicharmus and his works ? 

§ 3. Who is named as the earliest introducer of Comedy at Athens? 
— What peculiarly shows the Dorian origin of the Drama? — Who is 
said to have first introduced an actor into Tragedy ? — At what date ? — 
What tragic authors were before -^schylus ? — What remarkable anec- 
dote is recorded of one of Phrynichus's dramas ? — Explain what is meant 
by a trilogy and a tetralogy. 

§ 4. What Avriters are respectivelv regarded as Fathers oi Epic Poet- 
ry, of Tragedy, and of History .?— Where and when was ^SCHYLUS 
born ? — Mention the chief events of his life. — What improvements did 
he introduce into tragedy? — What are the characteristics of his style? 
— How many tragedies is il'^schylus said to have written? — How many 
are extant? — (Note *, p. 405.) 

§ 5. Who succeeded and rivaled ^schylus? — When and where wag 
he born ? — Describe the peculiar cii'cumstances under which he gained 
his first Tragic prize. — On what political occasions did he hold oflSce ? 
—Record the closing events of his life. — What improvements are due to 



1 



Chap. XXXV. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 689 

him ? — What are the excellences of his style ? — How many tragedies did 
SOPHOCLES write?— How many remain ?— (Note *, p. 406.) 

§ 6. Where and when Avas EURIPIDES born ?— What are the chief 
events of his life and the manner of his death ? — What marks of dramat- 
ic decline do his plays exhibit? — What are his merits? — How many 
plays of Euripides are extant ? — Why is one peculiarly interesting ? 

§ 7. Who are the writers of the Old Attic Comedy ? — AVhen was 
ARISTOPHANES born?— How many of his plays exist?— Wliat was 
the probable time of his death ? — What was the nature of the Old At- 
tic Comedy? — Illustrate this by some accounts of the plots of plays. — 
What was the nature of the Middle Comedy ? 

Note. — An account of the nature of the New Comedy and its authors will te found 
at the beginning of chap, xlviii., p. 5SS. 

§ 8. Name the three great classical Historians of Greece. — When, 
where, and in what rank was THUCYDIDES the historian born? — 
How may he be conveniently distinguished from the rival of Pericles ? 
(See note in these Questions on Chap. XXIV., § 1.) — State what is known 
of the historian's life. — Give an account of the subject of his work. — 
What are the merits and faults of his style ? 

§ 9. About what time was XENOPHON born?— Who were his sev- 
eral instructors ? — Give a brief sketch of his life. — Name his chief works. 
— What merits has his style ? — What period does his history describe ? 
— Give an account of The Cyropa^dia ; The Anabasis ; The Memora- 
bilia. 

§ 10. Give a brief account of the coui-se of education in the Greek 
states. 

§ 11. What circumstance rendered the lessons of the Rhetor and 
So] hist so important? — Name some eminent men who taught in the 
most glorious time of Greek History. — Distinguish the original from the 
moi e recent acceptation of the word Sophist. 

§ 12. Name the various members of the family of SOCRATES. — 
Record some of his personal habits and peculiarities. — What events of 
his life are known ? — How did Socrates teach ? — What erroneous view 
does Aristophanes give of the pursuits of Socrates ? 

§ 13. In what two respects did Socrates diifer from the Sophists? — 
What philosophers arose from among his hearers ? 

§ 14. What did the oracle say of Socrates, and what proof did he ob- 
tain ? 

§ 1,5. At what date, by whom, and on what charge was Socrates ac- 
cused ? — How might he possibly have escaped death ? — How was his life 
prolonged for some days ? — Describe the close of his life. 



690 QUESTIONS ON Book V. 



BOOK V. 
THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES. 

(B.C. 403-373.) 

CHAPTER XXXVI. 

THE EXPEDITION OF THE GREEKS UNDER CYRUS AND RETREAT OF 
THE TEN THOUSAND. 

§ 1. What period of time does Book V, embrace ? — What states were 
supreme during this time ? — Distinguish by their parentage the two most 
celebrated characters named CYRUS. — In what work of Xenophon is 
the expedition of the younger Cyrus related? — Wherein consisted the 
importance of this expedition? — Recount the particulars of the provoca- 
tion Cyrus received. 

§ 2. On what species of force did Cyrus chiefly rely ? — What circum- 
stances in Greece favored its collection ? — Who was the chief leader of 
the Greeks, and what had been his previous position? — What other cel- 
ebrated Greek was among them ? 

§ 3. What was the total amount of Greeks aiding Cyrus ? — Describe 
their route through Asia Minor. — What occurred near and in Cilicia? 

§ 4. What did Cyrus profess to be his intention when in Cilicia? — 
How did he prevail on the Greeks to proceed ? — Where did the fleet 
meet them ? — What additional force did it bring ? — What proceedings at 
Myriandrus gained for Cyrus the love of the Greeks ? 

§ 5. Wliere was the first notice of the real purpose of the expedition 
given ? — How did they cross the Euphrates ? — What amused them in 
the desert ? 

§ 6. What was the probable strength of the army of Artaxerxes ? — 
What was the purport of Cyrus's address prior to the battle ? — Describe 
the battle of Cunaxa. — At what date was it fought? — Give the partic- 
ulars of the death of Cyrus. 

§ 7. What proposals did the Greeks make after the battle of Cunaxa? 
— What difficulties encompassed them ? — Describe the events previous to 
their departure. 

§ 8. For how long did they march with Tissaphernes ? — What was 
the fate of Clearchus ? — Who perished with him ? — Describe the con- 
duct of Ariajus. 

§ 9. Describe the condition and state of mind of the Greeks after the 
loss of their officers. — Recount what occurred to Xenophon. — State how 
he acted, with the result. 

§ 10. Who were the two principal leaders in the retreat? — Which 
had the greater influence, and how ? — What arrangement was made to 
keep in check the hostile cavalry? — Describe their march to the mount- 
ains of the Carduchi. 

§ 11. Why were they obliged to make their way across the mount- 
ains? — How long did this portion of their journey take? — What diffi- 
culties had they to overcome? 

§ 12. What river did they next cross, and how? — Into what country 
did this bring them? — Whence arose their chief sufferings here? — What 
sort of villages did they find ? 



Chap. XXXVII. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 691 

§ 13. What circumstances first filled the army with extreme joy? — 
How was it testified ? — What nations had they still to traverse ? — What 
was the first Greek city they readied ? 

§ 14. How did tliey try to gain the means of return by sea? — Name 
the chief towns and tribes they had to pass ere they reached Chiysopo- 
lis. — Where were they mustered, and what number remained? 

§ 15. What occasioned their crossing from Asia to Europe? — How 
were they about to revenge the deceit practiced on them, and what pre- 
vented their doing so? — What barbarian king did they serve? — With 
whose army was the remnant of the Ten Thousand finally incorporated ? 

CHAPTER XXXVII. 

FKOM THE CO:>mENCEMENT OF THE SPARTAN EMPIRE TO THE BATTLE 
OF CNIDUS. 

§ 1, How long had Sparta the entire lead, and how long only partial 
superiority ? — What events and dates mark out these divisions of time ? — 
What aifronts and dislike provoked the invasion of Elis by the Spartans? 
— How many campaigns were carried on, and with what final result ? — 
Explain the word theory as used on p. 435 of Dr. Smith's History. 

§ 2. What schemes had Lysander formed ? — Describe the position 
held by the Spartan kings. 

§ 3. How did Agesilaus obtain the throne of Sparta ? 

§ 4. What excellences did Agesilaus j)ossess? — What was Lysander's 
v^ew in the elevation of Agesilaus? — What defect* had Agesilaus? — 
How were their ill consequences obviated? — What conspiracy was sup- 
pressed at the beginning of the reign of Agesilaus ? 

§ 5. By what arrangements did Sparta govern her dependent states? 
— Compare the treatment thus resulting with the rule of Athens? — 
What effect had the Spartan conquests on the pecuniary condition of 
the citizens? — Did all the Lacedremonians become equal gainers? 

§ 6. How did the war in Asia Minor begin ? — Who was the. first 
Spartan general there ? — What force had he ? — Who succeeded him ? — 
What were the achievements of Dercyllidas? — What were the demands 
of the opposing powers ? — Who now took command of the Persian fleet ? 

§ 7. Who were the projectors of the invasion of Asia Minor by Agesi- 
laus ? — How did he try to give a legendary interest to his expedition ? 
— How was this part of his i)lan frustrated ? 

§ 8. At what date did Agesilaus invade Asia? — How did Lysander 
act, and what was the result ? 

§ 9. What did Agesilaus accomplish in his first campaign? — Where 
and in what occupation did he j)ass the winter? — What was his metho-^ 
of action and success at the beginning of the second cam])aign ? 

§ 10. What was the fiite of Tissaphernes? — By whom procured? — 
From wliat motive? — Who succeeded him? — What arrangement did he 
make with Agesilaus ? 

§ 11. What remarkable instance of their confidence did the Spartans 
show Agesilaus? — What island did the Spartans lose? 

§ 12. Describe the interview between Agesilaus and Pharnabazus. — 
State the conversation that occurred betwixt them. 

§ 13. Why did Agesihuis leave Asia? — Give the particulars of the 
battle of Cnidus. — Who was the victorious and who the defeated com- 
mander? — At what date and season of the year was it fought ? 

Note. — The battle of Cnidus, being fought off the const of Aaiu, id with propriety re- 



692 QUESTIONS ON Book V. 

corded in this chapter. Chapter xxxviii. resumes the narrative of events in Greece : 
the battle oi Corinth there mentioned was, perhaps, a little before that of Cnidus, while 
that of Coro^iea was a little later. This note is added lest the reader should suppose 
the order of narration to be precisely the order of time. 

CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

THE CORINTHIAN WAR. FROM THE BATTLE OF CNIDUS TO THE PEACE 
OF ANTALCIDAS. 

§ 1. By what Satrap and through whose agency was the Corinthian 
war excited against Sparta ? — What money did he take ? — What states 
did he prevail upon ? 

§ 2. How did hostilities begin between Sparta and the Thebans? — 
What was the plan for invading Boeotia ? 

§ 3. What fourth power joined the Corinthian allies? — How and 
where was Lysander slain ? — What were the farther results of this en- 
gagement ? 

§ 4. What farther accession did the Corinthian allies gain ? — What 
name did the war bear ? — Whom did the Ephors summon to conduct it ? 
— Give an account of the battle of Coi-inth, and its results. 

§ 5. Who joined Agesilaus on his journey from Asia Minor? — De- 
scribe his march. — What countries and mountains had he to pass ? — 
How did he conceal the bad news which reached him ? 

§ 6. Describe the battle of Coronea in its first operations. — Detail 
the conduct of the Thebans. — What was the result of the battle ? — How 
was the great success of Agesilaus in Asia made evident ? 

§ 7. What were the consequences of the battle of Cnidus? — What 
town and what peninsula were retained by the Spartans, and through 
whose agency ? 

§ 8. What were the exploits of the fleet under Conon in the beginning 
of the year 393 b.c. ? — What very important benefit did he confer on 
his country ? — By what means ? 

§ 9. What mountains cross the isthmus of Corinth ? — What passes 
cross them? — What advantages for defense do these passes afibrd? — 
What political changes took place at Corinth in 392 B.C. ? — What ad- 
vantages did these obtain for the Spartans ? 

§ 10. What successes against the Corinthian allies did Agesilaus 
gain in the summer of 391 b.c? — What eftect had these on the The- 
bans ? — How did Agesilaus treat the Theban envoys ? 

§ 11. What changes did Iphicrates introduce in the arming of light 
troops? — With what object? — What were the first successes of his tar- 
geteers or peltasts? — What circumstances gave him tlie opportunity of a 
more important success? — Give the particulars of this exploit. — State 
its eifect on Agesilaus and the Theban envoys. — Describe the subse- 
quent conquests of Iphicrates. — Why was Iphicrates superseded ? 

§ 12. To what were the first attempts of Antalcidas in negotiation di- 
rected ? — How far were they successful ? — How did Conon's public ca- 
reer end? — What was his probable fate? — What success did Struthas 
gain ? 

§ 13. What circumstances induced the Athenians to send out Thrasyb- 
ulus? — What successes had he? — How did he perish? — What other 
eminent Athenian went afterward to the Hellespont? — What successes 
had this new commander? 

§ 14. Record the particulars of the enterprise of Teleutais against the 
Piraeus. 



Chap. XXXIX. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 693 

§ 15. From what various sources did the Spartans obtain increased 
force ? — What circumstances now disposed the Athenians to peace ? — 
What Satrap declared the Peace of Antalcidas? — Cite its precise terms. 
— What state made a temporary opposition? 

§ 16. What was the date of the peace of Antalcidas ? — Wherein con- 
sisted its disgrace to Greece ? — What states are most blamable for it ? — 
What remarks were made on it ? 

CHAPTER XXXIX. 

FROM THE PEACE OP ANTALCIDAS TO THE PEACE OP CALLIAS. 

§ 1. What measures hostile to Thebes did the Spartans adopt imme- 
diately after the peace of Antalcidas ? 

§ 2. How did they treat the town of Man tinea ? 
§ 3. Describe the position of Olynthus. — What towns had joined and 
which towns had opposed the Olynthian confederacy? — Which party 
did Sparta support, and with what force? 

§ 4. Describe the circumstances under which the Spartans seized the 
Cadmea. — What was the Cadmea, and why so called ? — What great 
advantage did they thus gain? — How was this act viewed? — In what 
way did the Spartan government proceed with regard to it ? 

§ 5. How long did the Olynthians resist the power of Sparta? — Who 
concluded this war, and how ? — Wherein was this disadvantageous to 
Grecian interests ? — What other state yielded to Sparta about the same 
time? 

§ 6. What was at this time the position of Sparta ? 

§ 7. Who were the two great leaders of Thebes during the time of its 
greatest glory? — Give some account of the character and conduct of 
each. — Detail the particulars of the conspiracy by which Thebes was 
freed from the rule of the Spartan party. — What part did Epaminondas 
take ? 

§ 8. Under what circumstances and terms was the Cadmea evacuated 
by the Spartans ? 

§ 9. With what feelings did the Spartans receive the intelligence of 
the revolution at Thebes? — How were the Athenians induced to ally 
themselves with Thebes ? 

§ 1 0. Give an account of the new confederacy formed in Greece after 
the liberation of the Cadmea. — State some of the measures adopted in 
forming it. — What persons were most active in its formation ? 

§ 11. What was the force of the new league? — Describe the compo-' 
sition and purpose of the Sacred Band at Thebes. 

§ 12. Give a full account of the excellences of Epaminondas's char- 
acter, and the means by which they were attained. 

§ 13. Describe the attempts of the Spartans in their invasions of 
Thebes during the first three campaigns, with their result. 

§ 14. Give an account of the exploits of the Athenian fleet in the year 
376 B.C. 

§ 15. What circumstances caused the jealousy of Athens against 
Thebes? — Describe the exploit of Pclopidas atTegyra. — What successce 
and attempts of the Thcbans followed this victory ?" 

§ 16. In what manner was the jjcace made between Athens and 
Sparta broken? — Describe the adventures and fate of Mnesippus in Coi^ 
cyra. — What farther advantages did the Athenians gain? 

§ 17. Where were the deputies to be assembled for negotiating tho 
treaty called the Peace of Callias f 



694 QUESTIONS ON Book V 

§ 18. At what date was the peace of Calhas made? — What were the 
terms of it ? — Describe the dispute between Epaminondas and Agesilaus 
on the occasion. 

CHAPTER XL. 

THE SCPKEMACY OF THEBES. 

§ 1. What were the expectations of the Greeks as to the issue of the 
struggle between Sparta and Thebes ? — Describe the march of Cleom- 
brotus into Boeotia. 

§ 2. What advantage had Cleombrotus secured in his march ? — What 
circumstances discouraged the Thebans ? — What was the manoeuvre of 
Epaminondas to secure the victory ? — Describe tiie battle of Leuctra 
and its results. — Give its date. 

§ 3. How did the Spartan government show its courage after the bat- 
tle of Leuctra ? 

§ 4. What were the position and aims of Jason of Pherse ? — What 
course did he advise the Thebans to adopt after the battle of Leuctra ? 

§ 5. What states joined Thebes after the battle of Leuctra ? — What 
conditions respectively were granted by Thebes to Orchomenes and to 
Thespiffi ? 

§ 6. What intentions had Jason of Pheras declared just prior to his 
death?— How did he fall? 

§ 7. What policy did Athens adopt after the battle of Leuctra? — 
What Peloponnesian states were raised up by Thebes against Sparta? — 
Who was the most acti^-e Arcadian statesman at the time ? 

§ 8. How long had the Messenians lived in exile ? — With what force 
did Epaminondas invade Laconia in B.C. 370? — What extraordinary 
measure did the Spartans adopt for their defense ? — To whose exertions 
was the defense of Sparta owing ? 

§ 9. What town was built to form the capital of Arcadia? — Find it 
on the map, and describe its position. — What was the new constitution 
of Arcadia ? — Describe the position and strength of the new town of 
Messene. — On what charge was Epaminondas arraigned ? — What was 
his reply, and what the result ? 

§ 10.' On what terms were Athens and Sparta allied against Thebes ? 
— What was their plan of defense ? — What were the results of the cam- 
paign of B.C. 369 ? 

§ 11. What ambitious views did Lycomedes and the Arcadians form ? 
— What successes did they gain ? 

§ 12. In what battle were the Arcadians subsequently defeated? — 
How did the Thebans regard this defeat ? — What was the object an(? 
what the result of Pclopidas's expedition to Thessaly in B.C. 368? — Who 
was among the Macedonian hostages ? 

§ 13. What was the object of the third expedition made by Epami- 
nondas into the Peloponnesus? — How did he display his moderation?—. 
How did the Thebans regard it, and what consequences followed their 
proceedings ? 

§ 14. What was the object and what the result of the Theban em- 
bassy to Persia? — What representations did Antiochus make of the state 
of the Persian monarchy ? — How was the Persian mandate in favor of 
Thebes received by the Greeks ? 

§ 15. Of what outrage was Alexander of Pheraj guilty? — What ad 
vantage did he gain by it ? — How was the prisoner rescued ? 



Chap. XLI. SMITH'S HISIORY OF GREECE. 695 

§ IG. Where was Oropiis? — Under what circumstances did the The- 
baus gain it ? — What alliance iintavorable to Thebes soon followed ? 

§ 1 7. What treacherous attempt in Corinth did the Athenians plan ? 
— With what result? — What peace was made in consequence? 

§ 1 8. What maritime conquests were made for Athens by Timotheus ? 
— What success attended Epaminondas at sea ? 

§ 19. Describe the circumstances under which Pelopidas fell. — How 
was his death avenged ? 

§ 20. What occasioned the difference between Arcadia and Elis? — 
What powers su])ported each ? — What occurred at the time of the cele- 
bration of the 104th Olympiad? 

§ 21. AVhat proceedings estranged Mantinea from the Arcadian 
league ? — What towns in Arcadia were respectively at the head of the 
Theban and Spartan parties? — What circumstances led to the fourth 
expedition of Epaminondas into the Peloponnesus? 

§ 22. At what date did Epaminondas lead his last expedition into the 
Peloponnesus ? — What two bold attempts did he then unsuccessfully 
make ? 

§ 23. Describe the battle-field of Mantinea. — Detail the occurrences 
at the commencement of the battle. — What was the plan of Epaminon- 
das ? — What was the result of the battle ? — Give the particulars of the 
last hours of Epaminondas's life. — On what terms was peace made? 

§ 24. Give an account of the close of the life of King Agesilaus. 

CHAPTER XLI. 

HISTOKT OF THE SICILIAN GREEKS FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF THE 
ATHENIAN ARMAMENT TO THE DEATH OF TIMOLEON. 

§ 1. Whet is the subject of Chap. XLI. ? — What period of time doei 
it embrace ? — Notice briefly the events in Syracusan history from the de- 
feat of the Athenians to the time of the seizure of power by Dionysiu<i 
the elder. — What event gave Dionysius the opportunity of gaining pow- 
er? — How and at what date did he become tyrant of Syracuse ? 

§ 2. What Sicilian towns did he successively conquer ? — What state 
was his most formidable opponent? — How was he rescued from immi- 
nent danger B.C. 304? — What other country besides Sicily submitted to 
his sway ? — In what condition was Syracuse under him ? — What great 
Grecian state profited by his alliance? 

§ 3. What proofs may be cited of the taste of Dionysius for literature? 
— How is he said to have treated Plato? 

§ 4. What were the merits and defects in the character "f Dionysius? 
— How long did he hold power? — Tell the story of Damocles. — Cite 
Horace's allusion to it. 

§ ."). Who succeeded Dionysius the elder? — Name the sevpral mem- 
bers of the family. — How was Dion connected witji it? — What plans did 
he recommend to Dionysius II.? — How did Dion fall into disfavor? — 
What were the first measures taken against him ? 

§ G. What fartlier outrage of Di(mysius II. stimulated Dion to re- 
venge ? — What circumstances favored his enteri)rise ? — With what forcer 
did he land in Sicily? — Describe his entrance into Syracuse. — Whero 
was Dionysius II. at this time? — What attemj)ts did he make, and witi> 
what success ? 

§ 7. How did Dion lose his popularity? — What was his fate? 

§ 8. Into what state did Sicily now fall? — What danger caused th« 
appeal to Corinth ? 



696 QUESTIONS ON Book VI. 

§ 9. Describe the character of Timoleon. — Eecount his history while 
at Corinth. 

§ 10. What circumstances tended to dishearten and what to encour- 
age Timoleon in his attempt to deliver Syracuse? — What various ene- 
mies had he to encounter? — What force accompanied him? — In what 
hands were the various parts of Syracuse ? — How did he gain Ortygia ? 
— Whei'e and how did Dionysius II. pass the close of his life ? — What 
great force did Hicetas summon to his aid ? — How were these rendered 
useless to him ? 

§ 11. AVhat were the first measures of Timoleon when master of Syr- 
acuse? — What farther steps were taken to promote the freedom and 
welfare of the Syracusans ? 

§ 12. What circumstances preceded the battle of the Crimesus? — 
What were the opposing forces in that battle ? — What were the result of 
the battle and the loss of the Carthaginians ? 

§ 13. What farther successes attended the arms of Timoleon? 

S 14. Describe the close of Timoleon's life. 



BOOK VI. 
THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 

(B.C. 353-146.) 

CHAPTER XLII. 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF PHILIP TO THE END OF THE SACRED WAR. 

§ 1. Give a brief view of the changes which took place successively as 
to the possession of the leading power among the states of Greece. 

§ 2. What are the boundaries of Macedon Proper, and from what 
countries do they separate it? — What are its principal rivers? — What 
was the probable origin of its people ? 

§ 3. From what race did the Royal family of Macedon claim descent? 
— What king was contemporary with the Pisistratidae ? — At what time 
was Macedon subject to Persia? — What advantages did Archelaus con- 
fer on Macedon? — What towns were successively the capitals? — Of 
whom was the famous Philip son ? 

Note.— For the part taken by- Alexander of Macedon in the great Persian war 
against Athens, see chap, xx., 5§ 3 and 7. 

§ 4. What advantages did Philip gain by his residence at Thebes ? — 
What were the principal features of Philip's character? 

§ 5. At what age and at what date did PHILIP take on him the gov- 
ernment of Macedon? — In what capacity did he first act? — Who were 
rival claimants ? — What support had each ? — How did PhiHp rid him- 
self of them ? — What nations did he then subdue, and how ? — How did 
be treat his nephew ? 

§ 6. By what military measures did Philip strengthen his power? — 
Show the strictness of his dicipline. 

§ 7. Where was Amphipolis? — Wherein lay its importance? — What 
powers wished to possess it? — How did Philip keep them quiet? — What 
towns did he successively gain? — What fortunate events happened tc 
Philip in B.C. 356 ? — What advantages did he gain east of the Stry- 
mon ? 



I 



CuAP. XLIU. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. CO; 

§ 8. What states opposed Athens in the Social Wak ? — What causes 
produced it? — What generals commanded the Athenians? — What re- 
sult had the war ? 

§ d. Between what powers did the Sacred War begin ? — How was 
it occasioned? — Who was the first leader of the Phocians ? — What were 
his first measures and successes ? 

§ 10. What states joined the Phocians? — What prevented their giving 
efficient help? — Whence did Philomelus get means to carry on warV-^- 
Who succeeded Philomelus? — What conquests did he make? 

§11. Where did Philip lose his eye? — What pretext had he for in- 
vading Thcssaly? — What was his ultimate success in that country? — 
How was he induced to withdraw from before Thermopylae ? 

§ 12. By what persons was public speaking first practiced at Athens? 
— What occasioned a change in that respect? — At what time was Dk- 
MOSTHKNKS THE Orator bom ? — In what cause did he first use his ora- 
torical skill? — Who had been his instructor? — What was his success in 
his first attempts at public speaking? — What natural defects had he? — 
How did he remedy these? 

§ 13. In what light did Demosthenes regard Philip? — What were 
the object and success of the Jiist Philippic? — What gave occasion to 
the Olynthiac orations ? 

Note. — The young student should remark that, from the force and excellence of 
the P1ULIPPIC8 delivered by Demosthenes, that word was afterward applied to the 
8i)eeches of the great lioman orator (Jicero against Marcus Antonius, and that it is 
ofkin used to siguify "-a vehement speech inade against anij person.'" 

§ 14. Who was the most celebrated opponent of the policy of Demos- 
thenes at Athens ? — Give the character of Phocion. — State his probable 
motives. — Relate some anecdotes of him. — At what date did Philip take 
Olyntlius? — How did he treat his conquest ? 

§ 15. Why was Philip's conquest of Olynthus alarming to the Athe^ 
niaiis? — Who succeeded Onomarchus in the command of the Phocians? 
— What success had he? — What two leaders successively commanded 
them? — What negotiations took place between Philip and the Athenians 
just before the close of the Sacred War? — Show his great art and du- 
plicity in treating. 

§ IG. What charge did Demosthenes bring against JEschines and liis 
party? — Describe the way in which Philip terminated the IMiocian or 
Sacred War. — To what treatment were the Phocians subjected? — What 
advantages did Philip gain by his termination of this war? 

CHAPTER XLHI 

FROM THE END OF THE SACRED WAR TO THE DEATH OF miLIP. 

§ 1. What were the results of the Sacred War? — How was the speech 
of Demosthenes " On the Peace'" occasioned? — What was his line of ar- 
gument in that oration ? 

§ 2. In what way did Philip interfere in the affairs of the Pelopon- 
nesus? — What occasioned the second IVtHipjnc of Demosthenes? — What 
were the occasion and result of the sjtcechcs \\t(n TrainnrptfTjitiar'^ 

§ 3. To what countries did Philip next send exi»editions? — What hos- 
tile acts against Macedon were done by Diopithes? 

§ 4. What were the occasion and nature of Demosthene>^' speech " On 
the Chersonese?'" — At what date did I'hilip attack the ( Jirck cities N. of 
the Hellespont? — What difficulties did the siege of J^erinthas present? 

2H 



098 QUESTIONS ON Book VI. 

§ 5. Describe tlie exploits of Phocion in Euboea, 

§ G. Wiitit is the purport of the extant letter of Philip to the Athe- 
nians? — What was the result of the expedition of Chares to Byzantium ? 
— Describe the conduct and the success of Phocion. — Give an account 
of the expedition of Philip into Scythia. — What events followed it? 

§ 7. Describe the dispute which arose in the Amphictyonic council 
between ^schines and the Amphissian deputies. — What decree resulted 
from this? 

§ 8. What may have been the motive of ^schines ? — How did Philip 
become general of the Amjiliictyons ? 

§ i). By what act did Philip display his designs against Attica and Bee- 
otia? — Describe what then occurred at Athens. — What was the advice 
of Demosthenes ? — Record the proceedings at Thebes, 

§ 10. Where and at what date was fought the decisive battle which 
humbled Greece vmder Macedon ? — Describe this battle. — What monu- 
ment remains of it ? — ^What charge is made against Demosthenes as to 
the battle ? — What shows it unjust ? 

§ 11. How did Philip behave on his victory? — What reproof was 
given him? — AVhat terms did he grant Athens? — How did he treat 
Thebes ? 

§ 12. What grand object had Philip in view ?-^ Where did the con- 
gress assemble ? — W^hat city sent no deputies? — Describe Philip's next ex- 
pedition to the Peloponnesus. — What other states now submitted to him ? 

§ 13. How did the ill-will between Philip and his son Alexander 
aiise ? — Give the particulars of the first quarrel. — How was a partial rec. 
onciliation brought about ? 

§ 14. What were the date and purpose of the expedition sent by Philip 
into Asia? — Where and how did Philip celebrate the marriage of his 
daughter Cleopatra ? — What dreams ai-e said to have portended his fall ? 

§ 15. Describe the murder of Philip. — What motive caused it? — Who 
have been suspected as privy to it? — With what probability in each 
case? — At what date did Philip fall? — What remarks are to be made 
on his achievements ? 

CHAPTER XLIV. 

ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

§ 1. How old was ALEXANDER at the time of Philip's death ?— 
Who were the early instructors of Alexander? — With what sentiments 
did they fill him ?— -During what time was he probably under Aristotle ? 

§ 2. How did Demosthenes act when informed of Philip's death? — ■ 
What did Phocion remark respecting it? — What measures did Demos- 
thenes take to insure success ? — What states were disposed to aid him ? 

§ 8. By what means did Alexander disconcert the views of Demos- 
thenes? — What dignities held by his father did he gain? — Describe his 
intei-view with Diogenes, and record the conversation which occurred. 

§ 4. Against what nations had Alexander next to march ? — Describe 
Lis operations in each case. 

§ 5. What induced the Thebans and Athenians again to attempt to 
shake otf Alexander's yoke? — Describe Alexander's conduct and suc- 
cess against Thebes. — ^What loss of Thebans ensued? — By whom was 
Thebes sentenced, and how was it treated? — On what pretenses? — 
What demand did Alexander make from Athens?— How was he ap- 
peased ? — 'i'ell the anecdote of Phocion's self-denial. 



Chap. XLIV. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. G% 

§' 6. Whom did Alexandar leave as regent in Macedonia, and with 
what force ? — What was the amount and composition of his own army ? 
Dsscribe the circumstances which occasioned the weakness of the Ter- 
siaii empire? — What events had previously shown this weakness? 

Note. — la addition to the expedition of (Jyru:?, the exploits of Agesihius in Asia, 
and the observation of Antioelms tlie Arcadian, might botli have been quoted as show- 
ing the weakness of Persia. See Dr. Smith's History, pp. 4i0-44-2, and end of p. 47'J. 

§ 7. Describe Alexander's passage into Asia. — Also his visit to the 
plain of Troy. 

§ 8. Where was fought Alexander's first great battle against the Per. 
sians ? — What forces opposed him ? — Wliat ditficultics had he to sur- 
mount ? — Describ3 the battle. — Give its date. — How did he act when it 
was ended ? 

§ 9. Nara3 the towns which successiv^ely yielded to Alexander after 
the battle of the Granicus. — What arrangements did he make for win- 
ter? — Name the countries, towns, mountains, and rivers wiiich ho passed 
at the end of b.c. 334. — What remai'kable event occurred at Gordium ? 

§ 10. Describe the route by which he entered Cilicia. — What circum- 
stances endangered his life in that country ? — Relate the anecdote rcla- 
tiv3 to Alexander and his physician. — What force did Darius in person 
l>ring against him? — Describe the route of Darius. — What was now the 
position of Alexander? — Wherein was the great disadvantage of the ])0- 
sition of Darius ? — Describe the disposition of his army. — Who com- 
manded the wings of the Macedonians ? — Describe Alexander's conduct 
in tlic battle. — How did Darius act, and what were the consequences ? — 
What loss did the Persians sustain ? — Describe the tent of Darius. — 
Who were inmates of it? — How did Alexander treat them? 

NoTR. — The battle of Issua is minutely and graphically described in Professor 
Creasy's work Ijefore quoted. In a (juotation there made from Napoleon the river is 
erroneously called tlie Issus instead of the Pindarus. 

§ 11. What was the date of the battle of Issus? — What operations 
did Alexander next contemplate, and from what motive? — What means 
had Darius still left for carrying on the war? — What proposals did he 
make to Alexander ? — How were they received ? — Describe Alexander's 
conversation with the envoys from TYRE. — Describe the difficulties pre- 
sented by the position and state of Tyre. — Recount the first attempts of 
Alexander in besieging Tyre, and the successful resistance of the Tyr- 
ians. — Describe the subsequent efforts of both sides. — How waS the city 
taken? — How long had it resisted? — How were the town and its peoj)b 
treated? — State tire second offers of Darius. — How were they received? 

§ 12. What town resisted Alexander on his march to Egyjit? — What 
is the tradition given by Jose])hns as to Alexander's visit to Jerusalem ? 
— How did Alexander's treatment of the Egyptians form a contrast to 
that of the Persians? — Where did he found the famous Alexandria? — 
For what did that city become renowned ? — Describe Alexander's visit 
to the tem])le of Jupiter Ammon. 

§ 13. At what date did Alexander return to Asia from Egypt? — 
Where were Akrela and Gaioamela ? — From which of these jjjaccs is 
Alexander's great battle named? — What was the cliaracter of Darius's 
position? — Describe the arrangement of his army. — Give a jjroof of 
Alexander's remarkable solf-jjosscssion. — What forcas had he at Ganga- 
mcla? — How did he arrange them? — What mistake weakened the Per- 
sians? — How was the battle decided? — Where did the pursuit of tho 
army end ? — What was taken at Arbela ? 



700 QUESTIONS O^ Book VI 

§ 14. Whither did Alexander inarch after the battle of Arbela? — 
How did the Babylonians receive him ? — Why was this ? — Describe his 
entr}' into the city. — What measures did lie adopt there ? — Whom did 
he place in the various offices ? — What large city next received him ? — 
What amount of treasure did he gain, what interesting spoils did he 
find, and how did he dispose of them ? — AVhat re-enforcements joined 
him at Susa ? — What difficulties retarded his advance to Persepolis? — 
How were they overcome ? — What cities were the various capitals and 
residences of the Persian kings ? — ^What amount of treasure was found 
at Persepolis? — What foolish act at that place is laid to Alexander's 
charge ? 

§ 15. Whither did Darius flee from Arbela? — When did Alexander 
resume the pursuit of him? — What measures did Alexander adopt at 
Ecbatana? — Describe his pursuit of Darius from thence. — How was Da- 
rius treated by Bessus? — Describe his death, and Alexander's treatment 
of his body. 

§ 16. What is the position of Hjo-cania? — What town was its capi- 
tal? — State the position and ancient name of Herat. — Why was Phi- 
lotas put to death ? — ^Who was slain at the same time, and how ? 

§ 17. What cities did Alexander found in B.C. 330? — AVhat was tha 
fate of Bessus ? — What was the ancient name of Samarcand ? — Of what! 
country was it the capital ? — Describe Alexander's exploits in Sogdiaua. 
— What was the country and parentage of Roxana ? 

§ 18. Describe the circumstances preceding and attending the death 
©f CI tun. — How did Alexander show his grief for the act? 

§ 19. What was the plot of Hennolaus? — Who were put to death for 
it? — Where and with what force did Alexander cross the Indus? — 
What country did he thus enter? — Describe the battle against Porus. — 
How did that king show his spirit? — How did Alexander treat him ? — 
What cities did he found in India ? — Why did he discontinue his prog- 
ress eastward ? — What river was the limit of his advance ? 

§ 20. What division did Alexander make of his army in returning 
from the Panj ab? — How does the ancient ignorance of geography aj>- 
pear ? — Describe the perilous position of Alexander in the town of the 
Malli. — Give an account of the rest of the voyage down the Indus. — 
What orders were given to Nearchus ? 

§ 21. Describe the march through Gcdrosia.-r-Ho^v did Alexander 
show the equity of his government ? 

§ 22. What measures were taken by Alexander to unite the various 
races subject to him? — What innovations caused discontent? — How did 
he suppress the mutiny ? — What measm-cs followed the reconciliation ? 

§ 23. What great festival was held at Ecbatana ? — What honors were 
shown to Hephaistion's memory? — What proofs of Alexander's great- 
ness were displayed just before his end at Babylon? — What vast designs 
was he projecting? — What occasioned Alexander's death? — Give its 
precise date. — How long were his life and his reign? 

§ 24. Do you consider Alexander properly desen-es to be called 
Great? — Wherein consisted the main difficulty of his exploits? — What 
was the nature of his motives ? — What benefits did mankind derive froBB 
Alexander's conquests ? 



Chap. XLV. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 701 



CHAPTER XLV. 

FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BATTLE OF 
IPSUS. 

§ 1. What was the last act of Alexander? — What proceeding was 
taken to arrange for the government of the empire ? — To whom was the 
sovereignty to belong? — State the names of the chief generals, and the 
provinces originally assigned them. — What did Ferdiccas retain? — 
Where was Alexander buried ? 

§ 2. What state in Greece attempted to throw off Alexander's yoke 
three years after his departure for Asia? — What was the result of this? 
— Describe the dispute at Athens " On the Croivn^'^ stating the various 
persons concerned, and the result. 

§ 3. Who was Harpalus ? — How did he become a favorite with Alex- 
andcir ? — What employments were successively intrusted to him ? — Why 
did he leave Asia? — How was he received at Athens? — What eficct had 
this on Demosthenes? — Whither did he retire? 

§ 4. What orator led the Anti-Macedonian party after the exile of 
Demosthenes? — What states joined Athens on the death of Alexander? 
• — Who became the general? — Record the discussion with Fhocion. — 
What was the war called, and why? 

§ .''). Under what circumstances did Demosthenes return ? — What was 
the fate of Leosthenes, and who succeeded him : — What victory did An- 
tiphihis gain? — Where and when was fought the deciding battle in ilie 
Lamian war? — How did Antipater first weaken Athens? — What terms 
did he at last grant ? 

§ '5. Describe the death of Hyperides and that of Demosthenes. — 
Wl. re did it occur? 

§ 7. What ])Osition did Ferdiccas hold ? — What ambitious project had 
he formed? — What steps did he take for its accomplislmicnt? — Who 
cons])ired against him? — How did Ferdiccas jjcrish? 

§ 8. What re-distribution of power was made at Triparadisus ? — 
Who succeeded Antipater as regent? — Who took oflense at this? — How 
did Folysperchon attempt to conciliate the Greek states ? — Why and to 
whom di{l Fhocion flee ? — Describe his subsequent fiite. 

§ 1). What ill successes did l*olysperclion suffer? — Whom did Cas- 
sander make ruler of Athens? — Who was Kurijdiccf — With whom did 
slie ally herself? — How did she and J^hU'ip Arrhidaus perish? — What 
was tlie fate of Olympias? — Who rebuilt Thebes? 

§ 10. What generals combined against Antigonus? — What success 
attended the war which resulted ? — What became of Roxaua and her 
son? 

§ 11. Who was Demetrhis Poliorrdes ? — How long did Demefn'vs cf 
Phdlcrns rule Athens? — To what did lie owe his elevation? — For what 
was he distinguished? — Hou- did he at first rule? — How ilid he lose his 
popularity? — Who deprived him of the government? — How did Deme- 
trius Fuliorcetes please the Athenians? — What honors did they bestow 
en him and on Antigonus? 

§ 12. Where did Demetrius Foliorcetes defeat Ftolemy ? — Wliat made 
this battle remarkable? — What title did the generals now assume? — De- 
scribe the attempts of Demetrius on Rhodes. 

§ lo. What success meantime atteniled Cassander? — Where and 



i 



702 QUESTIONS ON Book VI. 

when did his opponents defeat Antigonus? — What bscame of the capital 
of Se eucus ? — What possessions did Lysimachus gain ? 

CHAPTER XLVL 

FROM THE BATTLE OF IPSUS TO THE CONQUEST OF GREECE BY THE 
EOMAXS. 

§ 1. What failures did Demetrius Poliorcetes successively meet with? 
— What circumstances increase^ his yjower? — At what date did he take 
Athens ? — How did he treat the city ? 

§ 2. Who succeeded Cassander on the throne of Macedon ? — What 
two claimants next disputed the throne ? — W^hat princes did they sum- 
mon to their aid ? — How did Demetrius Poliorcetes gain Madedon ? — 
How long did he reign there? — When, where, and how did his life end? 

§ 3. What extent of dominion did Lysimachus ultimately gain? — 
Why did Ptolemy Ceraunus leave Egypt ? — What crime did he commit 
at the court of Lysimachus? — Where, when, and how did Lysimachus 
fall ? — Who then divided Alexander's empire between them ? 

§ 4. What was the fate of Seleucus? — Who divided his dominions? — 
Wlio slew Ptolemy Ceraunus? — ^Vhere did the invading Celts establish 
themselves ? 

§ 5. Who established himself on the throne of Macedon in B.C. 278? 
— Describe the death of Pyrrhus. — About what date did Antigonus Go- 
natns take Athens ? 

§ 6. What had been the objects of the old Achaian League ? — ^Whtit 
statesman raised the new league into importance? — At what date? — 
What was the constitution of the Achaian league? — What states suc- 
cessively joined it ? 

§ 7. Into what condition did Sparta come, and through what means ? 
^ — ^^Vhat king attempted a reformation ? — What was his fate ? — Who 
was subsequently more successful ? — What occasioned the Cleomenic 
War? — After Antigonus Gonatas what two kings successively ruled 
Macedon ? — Who were commanders on the two sides in the battle of 
Sellasia ? — At what date and with what result was that battle fought ? 

§ 8. How do we usually distinguish that Philip of ]\Iacedon who 
fought against tlie llomans ? — What is known of the ^tolian league in 
early times? — What extent of power did this league gain after the death 
of Alexander the Great ? 

§ 9. What occasioned the alliance between Philip and the Achaeans? 
• — Why and when did he make peace with the ^tolians? 

§ 10. What were the terms of the treaty between Philip and Han- 
nibal? — What towns did Philip attempt to' take? — With what object? 
— With what success ? — How and when did Aratus perish? — What con- 
quests did the Romans make for the ^tolians? 

§ 11. Who is called the last of the Greeks? — Where was he born? — 
What offices did he successively gain ? — What improvements did he in- 
troduce? — What victory did he gain ? 

§ 1 2. At what date did the Macedonian war icith Rome begin ? — 
When and where was fought the great battle which humbled Philip ? — 
Who was tlie Roman commander? — What terms did the Romans pro- 
fess to grant to Philip and to the Greek states? 

§ 13. What states did the ^tolians strive to Tieite against the Ro- 
mans? — Where was Antiochus defeated by them? — What terms were 
allowed the -^tolians? 



Chap. XLVU. SMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 703 

§ 14. How did Philopoemcn treat Sparta? — How and at what date 
and ajxc did Philopocmen die? — Who avenged his death? 

NoTf-— It may help tlie young student's memory to observe that Hannibal, his an- 
tagonist tlie elder SciPio Africascs, and Piiilopcemex, all died in the swrne year. 

§ \'k Who was the hist king of ^lacedon? — How long did he remain 
at peace with Rome ? — .AVliat alliances did he form ? — On Avhat ac- 
counts did the Romans declare war against him ? — What success had 
Pei-seus at tii-st ? — In what great battle was he defeated ? — Give the date 
and some particulars of this battle. — Who was the successful com- 
mander ? 

§ IG. Of what bas3 conduct was Callicrates guilt}^? — What was the 
consequence ? — How did the Romans treat the northwestern Greek 
states ? 

§ 1 7. How did the quan-el between Athens and Oropus arise ? — What 
noted Athenian philosophers went as embassadors to Rome? — On what 
ground did Diajus induce the Achaans to attack Sparta ? 

§ 1 8. What decision of the Romans created a riot at Corinth ? — Who 
were the two last Strategi of the Achoeans ? — Who gained the last bat- 
tle fought by the Greeks against Rome? — At what date was Corinth 
taken ? — Under what name did Greece become a Roman province ? 

CHAPTER XLYII. 

niSTORT OF GRECIAN ART TROM THE END OF THE PELOPONNESIAN 
WAR TO ITS DECLINE. 

§ 1. What.remarkable difference existed in the two schools of Attic 
scidj)turc ? — What gods were respectively the favorite subjects of each 
school ? 

§ 2. "WTiere was Scopas born, and when did he flourish ? — What 
works are attributed to him ? 

§ 3. In what respects did Praxiteles excel ? — What were his most fa- 
mous works? 

§ 4. What were the characteristics of the Sicyonian school of sculp- 
ture? — Who were its chief artists? — When did Ki']>hranor flourish? — 
What works did he execute? — When did Lysippus flourish? — What 
works are atti'ibuted to him ? 

§ "). Who were the painters of the Sicyonian school? — What were the 
nv-'rits of APELLES? — Whence arose the jiroverb "A'e sutoi;" etc. ? — 
What testimony was given by Alexander to his merit ? 

§ G. What changes marked the architecture of Alexander's age? — 
What cities were instances of this? — Name and describe some architec- 
tural works of this age. 

§ 7. What causes tended to the decline of Grecian art after Alexan- 
der's age? — What Rhodian was famous as a sculptor? — Descrilxj his 
chief work. — What artists produced the group of the Laofoonf — Do you 
know in what poet the legend represented is narrated ? — Name some 
otiicr famous extant works of the period. 

§ 8. What conquests caused the removal of Greek works to Rome?— 
Show how vast their number was. 



» 



704 



QUESTIONS, ETC. 



Book VI. 



CHAPTER XL VIII. 

GRECIAN LrrERATURE FROM THE END OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 
TO THE LATEST PERIOD. 

§ 1. Name some traf];ic writers later than the three most renowned. 
' — Who were the most distinguished writers of the Middle Comedy? — 
When did t\\Q New Coined// heg'm? — What were its peculiarities? — Who 
were its most famous writers ? — Give an account of the origin of ME- 
NANDER. — How did he die ? — How many plays did he write? — How 
may we form a knowledge of their merits ? 

§ 2. What circumstances made eloquence so important at Athens ? — 
— What want of equity and legality is evident in the Athenian courts? 

§ 3. Name with their countries the first famous teachers of Rhetoric. 

§ 4. Who ai'e the ten orators of the Alexandrian canon? — What is 
known of Aidiphon's history and Avorks? — What is told of Andoddes? — 
For what is the style of Lysias famous? — When and how didlsocRATES 
die? — What is the subject of the speeches of Isausf — Give an account 
of the life and works of JEschinbs. — What haA-^e you farther to remark 
of DEMOSTHENES ? — Which are his most famous public and private 
S])eeches ? 

§ 5. Who was the most distinguished disciple of Socrates? — What 
was his descent? — What countries did he visit? — Where did he teach? 
— Who were among his hearers ? 

§ 6. Can you explain what is meant Avhen PLATO is called a realist ? 
— What works contain his j)olitica I \ie\ys? 

§ 7. What were the i/iinor schools founded by the hearers of Socrates? 
— What were the notions of Aristipjms and the Cyrennic sect? — Who 
founded the Cynic sect? — What ditferent derivations have been given 
for the name? 

§ 8. Name with their founders the four principal schools of Greek 
Philosophers. — Who succeeded Plato? — W^hat division is made of the 
Academicians ? — To what did their teaching at last tend ? 

§ 9. Where was ARISTOTLE born? — Give some i)articulars of his 
earlier history, — Where did he teach at Athens? — What distinction was 
made in his lectures? — W^hat is related of his peisonal ajjpearance ? — ■ 
On what subjects did he write? 

§ 10. Whence was the Stoic sect named? — What Poman writers of 
the Stoic sect have left works still extant? — Where was Epicurus born? 
— What did he teach ? — What Latin poem sets forth his notions ? 

§ 11. After the death of Alexander what city became famous for lit- 
erature? — Name some of the chief critics of the Alexandrine schools. — 
What were invented there ? — Name also some jwets of that age and 
place. 

§ 12, Name with th«ir works some of the more recent Greek his- 
torians, 

§ 13. What are the mo^t valanhle icritin<js in Greek? — Name some of 
the (jreek Christ/ an Fathers. — When and how were the GrceJt language 
and literature made known to 1 1 ^estem Europe ? 



THE END. 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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